The Psychology of Creativity:

History of Creativity Research 13
The Gestalt school emerged as a typical Hegelian reaction to the psychological systems that dominated the
times. In general, the latter tended to be highly atomistic in orientation, and focused on extremely minuscule
phenomena, such as the perception of relatively simple stimuli. The Gestalt psychologists, in contrast, believed that
“the whole was greater than the sum of its parts,” and as a result they showed an interest in higher mental processes
that could not be reduced to simplistic mental operations. Among those processes was insight in problem-solving
situations. Two Gestaltists who were on the ground floor when the school was founded devoted a considerable
amount of thought to understanding insight. The first was Wolfgang Köhler (1925), who investigated the
phenomenon from an unlikely perspective – chimpanzees. He presented chimps with novel problems involving the
placement of tasty bananas just out of reach, and then observed how the chimps exhibited insightful behaviors that
were a far cry from the blind trial-and-error procedures so often attributed to animals. Naturally, a chimpanzee
trying to grab a piece of fruit may not be in the same league as a human discovering an element or a composing a
symphony, but according to the Gestalt school the same basic principles apply. Specifically, creativity requires the
restructuring of the given problem so that it is perceived in an entirely different light. This theoretical position
received additional development by Max Wertheimer (1945/1982) in his posthumously published book on
Productive Thinking. Unlike Köhler, Wertheimer scrutinized human problem solving. Moreover, he was able to
take full advantage conversations he had with Albert Einstein, a former colleague of his at the University of Berlin.
In some ways the book provides a Gestalt framework for comprehending Einstein’s creative genius.
Gestalt psychology did not long survive the Second World War. The last notable Gestalt psychologist to
study creativity systematically was Rudolf Arnheim (1962, 1971). Even so, many of the experimental findings that
form the bedrock of the Gestalt tradition have become incorporated as part of mainstream cognitive psychology (see,
e.g., Sternberg & Davidson, 1995). This point shall be returned to shortly.
Behaviorism
The third and last school of psychology has the most ambivalent relation to creativity research. As the
school’s name suggests, behaviorists emphasize the empirical study of overt behaviors, most often in animals such
as the laboratory rat, and almost invariably in relatively learning situations involving the reinforcement of simple
responses. Creativity is not a phenomenon that seems very amenable to such an approach. Yet, ironically, the
behaviorist who had the most interest in creativity was one who took such an extreme position on behaviorism that
he is often referred to as a “radical” behaviorist. That person is B. F. Skinner. Skinner had originally aspired to a