Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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Table 9: Encounter at Cape de Gatta, June 17, 1815 Commanders Rais Hamidou Stephen Decatur Strength 1 Frigate (44 guns) 3 frigates (44, 38, 36 guns) 2 sloops-of-war (18, 16 guns) 3 brigantines (14 guns each) 2 schooners (12 guns each) Casualties and losses Combined fire capacity: 178 guns 1 Frigate captured 406 POW 30 KIA Many wounded 4 KIA 10 WIA Rais Hamidou (1770-1815) The Americans could get his flag and exhibit it as a trophy but they could not get his body. See Appendix 18. Note: Since 1913, the flag of Rais Hamidou—along with that of the Estedio— is exhibited among 172 other trophy flags at the ceiling of the auditorium of the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD. For more about the two Algerian trophy flags see H. C. Washburn, Illustrated Case Inscriptions from the Official Catalogue of the Trophy Flags of the United States Navy (Baltimore, MD: U.S. Naval Academy, 1913), pp. 41, 45. 365
On June 28, the squadron arrived at Algiers unhindered; the city was defenseless as all Algerian corsairs were out at sea. At Algiers, the new Dey Omar Agha had just ascended to Deyship after two of his predecessors were murdered within the space of less than one month by revolted janissaries. 111 Chaos was still reigning when the American force showed up at the Bay of Algiers and Shaler and Decatur found no difficulty forcing a treaty on the Dey. Negotiations started on June 29 and were carried aboard the American flagship by the Algerian Minister of the Marine and the Swedish Consul. The Algerian minister requested a truce to permit deliberation with the Dey but the Americans rejected it. According to the report made to the Secretary of the Navy, Decatur hastened for the signature of the treaty threatening: “not a minute, if your squadron appears in sight before the treaty is actually signed by the Dey, and the prisoners sent off, ours will capture it.” 112 Within the span of three hours, the Algerian minister and Swedish consul left and returned to the flagship with the treaty signed; that was at about the same time an Algerian corsair was returning to port. 113 Dey Omar Agha signed the treaty to spare the corsairs. A copy of the treaty was sent to the United States for ratification. The vessel which carried it passed Gibraltar but never reached the United States. 114 Another copy was not ratified until December 21, 1815; five days later the treaty was proclaimed by the President. 115 111 Grammont, Histoire d’Alger, pp. 373-75. 112 ASP/NA, 1:396, Stephen Decatur to Secretary of the Navy, June 20, 1815; Shaler, Sketches of Algiers, pp. 274-75. 113 Ibid. 114 Irwin, Diplomatic Relations, p. 180. On board the vessel were also the 9 released prisoners. 115 SaL, 3:315. 366
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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Page 333 and 334: passport issued by the United State
Page 335 and 336: known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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Page 339 and 340: April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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Page 343 and 344: called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
Page 345 and 346: Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
Page 347 and 348: concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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Page 351 and 352: egency, or from the misconduct of o
Page 353 and 354: specifying that the United States h
Page 355 and 356: Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
Page 357 and 358: But the events that unfolded at its
Page 359 and 360: As annual payments in naval materia
Page 361 and 362: I explained to you, sir, that it wa
Page 363 and 364: 2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
Page 365 and 366: Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Page 369 and 370: dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
Page 371 and 372: treaty was sacred and that was agre
Page 373 and 374: those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
Page 375 and 376: the war with France had just ended,
Page 377: justified by a belief in the moral
Page 381 and 382: the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
Page 383 and 384: Monroe had played a prominent role
Page 385 and 386: armada and that of 1784 met the sam
Page 387 and 388: dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
Page 389 and 390: the United States “must hold the
Page 391 and 392: For sure, there were a number of al
Page 393 and 394: demonstration of American skill and
Page 395 and 396: Conclusion Although Algiers and the
Page 397 and 398: Table 10: The United States and Alg
Page 399 and 400: Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
Page 401 and 402: The conservative observers, however
Page 403 and 404: Appraisal of the long history of Al
Page 405 and 406: corsairing and its related activiti
Page 407 and 408: statutes and treaties. In this capa
Page 409 and 410: distinction between corsairing and
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Page 415 and 416: the weak finances of the Confederat
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Page 419 and 420: BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
Page 421 and 422: 2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
Page 423 and 424: 3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
Page 425 and 426: Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
Page 427 and 428: Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
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Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
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Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
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_____. “The United States and the
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_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
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Hale, William H. “‘General’
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MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
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Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452:
Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454:
Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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