Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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encounter of the allegedly “frail and fledgling” nascent republic and the “terrifying piratical state” that was ready to harm ‘innocent’ Americans. 69 The tables below show clearly that American naval forces were far superior to those of Algiers. Ironically, that coincided with the time when American commissioners sent to European courts were brandishing the menace of the Algerian corsairs and sniveling about the frailty of their country and people to obtain European ‘protection’ for the American flag in the Mediterranean. 70 Tables 6: American & Algerian Naval Forces Compared, 1776-1782. A: Comparative List of Armed Vessels (1776-1782). 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 American Vessels Algerian Vessels 167 107 136 187 241 458 330 19 15 18 19 28 16 23 B: Comparative Number of Guns carried by the above Vessels. 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 American Vessels Algerian Vessels 1946 1142 1830 2967 3886 6899 5043 178 139 248 280 360 214 400 Source: For American vessels see, Maclay, American Privateers, p. VIII; for Algerian vessels see, Devoulx, “Marine d’Alger,” pp. 405-10. 69 Donald J. Puchala, “Of Pirates and Terrorists: What Experience and History Teach,” Contemporary Security Policy, 26:1 (Apr., 2005), p. 16. 70 SJ, 2:10, Plan of a Treaty with France, Article VII, September 17, 1776. 181
Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs had dwindled to between 4 and 13 vessels (totalizing 36 guns)—almost nothing, 71 American politicians continued to maintain the myth of an invincible navy certainly more by ignorance and xenophobia than by accurate fact: “At present we are not in a condition to be at War with any Nation, especially with one [Algiers] from whom we are to expect nothing but hard knocks,” complained one on the congressional delegates. 72 Today, the so-called ‘specialists’ of American-Arab relations continue nourishing the same ‘fantasy’—to say the least. Over than two hundred years later, they persist in describing an “Algiers’ flotilla—nine large battleships and fifty gunboats strong” that “vastly outgunned that of the United States.” 73 As wartime sources of voluptuous prizes tarnished, the merchant vessels renewed with adventuring in the Mediterranean but that time with a long experience of privateering behind them, an inflated nationalistic ego, and more greed for larger profits as testified by this extract of American self-praise’: Our sailors, in their struggle to maintain their commerce against pirates and privateers, had become notably skillful in their dangerous profession. American seamen, on their armed merchantmen, had fought their predatory enemies in all parts of the world. Their ships were of the best design and noted for their speed. This constant life of adventure had developed resourcefulness in all circumstances of danger which had equipped them for offense as well as defense. 74 71 Figures for the years 1787 and 1790 are in Devoulx, “Marine d’Alger,” p. 410-11. 72 Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774-1789, edited by Paul H. Smith, 25 vol. (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1976-2000), 22:686, Pierse Long to John Langdon, 14 Oct. 1785. (Hereafter cited as LDC). 73 Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, p. 20. 74 Frothingham, “The Armed Merchantman,” p. 466. 182
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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Page 145 and 146: the return of Algerian captives ens
Page 147 and 148: Christians’ enslavement at a time
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Page 151 and 152: Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
Page 153 and 154: Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
Page 155 and 156: 3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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Page 159 and 160: precisely the best landing place fo
Page 161 and 162: The renegades largely contributed t
Page 163 and 164: At about the same period, i.e.: beg
Page 165 and 166: Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
Page 167 and 168: principles of free access to ports
Page 169 and 170: Part Two Algiers in early American
Page 171 and 172: y religious antagonism and struggle
Page 173 and 174: also did it with the view of making
Page 175 and 176: Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
Page 177 and 178: legally, they did not hesitate to c
Page 179 and 180: the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
Page 181 and 182: 1622. England’s relations with Al
Page 183 and 184: adventurers who were roaming in the
Page 185 and 186: “would, it is more than probable,
Page 187 and 188: was taken by the utmost seriousness
Page 189 and 190: “could still seek their fortunes
Page 191 and 192: But Owing to hostilities triggered
Page 193: “jingoistic and melioristic” Am
Page 197 and 198: American commissioner who throughou
Page 199 and 200: void because they emanated from a n
Page 201 and 202: is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
Page 203 and 204: Algiers particularly as a “pettif
Page 205 and 206: independence, the Continental Congr
Page 207 and 208: Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
Page 209 and 210: his letter book more than did the D
Page 211 and 212: Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
Page 213 and 214: ulers of Algiers to doubt American
Page 215 and 216: Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
Page 217 and 218: CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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Page 221 and 222: diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
Page 223 and 224: trade against the North African sta
Page 225 and 226: and neutrality of shipping—contin
Page 227 and 228: Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
Page 229 and 230: markets and consequently economic p
Page 231 and 232: American diplomatic relations becau
Page 233 and 234: further French intervention on thei
Page 235 and 236: earlier sniveling fears and accusat
Page 237 and 238: Dutch side what had already been de
Page 239 and 240: the part of that state or its subje
Page 241 and 242: If the British government suffered
Page 243 and 244: esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
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Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
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Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
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_____. “The United States and the
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_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
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Hale, William H. “‘General’
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MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
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Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
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_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
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Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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