Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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Consul, nor any other of His said Majesty’s subjects, shall be in any sort questioned and troubled therefore.” 29 When such cases occurred, the criminal usually escaped with impunity to the house of the Consul. In 1703, that generous treaty was even broadened and extended to cover exclusively all ships built or fitted out in Britain’s American colonies. The particularity of this treaty, however, is the inequity in treatment it reserved to Algerian corsairs and the easy-goingness it accorded to British and colonial privateers who would make prizes of Algerian corsairs. When not in hold of an official pass, a simple hand-written certificate by the captain of the British ship would be sufficient enough for identification. This is to say that, when captured, Algerian corsairs were not worth much diplomatic and administrative burden! Article III of the treaty specified: It is farther agreed and declared, that all prizes taken by any of Her Majesty of Great Britain’s subjects, and all ships and vessels built and fitted out in any of Her Majesty’s plantations in America that have not been in England, shall not be molested in case of no Pass; but that a certificate in writing under the hand of the commanding officers that shall so take prizes, or Chief of any of Her Majesty’s plantations in America, or where any ships shall be built or fitted, shall be a sufficient pass to either of them. 30 This is clear evidence that the relationship of British subjects, including colonials, to Algiers was not simply that of enterprising traders and innocent travelers who were captured and enslaved by cruel pirates as it is always pretended in western writings. Those were also pirates, privateers, and 29 Hertslet, Collection of Treaties and Conventions, Treaty between Great Britain and Algiers, 1682, Article XVI, p. 63. The treaty specified the crime as “strike, wound, or kill a Turk or a Moor.” 30 Ibid., p. 74-75. 169
adventurers who were roaming in the vicinity of the North African shores to prey on inhabitants and shipping of Algiers; and all that was sanctioned by treaties which granted them protection at the least cost. So, more than just providing protection against Algerian corsairs for safe passage of Anglo-Saxon shipping in the Mediterranean as always argued, the treaties are “intriguing examples of inequality of treatment” 31 and they offer a blatant diplomatic cover for infiltration, a pre-stage for prospective colonization, wholesale enslavement of peoples, and pillage of their national wealth. Throughout the colonial period, American shipping in the Mediterranean benefited from Great Britain’s treaties with Algiers and colonial sailing-vessels carried passports delivered by British admiralty courts. 32 Such conditions were highly profitable to the colonials and generated prosperity in the American colonies. 33 After the colonies declared independence from Britain in 1776, the latter issued new passports for its national ships, 34 a move which the French Consul in Morocco Louis Chénier interpreted as a measure “to deprive the insurgents of freedom of navigation on the coasts of Europe and expose them to the attacks of the Barbaresques.” 35 But even that change did not 31 Kenneth Parker, “Reading ‘Barbary’,” p. 103. 32 For the Form of the Pass as provided by the treaty of 1682 see Hertslet, Collection of Treaties and Conventions, pp. 65-66; for later passports see Marsden, Law and Custom of the Sea, pp. 347-348. 33 The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States, edited by Francis Wharton (Washington, D. C.: Government printing Office, 1889), 6:763, Morris to Messrs. Willink & Co, Office of Finance, February 12, 1784. (Hereafter cited as USRDC). 34 Benjamin Franklin, The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, with a Life and Introduction, edited by Albert Henry Smyth, 10 Vol. (New York/London: Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1906), 7:139, Claud Gillaud to Benjamin Franklin, April 10, 1778. (Hereafter cited as WBF). 35 Priscilla H. Roberts and James N. Tull, “Moroccan Sultan Sidi Muhammad Ibn Abdallah’s Diplomatic Initiatives toward the United States, 1777-1786,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 143: 2 (Jun., 1999), p. 236. 170
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
Page 131 and 132: utter. For this reason, visits of A
Page 133 and 134: council of prizes, were sold by auc
Page 135 and 136: elations between Algiers and wester
Page 137 and 138: 2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
Page 139 and 140: destruction of the Algerian fleet w
Page 141 and 142: compensation for the occupation of
Page 143 and 144: small in numbers to settle conquere
Page 145 and 146: the return of Algerian captives ens
Page 147 and 148: Christians’ enslavement at a time
Page 149 and 150: 1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
Page 151 and 152: Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
Page 153 and 154: Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
Page 155 and 156: 3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
Page 157 and 158: privateering, was not officially ab
Page 159 and 160: precisely the best landing place fo
Page 161 and 162: The renegades largely contributed t
Page 163 and 164: At about the same period, i.e.: beg
Page 165 and 166: Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
Page 167 and 168: principles of free access to ports
Page 169 and 170: Part Two Algiers in early American
Page 171 and 172: y religious antagonism and struggle
Page 173 and 174: also did it with the view of making
Page 175 and 176: Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
Page 177 and 178: legally, they did not hesitate to c
Page 179 and 180: the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
Page 181: 1622. England’s relations with Al
Page 185 and 186: “would, it is more than probable,
Page 187 and 188: was taken by the utmost seriousness
Page 189 and 190: “could still seek their fortunes
Page 191 and 192: But Owing to hostilities triggered
Page 193 and 194: “jingoistic and melioristic” Am
Page 195 and 196: Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
Page 197 and 198: American commissioner who throughou
Page 199 and 200: void because they emanated from a n
Page 201 and 202: is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
Page 203 and 204: Algiers particularly as a “pettif
Page 205 and 206: independence, the Continental Congr
Page 207 and 208: Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
Page 209 and 210: his letter book more than did the D
Page 211 and 212: Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
Page 213 and 214: ulers of Algiers to doubt American
Page 215 and 216: Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
Page 217 and 218: CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
Page 219 and 220: the Americans, the Europeans were k
Page 221 and 222: diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
Page 223 and 224: trade against the North African sta
Page 225 and 226: and neutrality of shipping—contin
Page 227 and 228: Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
Page 229 and 230: markets and consequently economic p
Page 231 and 232: American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
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Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
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Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
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_____. “The United States and the
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_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440:
Hale, William H. “‘General’
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MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
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Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
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_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
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Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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