Syntax Notes

syntax2.notebook
February 13, 2013
The following terms and concepts pertaining to sentence structure are
essential in preparing for the Advanced Placement English exams:
Antithesis
Balanced Sentence
Ellipsis
Inversion (or inverted sentence)
Juxtaposition
Loose/Cumulative Sentence
Natural Order Sentence
Parallelism
Periodic Sentence
Repetition (using repetitive sentence structures or elements for effect)
Rhetorical Question
Rhetorical Fragment
Ellipsis: Omission of a word or short phrase easily understood in context.
"The average person thinks he isn't." –Father Larry Lorenzoni
The term "average" is omitted but understood after "isn't."
John forgives Mary and Mary, John.
Note that the comma signals what has been elided, "forgives"
WHY MIGHT A WRITER USE THIS SYNTACTICAL STRUCTURE?
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Parallelism: Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases,
or clauses.
parallelism of words:
She tried to make her pastry fluffy, sweet, and delicate.
parallelism of phrases:
Singing a song or writing a poem is joyous.
parallelism of clauses:
Perch are inexpensive; cod are cheap; trout are abundant; but salmon are best.
WHY MIGHT A WRITER USE THIS SYNTACTICAL STRUCTURE?
Types of Parallelism:
coordinate: ideas of equal rank coordinated by and, but, or, or
nor. Pair a noun with a noun a phrase with a phrase, infinitive
with infinitive, ing words with ing words.
In the winter I like skiing and skating. I like to ski and to skate
correlative: formed with the correlative conjunctions,
both....and, either....or, neither...nor, not only....but
With Ship of Fools, Katherine Anne Porter proved she was
talented not only as a short story writer, but also as a novelist.
Compare/Contrast in the same grammatical form: Einstein
liked mathematical research more than supervision of large
laboratories. Thinking logically is as important as calculating
accurately.
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Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel
construction.
a. My heart was a sort of chapel; it will now be a shrine.
b. Regard not then if wit be old or new, but blame the false, and value still the
true.
c. Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice
is no virtue. ­­Barry Goldwater
d. Brutus: Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. ­­
Shakespeare, Julius Caesar
e. “The vases of the classical period are but the reflection of classical beauty; the
vases of the archaic period are beauty itself." Sir John Beazley *Demosthenes,
Olynthiac 2.26
f. Americans in need are not strangers, they are citizens, not problems, but
priorities.
g. Grendel kills people; Beowulf saves them.
h. A time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that
which is planted.
Related Term: Juxtaposition, in which normally unassociated words or phrases
are placed next to each other for effect. For example,
“That we are overtaxed from the moment we awaken and ring for our orange
juice.” [can you be overtaxed if you can afford a servant to bring you orange
juice?]
“Yes, I dote on Miss Georgiana!” cried the Abbot. “Little darling!—with her long
curls and her blue eyes, and such a sweet colour as she has; just as if she were
painted!—Bessie, I could fancy a Welsh rabbit for supper!” [Why does the Abbot
think of dinner in the midst of praising Georgiana?]
The store was loud and crowded—I desired a long nap. [at first glance, these
juxtaposed thoughts have no relevance, but consider the effect the crowd might
have had on the speaker—perhaps s/he desired an escape to a place/time of
solitude.]
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Why might a writer use antithetical sentences? –There are several possibilities:
(1.) Consider that the emphasis of the sentence usually falls on the second part,
which stands in opposition to the first.(2.) The reader’s attention will be drawn to
the contrast between two things. (3.) The balanced sentences are often
memorable, written in a catchy, rhythmic manner—note that several of the
examples are essentially thesis statements, used to express the speaker’s
fundamental viewpoint. And (4.) note how the sentences stand out—they are
unusual, abnormal attention­getters.
Why might a writer use juxtaposition? –The reader’s attention is drawn to the
contrast. S/he should wonder why these two normally unassociated words or
phrases are placed together. In seeking an answer, underlying meaning is gleaned
(note how the point of the three examples is not written but yet understood).
Such sentences stand out, beckoning critical readers to engage them.
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HYPOTACTIC
An arrangement phrases or clauses in a dependent or
subordinate relationship.
"After the lions had returned to their cages, creeping
angrily through the chutes, a little bunch of us drifted away
and into an open doorway nearby, where we stood for a
while in semi­darkness watching a big brown circus horse
go harumphing around the practice ring."
(E. B. White, "The Ring of Time")
Paratactic
A rhetorical term for clauses arranged independently: a
coordinate, rather than a subordinate, construction. (Contrast
with hypotaxis.
"Dogs, undistinguishable in mire. Horses, scarcely better­­splashed to
their very blinkers. Foot passengers, jostling one another's umbrellas,
in a general infection of ill­temper, and losing their foothold at street
corners."
(Charles Dickens, Bleak House, 1852­1853)
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Asyndeton
omits conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses (the opposite
ofpolysyndeton).
She was young, she was pure, she was new, she was nice,
She was fair, she was sweet seventeen.
He was old, he was vile, and no stranger to vice,
He was base, he was bad, he was mean.
He had slyly inveigled her up to his flat
Polysyndeton
"rhetorical term for a sentence style that employs many
coordinating conjunctions (the opposite of asyndeton)
Most motor­cars are conglomerations (this is a long word for
bundles) of steel and wire and rubber and plastic, and electricity
and oil and petrol and water, and the toffee papers you pushed
down the crack in the back seat last Sunday."
(Ian Fleming, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang: The Magical Car, 1964)
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Paratactic
A rhetorical term for phrases or clauses arranged independently: a
coordinate, rather than subordinate, construction. (Contrast with
hypotaxis
I came; I saw; I conquered."
(Julius Caesar)
Anaphora
A rhetorical term for the repetition of a word or phrase at
the beginning of successive clauses
It rained on his lousy tombstone, and it rained on the
grass on his stomach. It rained all over the place."
(Holden Caulfield in J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the
Rye, 1951)
"Dogs, undistinguishable in mire. Horses, scarcely better­splashed
to their very blinkers. Foot passengers, jostling one
another's umbrellas, in a general infection of ill­temper, and
losing their foothold at street corners."
(Charles Dickens, Bleak House, 1852­1853)
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CHIASMUS
a verbal pattern (a type of antithesis) in which the second half of an expression is
balanced against the first with the parts reversed. Essentially the same as
antimetabole
You forget what you want to remember, and you remember what you want to
forget."
(Cormac McCarthy, The Road, 2006)
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The epanalepsis is a figure of speech defined by the repetition of the
initial word (or words) of a clause or sentence at the end of that same
clause or sentence. The beginning and the end are the two positions of
stronger emphasis in a sentence; so, by having the same phrase in both
places, the speaker calls special attention to it.
Examples
> The_King_is_dead._Long_live_the_King"The king is dead; long live
the king.
> Severe to his servants, to his children severe.
> They bowed down to him rather, because he was all of these things,
and then again he was all of these things because the town bowed
down. —"Their Eyes Were Watching God
> Beloved is mine; she is Beloved.
> Blow winds and crack your cheeks! Rage, blow! —r"King Lear, 3.2.1
> Nice to see you, to see you, nice. —"Bruce Forsyth
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Simple sentence: A sentence with one independent clause and no dependent
clauses.
A simple sentence contains ONE idea. It contains a subject (who or what is being
talked about) and a predicate (which tells something about the subject). A simple
sentence can have two subjects (called a compound subject) or two predicates
(called a compound predicate).
> My aunt enjoyed taking the hayride with you.
> China's Han Dynasty marked an official recognition of Confucianism.
> Bill and Sam went to the market.
> Bill turned the ignition and back out of the driveway.
Compound Sentence: A sentence with multiple independent clauses but no
dependent clauses.
A compound sentence is two simple sentences joined together. These sentences
can be joined by a comma­conjunction combination, a semi­colon, or (in special
circumstances) a colon.
> The clown frightened the little girl, and she ran off screaming.
> The Freedom Riders departed on May 4, 1961, and they were determined to
travel through many southern states.
> Bill and Ted went to the market; however, the market was closed.
> She is an excellent cook: Her brownies are to die for.
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Complex Sentence: A sentence with one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause.
A complex sentence is a simple sentence plus one of the following tools:
appositive phrase, participial phrase, adverb clause (or phrase), adjective clause
(or phrase), or absolute phrase.
A simple sentence contains ONE idea. A complex sentence has TWO OR MORE
ideas intermixed. A complex sentence can always be rewritten into two
sentences. In the sentences below, the elements colored blue turn the sentence
from being simple to complex:
> After Mary added up all the sales, she discovered that the lemonade stand
was 32 cents short
> While all of his paintings are fascinating, Hieronymus Bosch's triptychs, full
of mayhem and madness, are the real highlight of his art.
Complex­Compound Sentence: A sentence with multiple independent
clauses and at least one dependent clause.
A compound­complex sentence is a compound sentence with at least one
complex element (e.g., appositive phrase, participial phrase, adverb clause (or
phrase), adjective clause (or phrase), or absolute phrase) attached. Compound­
Complex sentences can get extremely lengthy.
> Catch­22 is widely regarded as Joseph Heller's best novel, and because
Heller served in World War II, which the novel satirizes, the zany but savage
wit of the novel packs an extra punch.
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Participial phrases begin with a verb ending in ­ing or ­ed. Verbs ending in ­
ing are present tense; verbs ending in ­ed are past tense.
To write a participial phrase, you must first have a sentence with a main verb:
Jimmy sat at the table.
Now ask yourself, what else is Jimmy doing at that moment? (Perhaps
chewing, eating, staring,...). Make a selection, then finish out the thought.
For example:
Jimmy sat at the table, chewing his steaking slowly.
Jimmy sat at the table, staring out the window.
Eating his ham and cheese sandwich, Jimmy sat at the table.
Appositive phrases, also called noun phrases, are another way to add
information to a sentence.
Essentially, appositives are nouns with added descriptive words. For example:
The sinister­looking cat.
The man dressed in the blue raincoat.
The hammerhead shark with a jagged scar on its nose.
Think of appositives as subjects. There is no action because there is no verb.
You only have a descriptive noun.
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Adjective clauses are a group of words containing both a noun and a verb that
work as adjectives. They always follow the word being described and must begin
with one of the following words: who, whose, which, where, or that.
Because they must begin with one of five words, adjective clauses are easy to
spot and write. And, because you are a native speaker, you will instinctively
follow each of those words with a verb.
Participial phrases, appositive phrases, and adjective clauses. All three tools
modify or describe nouns.
Adverb clauses differ because they add information about the verb, or main
action, in a sentence.
They tell when the action happened. How the action happened. Why the action
happened. Where the action happened. And the situation or conditions under
which the action happened.
Consider the following examples (adverb clauses in red):
Before his mother arrived, Samuel went to Walmart to purchase cleaning
supplies because his cat had thrown up in the guest bedroom. (The first tells you
when he went and the second tells you why he went.)
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Absolute Phrases are essentially collapsed sentences. Instead of adding more
information about a noun or a verb, absolute phrases modify an entire sentence,
indicating something related happening at the exact same moment.
His hands and knees bleeding from crawling, Michael triumphantly reached the
summit.
Mary backed the car out of the driveway, her mind repeatedly pouring over
details for the upcoming interview.
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WRITING ABSOLUTE PHRASES
The following is an easy tool to generate absolute phrases. Begin with a
possessive pronoun (e.g., his, her, its, their) followed by a noun. Then write
"was" or "were" followed by words that finish out an idea.
You might have:
His mind was racing uncontrollably.
Her hair was fluttering in the wind.
Its mouth was drooling.
Their houses were on fire.
Now, to create an absolute phrase, simply drop the was or were.
His mind racing uncontrollably.
Her hair fluttering in the wind.
Its mouth drooling.
Their houses on fire.
Phrases are not sentences. To create meaning, the sentence must be attached to a
RELATED sentence. Perhaps:
His mind racing uncontrollably, Jim pulled over to the side of the road.
She sped down the highway in her convertible, her hair fluttering in the wind.
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Most sentences can be classified as either loose (or cumulative) or periodic.
The loose (or cumulative) sentence is our common means of expression. We
begin with a subject, followed by an action (the verb), and then additional details.
"Sam, our class president, hopes to attend Harvard University this fall."
The loose (or cumulative) sentence presents the subject and verb near the
beginning, such that the reader knows who or what is being discussed and what
is happening.
The periodic sentence is a suspended sentence; in other words, the reader either
does not know who or what is being discussed and/or what is happening until
the final word of the sentence. Well­crafted periodic sentence hold the reader in
suspense. The reader anticipates something important, but writer holds it back,
building tension, until the final moment of revelation.
Periodic sentences are special sentences: They should only be used in certain
situations, often when introducing a new character or place.
Frequently, emcees use periodic sentences when introducing the next performer,
to wit:
And now, the most handsome man in the world, a man of extraordinary
talents, a legend in his own time, the person that we all wish we could
be........
The idea, of course, is that the audience generally does not know who the
next performer will be. The periodic approach builds suspense, interest, and/
or excitement. It gets an emotional reaction from the audience.
Loose sentences can often be re­written as periodic sentences. For example:
The dragon came down the hallway, its feet pounding the ground, its talons
scraping the stone walls, its eyes glaring menacingly, its mouth watering
hungrily.
Its feet pounding the ground, its talons scraping the stone walls, its eyes
glaring menacingly, its mouth watering hungrily, down the hallway came the
dragon.
Basically, take the end of the sentence and move it to the beginning. The
details up front, the better. Create fear. Create suspense. Create excitement.
Create interest. Create­­whatever feeling/reaction you desire.
You are the artist. Manipulate your audience by withholding the vital piece of
information that they need to understand the sentence until the very end.
Use this tool sparingly but effectively.
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Few consider punctuation a tool of expression; however, think of the
possibilities:
Compose a sentence revealing anger.
Get. Your. Butt. Over here. NOW!!!!!
[Note how the use of punctuation and capitalization reveals the speaker’s rage.]
Compose a sentence revealing panic.
Have you seen, Cindy?—I checked the kitchen and parlor but didn’t see her.—
Wasn’t she in the living room?—I just stepped out for a minute. Cindy!—She
can’t be far, can she?
[Note the effect of the dashes. Tying the sentences together suggests racing
thought—or, in this case, panic.]
Compose a sentence revealing confusion.
I think . . . well, I know . . . Hand me that book.
[The use of ellipsis in this case suggests trailing thought.]
The possibilities are endless.
The Point: Punctuation is a tool used by writers that can add meaning to a
text. Be cognizant [i.e., aware] of an author’s use of punctuation. Look for
unusual and/or intentional usage. Keep in mind that writers do not have to follow
the standardized rules of punctuation. As long as the reader understands the
writer's intent, punctuation can be used indiscriminately. Artists should be
allowed to use tools in any manner that they wish. (Note: This does NOT apply
to formal essays, letters, reports, etc.).
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• Unusual (inverted) or unexpected word order. Poets in particular are fond of
inverting word order to make it sound “poetic”, rather than just ordinary
speech. Look at the opening line of Robert Frost’s poem “Stopping by Woods
on a Snowy Evening”: “Whose woods these are I think I know” (Hunt 734).
Frost has avoided conventional word order by reversing the two units of four
words (I think I know whose woods these are). As Beaty and Hunter say,
“when an unusual word order is used, you can be pretty sure that something
there merits special attention” (925).
• Sentence length. Look especially for variations in the length of sentences. If a
passage is written in short, choppy sentences, then the reader picks up a feeling
of excitement or fear or haste. Long, smooth sentences establish a feeling of
calm or contemplation. But the use of several sentences of one type,
interrupted by a sudden change should catch the reader’s attention. It should
make you wonder what the author wanted you to notice at that point.
Inverted syntax can often be a clue to help you place the text as having been
written in a particular time period. For example, classic poetry from authors
such as Shakespeare, John Donne, or others writing before the 1700s will
frequently make use of inverted syntax in order to conform to rhythm and
rhyming patterns that were characteristic of that time period. Similarly, poetry of
the Romantic period has a distinctive syntax. If you are aware of the
characteristics of various artistic periods, you may be able to identify a piece of
text you are working with as belonging to a specific period, which in turn can
help you to understand the passage.
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• Interruptions A sudden alteration in the flow of the words should catch your
attention. Such changes can be created with sentence length, punctuation, or
inversions. Are there interruptions in the sentences, such as dashes? What
effect do the interruptions create in the flow of the ideas?
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