Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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CHAPTER I Foundations of Corsairing: A Religious and Historical Background The soldiery abandoned themselves to all the brutal license and ferocity, which seem to stain religious wars above every other… The sun, which on the preceding morning had shed its rays on Oran, flourishing in all the pride of commercial opulence, and teeming with a free and industrious population, next rose on it a captive city, with its ferocious conquerors stretched in slumber on the heaps of their slaughtered victims. 1 William H. Prescott (1856) Introduction Corsairing was the foremost element which shaped relations between Ottoman Algeria and the United States of America. As such, it necessitates consideration so that the different elements which served as a basis for those relations may be determined. The aim here is not to account for the historical development of corsairing but to set the general framework in which Algerian- American relations were formulated starting from the emergence of the United 1 William H. Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic, volume 3, 12 th edition (Philadelphia: David Mckay, Publisher, 1856), p. 278. 16
States in the 1770s down to the conquest of Algiers in 1830. 2 Corsairing emerged and developed in a complex historical and religious background and left lasting imprints not only the history of Algeria but also on its diplomatic relations with the western countries generally and the United States particularly. Although Algerian-American relations did not take place until corsairing was on the decline, yet they were profoundly affected by a deeplyrooted corsairing diplomatic tradition that took form during the period of Ottoman rule in Algeria. Therefore, it is essential to place corsairing within the appropriate religious and historical context because it helps understand those early short-lived relations. Ever since the emergence of the Ottoman province of Algiers early in the 16 th century to its collapse some three hundred years, its history, and that of the Mediterranean Basin in general, was a history of confrontation between two religions: Islam and Christianity. The religious divide was so neatly set that one may imagine the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean colored green to denote their adherence to Islam while the “Northern and Western shores should be, if not one color, bedecked with flags bearing a cross” to denote their adherence to Christianity. 3 To the religious strife, one may graft the struggle for power, naval and commercial, that characterized the history of the Mediterranean world. The frontiers between the two divides might have 2 The adjective ‘Algerian’ is used here to indicate someone or something pertaining to the regency of Algiers, the political entity as existing between 1519 and 1830. In western writings, the terms ‘Barbary Coast’ and ‘Barbaresques’ were generally used. By late 18 th century, when the Americans entered in contact with the region, they used the term ‘Algerine.’ 3 Susan Rose, “Islam versus Christendom: The Naval Dimension, 1000-1600,” The Journal of Military History, 63: 3 (Jul., 1999), p. 561. 17
Page 1 and 2: REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
Page 3 and 4: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
Page 5 and 6: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
Page 7 and 8: TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
Page 9 and 10: Part Two Algiers in early American
Page 11 and 12: CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
Page 13 and 14: corsairing from within the context
Page 15 and 16: situated in the United States or Eu
Page 17 and 18: At a time the clash between Islam a
Page 19 and 20: may interrupt the flow of reading,
Page 21 and 22: elations with the United States cou
Page 23 and 24: Finally, other series cover miscell
Page 25 and 26: the same way the Mediterranean syst
Page 27: Part One Algiers in European Diplom
Page 31 and 32: the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
Page 33 and 34: Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
Page 35 and 36: Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
Page 37 and 38: with the aim of imposing vassalage
Page 39 and 40: 1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
Page 41 and 42: western writers emphatically invoke
Page 43 and 44: fighting for Christian faith agains
Page 45 and 46: 1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
Page 47 and 48: In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
Page 49 and 50: Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
Page 51 and 52: 2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
Page 53 and 54: Penon. The failure of the cannonade
Page 55 and 56: Mediterranean against the Habsburg
Page 57 and 58: Once in control of the land, Khayre
Page 59 and 60: part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
Page 61 and 62: In addition to Turks, the crews inc
Page 63 and 64: the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
Page 65 and 66: One finds himself here far from the
Page 67 and 68: counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
Page 69 and 70: Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
Page 71 and 72: Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
Page 73 and 74: Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
Page 75 and 76: Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
Page 77 and 78: chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
Page 79 and 80:
Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
Page 81 and 82:
established perceptions, goes furth
Page 83 and 84:
(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
Page 85 and 86:
meaning a person speaking beneath h
Page 87 and 88:
Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
Page 89 and 90:
asis for a variety of programs and
Page 91 and 92:
freedom of navigation. Slavery was
Page 93 and 94:
however, the pace of capture and en
Page 95 and 96:
slaves. 71 However, in the absence
Page 97 and 98:
2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
Page 99 and 100:
confronts when looking into diploma
Page 101 and 102:
corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
Page 103 and 104:
shipping, they operated like pirate
Page 105 and 106:
“commission of war from some fore
Page 107 and 108:
may be seen as “a cost-efficient
Page 109 and 110:
shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
Page 111 and 112:
This confusion in legal interpretat
Page 113 and 114:
fanatics who had already sworn enmi
Page 115 and 116:
treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
Page 117 and 118:
harm” or nothing more than a “p
Page 119 and 120:
were sometimes harsh—and in that
Page 121 and 122:
these treaties survived for more th
Page 123 and 124:
Other developments affected Algiers
Page 125 and 126:
Ireland, for example, became within
Page 127 and 128:
privileges, was going to recur to t
Page 129 and 130:
at Algiers. Later, the government a
Page 131 and 132:
utter. For this reason, visits of A
Page 133 and 134:
council of prizes, were sold by auc
Page 135 and 136:
elations between Algiers and wester
Page 137 and 138:
2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
Page 139 and 140:
destruction of the Algerian fleet w
Page 141 and 142:
compensation for the occupation of
Page 143 and 144:
small in numbers to settle conquere
Page 145 and 146:
the return of Algerian captives ens
Page 147 and 148:
Christians’ enslavement at a time
Page 149 and 150:
1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
Page 151 and 152:
Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
Page 153 and 154:
Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
Page 155 and 156:
3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
Page 157 and 158:
privateering, was not officially ab
Page 159 and 160:
precisely the best landing place fo
Page 161 and 162:
The renegades largely contributed t
Page 163 and 164:
At about the same period, i.e.: beg
Page 165 and 166:
Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
Page 167 and 168:
principles of free access to ports
Page 169 and 170:
Part Two Algiers in early American
Page 171 and 172:
y religious antagonism and struggle
Page 173 and 174:
also did it with the view of making
Page 175 and 176:
Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
Page 177 and 178:
legally, they did not hesitate to c
Page 179 and 180:
the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
Page 181 and 182:
1622. England’s relations with Al
Page 183 and 184:
adventurers who were roaming in the
Page 185 and 186:
“would, it is more than probable,
Page 187 and 188:
was taken by the utmost seriousness
Page 189 and 190:
“could still seek their fortunes
Page 191 and 192:
But Owing to hostilities triggered
Page 193 and 194:
“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
Page 195 and 196:
Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
Page 197 and 198:
American commissioner who throughou
Page 199 and 200:
void because they emanated from a n
Page 201 and 202:
is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
Page 203 and 204:
Algiers particularly as a “pettif
Page 205 and 206:
independence, the Continental Congr
Page 207 and 208:
Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
Page 209 and 210:
his letter book more than did the D
Page 211 and 212:
Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
Page 215 and 216:
Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
Page 217 and 218:
CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
Page 223 and 224:
trade against the North African sta
Page 225 and 226:
and neutrality of shipping—contin
Page 227 and 228:
Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
Page 229 and 230:
markets and consequently economic p
Page 231 and 232:
American diplomatic relations becau
Page 233 and 234:
further French intervention on thei
Page 235 and 236:
earlier sniveling fears and accusat
Page 237 and 238:
Dutch side what had already been de
Page 239 and 240:
the part of that state or its subje
Page 241 and 242:
If the British government suffered
Page 243 and 244:
esources, and so contemptible, that
Page 245 and 246:
of the existing ‘balance of power
Page 247 and 248:
encouraged the piratical states to
Page 249 and 250:
Britain and France and makes them r
Page 251 and 252:
Then, it was only when the American
Page 253 and 254:
every ten years according to custom
Page 255 and 256:
according to which the draft treati
Page 257 and 258:
American agents, however, without i
Page 259 and 260:
American vessels, Britain hoped to
Page 261 and 262:
Passports seemed not to bother the
Page 263 and 264:
Algiers, and for other reasons, was
Page 265 and 266:
was instructed to redeem cheap on t
Page 267 and 268:
supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
Page 269 and 270:
proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
Page 271 and 272:
edemption, and promise of Lamb to
Page 273 and 274:
leave favorable impressions at Algi
Page 275 and 276:
the states warning against travel t
Page 277 and 278:
d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
Page 279 and 280:
2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
Page 281 and 282:
American turned up at his court he
Page 283 and 284:
His unguarded expressions, his hint
Page 285 and 286:
Lamb’s first option was not heele
Page 287 and 288:
extermination of that “race of se
Page 289 and 290:
But, he carried on, “when they ta
Page 291 and 292:
Finally, comparing the total cost o
Page 293 and 294:
conclusion of a peace treaty with A
Page 295 and 296:
New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
Page 297 and 298:
Dey. That was noted by the American
Page 299 and 300:
if there is a probability of a war,
Page 301 and 302:
prepare to support such of the frig
Page 303 and 304:
“union of force” open to Europe
Page 305 and 306:
ecomes even more amazing when in th
Page 307 and 308:
given American predilection for agg
Page 309 and 310:
Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
Page 311 and 312:
edemption of the remaining captives
Page 313 and 314:
the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
Page 315 and 316:
O’Brien letter supported the Swed
Page 317 and 318:
1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
Page 319 and 320:
Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
Page 321 and 322:
Affairs, with respect to the truce.
Page 323 and 324:
personally written to him.” 47 Th
Page 325 and 326:
1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
Page 327 and 328:
presents on the arrival of an Ambas
Page 329 and 330:
ut diplomatically they were conside
Page 331 and 332:
Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
Page 333 and 334:
passport issued by the United State
Page 335 and 336:
known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
Page 337 and 338:
the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
Page 339 and 340:
April 3, the Dey announced that, as
Page 341 and 342:
that money for redeeming American p
Page 343 and 344:
called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
Page 345 and 346:
Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
Page 347 and 348:
concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
Page 349 and 350:
the source of much dissatisfaction
Page 351 and 352:
egency, or from the misconduct of o
Page 353 and 354:
specifying that the United States h
Page 355 and 356:
Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
Page 357 and 358:
But the events that unfolded at its
Page 359 and 360:
As annual payments in naval materia
Page 361 and 362:
I explained to you, sir, that it wa
Page 363 and 364:
2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
Page 365 and 366:
Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
Page 367 and 368:
Lear would be able to prevail on th
Page 369 and 370:
dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
Page 371 and 372:
treaty was sacred and that was agre
Page 373 and 374:
those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
Page 375 and 376:
the war with France had just ended,
Page 377 and 378:
justified by a belief in the moral
Page 379 and 380:
On June 28, the squadron arrived at
Page 381 and 382:
the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
Page 383 and 384:
Monroe had played a prominent role
Page 385 and 386:
armada and that of 1784 met the sam
Page 387 and 388:
dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
Page 389 and 390:
the United States “must hold the
Page 391 and 392:
For sure, there were a number of al
Page 393 and 394:
demonstration of American skill and
Page 395 and 396:
Conclusion Although Algiers and the
Page 397 and 398:
Table 10: The United States and Alg
Page 399 and 400:
Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
Page 401 and 402:
The conservative observers, however
Page 403 and 404:
Appraisal of the long history of Al
Page 405 and 406:
corsairing and its related activiti
Page 407 and 408:
statutes and treaties. In this capa
Page 409 and 410:
distinction between corsairing and
Page 411 and 412:
altered the geopolitical concerns o
Page 413 and 414:
and for over than two hundred years
Page 415 and 416:
the weak finances of the Confederat
Page 417 and 418:
use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
Page 419 and 420:
BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
Page 421 and 422:
2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
Page 423 and 424:
3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
Page 425 and 426:
Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
Page 427 and 428:
Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430:
Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432:
Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434:
Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436:
_____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438:
_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440:
Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442:
MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444:
Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446:
Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450:
Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452:
Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454:
Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
Page 455 and 456:
intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457 and 458:
Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
Page 459 and 460:
other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
Page 461 and 462:
Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
Page 463 and 464:
not assist Great Britain in such wa
Page 465 and 466:
Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
Page 467 and 468:
those people is ineffectual, I urge
Page 469 and 470:
consequently at the mercy of foreig
Page 471 and 472:
and because all those powers are re
Page 473 and 474:
Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
Page 475 and 476:
Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
Page 477 and 478:
having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
Page 479 and 480:
Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
Page 481 and 482:
Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
Page 483 and 484:
Silsbee, of that place, while on a
Page 485 and 486:
In coming before the town it is usu
Page 487 and 488:
Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
Page 489 and 490:
furnished at the market price, and
Page 491 and 492:
of the United States, and the citiz
Page 493 and 494:
said Admiral, your servant, all tha
Page 495 and 496:
amicable sentiments towards the Uni
Page 497 and 498:
understanding between them and the
Page 499 and 500:
était d’aussi bonne prise que le
Page 501 and 502:
GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
Page 503 and 504:
Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
Page 506:
ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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