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of Cruelties” at a Barbary court but because the Americans considered the price exorbitant. Indeed, fixing prices and bargaining for human beings was common practice in the United States itself; the only difference is that it was practiced on a much larger scale and involved human beings with other than the white skin. 18 Indeed, what was shocking for Americans was the “soaring avarice of the Dey” and the “enormous ransom he demanded for twenty-one prisoners.” 19 Condemnation reached a peak when to the total sum was added an 11% tax “according to custom.” 20 But according to Cathcart and the other captives, although Lamb considered the price exorbitant he agreed to pay it but he also specified that “as the United States were at a great distance, that he could not promise to return with the cash in less than four months from his departure from Algiers.” 21 To confirm the agreement with the American envoy, the Dey summoned Lamb before his departure and asked him whether he was “perfectly contented with the agreement he had made.” 22 Lamb answered that he would have been better content had the terms been more favorable, but that he had “ratified the agreement.” 23 Lamb held a last meeting with Sidi Hassan, the Wakil Khardj or 18 At the first population census of the USA in 1790 the number of the slave population was 757,000 while at Algiers there were about 1,500 slaves from the different nations, in addition to 21 Americans, as reported by Lamb in 1786 (the ratio is approximately 500 to 1). That number, however, kept gradually decreasing. The last group comprising 500 Christian captives was forcibly released in 1816 after the bombardment of Algiers by the British. For the number of Christian captives at Algiers in 1786 see USDC, 3:88, From John Lamb to Thomas Jefferson, May 20, 1786. 19 Irwin, Diplomatic Relations, p. 38. Cathcart, however, estimated that that sum could have been easily raised: “One cargo of tobacco sold in England, … would have paid our ransom.” Cathcart, The Captives, p. 42. 20 Ibid.; USDC, 3:84, From John Lamb to Thomas Jefferson, May 20, 1786. 21 USDC, 2:749, From the American Captives to John Adams, February 13, 1787. 22 Cathcart, The Captives, pp. 38-9. 23 Ibid. 253
supreme admiral of the Algerian navy. The latter explained to him that the circumstances were not appropriate for negotiating a peace treaty because the Dey was engaged in negotiations with the Spanish envoy. He nevertheless assured him that the price would be lowered after which Lamb left Algiers with a commitment to return before long to complete the procedure of redemption. 24 From Madrid, Lamb wrote a detailed report to the commissioners at Paris and London but he omitted to mention the time pledge he made to the Dey and which was news with all American prisoners. 25 For the rest, the report abounded with espionage data gathered on the spot as requested by Jefferson. 26 On the basis of Lamb’s report, Jefferson wrote William Carmichael, the American Minister to Spain, instructing him to inform Lamb that “the demands of Algiers are so infinitely beyond our instructions, that we must refer the matter back to Congress,” and, therefore, to pray him “to come on immediately.” Jefferson decided to suspend negotiations till the commissioners “receive further orders” from Congress; 27 and Congress answered by an act recalling Lamb and negotiations stalemated. 28 The United States was then transiting to a new system of government; as a result, the polemic over a new constitution diverted attention from captives and negotiations but not completely. Immediately, Algiers was transformed to fodder for a gigantic propaganda machine. 24 Cathcart, The Captives, pp. 38-9. 25 Ibid. 26 USDC, 1:660, From Thomas Jefferson to John Jay, October 11, 1785, Enclosure: Heads of Inquiry; also Appendix 4. 27 Ibid., 3:74, From Thomas Jefferson to William Carmichael, June 20, 1786. 28 Ibid., 3:113, From John Jay to Thomas Jefferson, October 12, 1786. 254
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
Page 215 and 216: Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
Page 217 and 218: CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
Page 219 and 220: the Americans, the Europeans were k
Page 221 and 222: diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
Page 223 and 224: trade against the North African sta
Page 225 and 226: and neutrality of shipping—contin
Page 227 and 228: Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
Page 229 and 230: markets and consequently economic p
Page 231 and 232: American diplomatic relations becau
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Page 235 and 236: earlier sniveling fears and accusat
Page 237 and 238: Dutch side what had already been de
Page 239 and 240: the part of that state or its subje
Page 241 and 242: If the British government suffered
Page 243 and 244: esources, and so contemptible, that
Page 245 and 246: of the existing ‘balance of power
Page 247 and 248: encouraged the piratical states to
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Page 251 and 252: Then, it was only when the American
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Page 255 and 256: according to which the draft treati
Page 257 and 258: American agents, however, without i
Page 259 and 260: American vessels, Britain hoped to
Page 261 and 262: Passports seemed not to bother the
Page 263 and 264: Algiers, and for other reasons, was
Page 265: was instructed to redeem cheap on t
Page 269 and 270: proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
Page 271 and 272: edemption, and promise of Lamb to
Page 273 and 274: leave favorable impressions at Algi
Page 275 and 276: the states warning against travel t
Page 277 and 278: d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
Page 279 and 280: 2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
Page 281 and 282: American turned up at his court he
Page 283 and 284: His unguarded expressions, his hint
Page 285 and 286: Lamb’s first option was not heele
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Page 289 and 290: But, he carried on, “when they ta
Page 291 and 292: Finally, comparing the total cost o
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Page 295 and 296: New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
Page 297 and 298: Dey. That was noted by the American
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Page 305 and 306: ecomes even more amazing when in th
Page 307 and 308: given American predilection for agg
Page 309 and 310: Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
Page 311 and 312: edemption of the remaining captives
Page 313 and 314: the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
Page 315 and 316: O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430:
Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432:
Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434:
Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436:
_____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438:
_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440:
Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442:
MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444:
Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450:
Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454:
Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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