Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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and commerce but also on official state visits. 82 Corsairing entered a phase of official diplomatic usage. Henceforth, the Algerian Ri’yas on corsairing campaigns carried passports, just like their European counterparts, delivered by the European diplomatic missions at Algiers which protected them against privateers’ attacks as well as pursuits of foreign nations’ cruisers. 83 The passports also served as a basis for consuls’ intervention to arbitrate cases of litigation over prizes. 84 Overall, between 1619 and 1830, Algiers negotiated and concluded more than sixty treaties of peace and commerce with most of the European countries. Twelve of those treaties were signed for the first time, eleven were renegotiated, and the rest were renewed treaties as shown in Table 4 (Treaties of Peace and Commerce). Spain, however, remained an exception. In 1785, after almost 300 years of warfare and enmity, Algiers and Spain moved to make peace but Spain faced a constitutional obstacle: the monarch could not conclude peace with the ‘infidels’ because of the prohibitive coronation clause fashioned after the will of Isabella. The impediment could only be overcome by concluding a ‘Truce to Last One Hundred Years’ because a truce implies a limited cessation of hostilities, not peace. 85 It would be interesting to consider each treaty separately; however, detailed study does not seem to add any more arguments than those already stated as forming the ingredients of this long diplomatic relationship between Algiers and the western countries. 82 Matar, “Britain and Barbary,” p. 33; Panzac, “La course barbaresque revisitée,” p. 33. 83 Panzac, Corsaires barbaresques, p. 35. 84 Devoulx, “Marine d’Alger,” pp. 394-96. 85 Cathcart, The Captives, p. 2; Barnby, Prisoners of Algiers, p. 38. 138
Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Commerce between Algiers and Foreign Countries, 1619-1830 Polity First treaty Renewed or Modified Treaties France 1619 1628, 1640, 1661, 1666, 1667, 1670, 1676, 1684, 1689, 1690, 1694, 1698, 1719, 1764, 1790, 1796, 1800, 1801, 1814, 1815, 1818 The Netherlands 1622 1626,1662, 1679, 1703, 1712, 1726, 1731, 1757, 1760, 1768, 1794, 1816 England 1622 1660, 1662, 1668, 1673, 1682, 1686, 1700, 1703, 1716, 1729, 1751, 1762, 1765, 1800, 180, 1816, 1816, 1816, 1824 Austria 1727 1729 Sweden 1729 1792 Denmark 1746 1751, 1772 Tuscany 1749 Hamburg 1751 Venice 1764 1767, 1768 Spain 1786 1791 (truce) Portugal 1793 1810, 1813 (truce) USA 1795 1815, 1816 Source: Data is collected from the different sources used in Chapter III. Note: Modified treaties are underlined. 2. 5. Method of Negotiating Treaties As important as the four principles that regulated diplomatic relations between Algiers and the western countries was the method adopted by westerners for concluding treaties. Between 1619 and 1816, treaties serving western interests were most often imposed ‘at the mouth of the cannon.’ Time 139
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
Page 99 and 100: confronts when looking into diploma
Page 101 and 102: corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
Page 103 and 104: shipping, they operated like pirate
Page 105 and 106: “commission of war from some fore
Page 107 and 108: may be seen as “a cost-efficient
Page 109 and 110: shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
Page 111 and 112: This confusion in legal interpretat
Page 113 and 114: fanatics who had already sworn enmi
Page 115 and 116: treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
Page 117 and 118: harm” or nothing more than a “p
Page 119 and 120: were sometimes harsh—and in that
Page 121 and 122: these treaties survived for more th
Page 123 and 124: Other developments affected Algiers
Page 125 and 126: Ireland, for example, became within
Page 127 and 128: privileges, was going to recur to t
Page 129 and 130: at Algiers. Later, the government a
Page 131 and 132: utter. For this reason, visits of A
Page 133 and 134: council of prizes, were sold by auc
Page 135 and 136: elations between Algiers and wester
Page 137 and 138: 2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
Page 139 and 140: destruction of the Algerian fleet w
Page 141 and 142: compensation for the occupation of
Page 143 and 144: small in numbers to settle conquere
Page 145 and 146: the return of Algerian captives ens
Page 147 and 148: Christians’ enslavement at a time
Page 149: 1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
Page 153 and 154: Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
Page 155 and 156: 3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
Page 157 and 158: privateering, was not officially ab
Page 159 and 160: precisely the best landing place fo
Page 161 and 162: The renegades largely contributed t
Page 163 and 164: At about the same period, i.e.: beg
Page 165 and 166: Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
Page 167 and 168: principles of free access to ports
Page 169 and 170: Part Two Algiers in early American
Page 171 and 172: y religious antagonism and struggle
Page 173 and 174: also did it with the view of making
Page 175 and 176: Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
Page 177 and 178: legally, they did not hesitate to c
Page 179 and 180: the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
Page 181 and 182: 1622. England’s relations with Al
Page 183 and 184: adventurers who were roaming in the
Page 185 and 186: “would, it is more than probable,
Page 187 and 188: was taken by the utmost seriousness
Page 189 and 190: “could still seek their fortunes
Page 191 and 192: But Owing to hostilities triggered
Page 193 and 194: “jingoistic and melioristic” Am
Page 195 and 196: Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
Page 197 and 198: American commissioner who throughou
Page 199 and 200: void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430:
Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432:
Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436:
_____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438:
_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440:
Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442:
MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444:
Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446:
Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450:
Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452:
Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454:
Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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