shield. 166 is a cavalryman. His horse is decor-ned with a ... - Wikia

162
164
163
165 & 166 . MANNAEAN WARRIO RS
The Mannal inhubilcd the Iranian highlands directly 10 the east of Assyria, and many Assyrian campaigns \l,rere
dircCI!:d into Ihis region. These illustrations an: based on drawings on pomry dating 10 Ihe 10th «nlUI')' B.C. Ind
Ihe archaeological finds from Hasanlu, dliling 10 the end of the 9th century B.C. hory pands carved with
reprcscmations of troops from H asanlu arc panicuiarly informative as 10 miliulry developments in North-Wesl Iran
31 this lime:. Figure 165 is a spcannan wearing some: son of textile body armour and c.arrying a painted wicker
shield. 166 is a cavalryman. His horse is decor-ned with a bead-colJar necklace: with 11 bell anached 10 ii, and a pfOlectivt
melal from lei. 166a shows 1110'0 types ofhdmcl which could have betn worn by wealthier troops, and may be romparcd
with Uranian designs. Figure: 1 65~ is ~n infantryman from the Hasanlu ivories. The diSlincth'c headgear worn by
troops from this sourer is perhaps a 'crown' of roldw textile, held on by a chinsuap, with I studded neck.guard.
It is somewhat reminiscent of the laler Persian 'tiara'. Metal, Assyrian-ltyle helmets, sometimes with separate earnaps
we re also worn. Spears had socketed iron or bronze heads and side-urns consisted of swords , mam and small
axes. The small round shield, which appears to have been convex with a wide rim, was probably made of leather
or wood as no examples have survived. These shields arc also shown on the ivories being used by the enemy troops,
who are otherwise completely naked.
Archers depicted on the Huanlu ivories show more variation in appeal1lnee. Some have curly hair while OIhers
have straight hair. Some wear turbans, and othert wear studded fillets. "I.ost appear to be dressed in the same type
of tunic as 165a. 1l\ey arc olien shown shooting from a knteling posi!ion. Bronze quivert Ind bronze or iron arrowheads
were used.
Ca\'1lry on the ivories appear like 166, but wear tunics and helmets like 165a. The ivories also pro\·ide evidence
ofchariotry, which were crewed by two men and drawn by twO horses. Crews and chariot cabs arc not completely
preserved. but the cab has a box-like profile, wider a( the top than the bottom. The wheels have sll: spokes and
the axle is fixed beneath the centre or the C1IIb. A knob 8t the rear may be a shield boS5 or Structural, and crossed
quivers mounted on the side of the cab arc shown on a metal plaque. The chariot crew consisted of an archer and
II driver. The chariot horses reKmble that in 166, but wear feathered crcsts.
177

Th~ tlOOPS occur in battlc: scenes which show groups of chariotry, a .... alry and ar t"he rs operating together, and
in one case tWO ranks of three cavalry operating in line.
166
167. IRANIAN WARRIOR 8TH CENTURY B.C.
Warriors and dignilaries wearing this slyle of dress in Assyrian reliefs represent peoples of the Zagros Mounlains
and Nonh·West Iran, such as the Madai (Medes), Mannai, and warriors from regions luch as Zikinu, Zamua, Na'iri
and Shupria. The shield is shown being used by the defenders of the city ofPuashi. It was probably made of reeds
insened through strips of coloured leather, in such a way that each reed passed through the strip twice, so that
the s!rip would form a panel on the face of the shield. He uses an animal skin cloak, which is shaped 10 faslen
over one shoulder lind hn a hole for one arm, to give some protection to his unshielded side. It would be a useful
garment generally in these cold regions, (c.f. 73).
168. IRANIAN INFANTRYMAN, 6TH CENTURY B.C.
This figure is included in order to show the element of continuity of Assyrian and Babylonian practice into the
early Persian period. Although largely outside the time limit of this book, the Archaemenid Empire represents the
last greal Near·Easlern military system, and hn more in common wilh its Near·Eastern and cullurally relaled
predecessors than Iny later age. Also, before her rise to power, Parsumash or Parsuash, as the small Inn ian region
was known, was in conlact with Assyria and Babylon, and for a time, tributary 10 AHyria .
Parsumash began her rise to empire, probably with the take-over of Anshan from the Elamites in the early 7th
century B.C. The Medel and Elamites were absorbed in the early 6th century B.C. This was achieved under King
Ku rash (Cyrus I). The Babylonians referred 10 Ihe Persian trOOpS by a archaic term for the peoples of Ihis part
of Inn, calling them 'shield ·bearing Gudans'.
178

168
Tht headclOlh, tunic and d~gger are dislincli~ items of Persian dress. but he wears A»yrian'slyle socks on his
legs I1Ither than trousers. He carries a large: rectangular ~ed shield. II is interesting to notc that combinations of
spear and bow, and shield and bow, wc:re: already being experimented with by the Babylonians al the time orlhe
Penian conquest, possibly influencing Persian p~i~. The: basic Achacmc:nid unit was the khafro (I lima! Median
translation of kis",) commanded on Babylonian lines by shaJtnu. With the conquest of the East by AIC:llandcr, a
complete cycle: of military development comes to a close, to be replaced by another.
169, 170 & 171. NEO·HITTITE CHARIOTRY 9TH TO 8TH CENTURY B.C.
There ate many represc:nt3lions orNeo- H inill~ chariOl$; sour~ including reliefs from the sites of Care hem ish, Aulatya.
Sakje-gozu, Tayanat, Te-ll·H alaf and Zinjirli, and the- ivory plaques of Syrian workmanship from Nimrud (which
deconued furniture brought as tribute from Neo-Hinite ci lies). These represemations dale!O the 9th and 8m cmturies
B.C. The-re- are many poims of similarity with Assyrian churiots, and the Assyrians may have- been infiue-nce-d by
some a5ptC1.s of Neo-Hinite chariot design.
Neo-Hinite- charion exhibit some changes during the 9th and 8th centuries B.C. The axle- was mO\'ed from beneath
the cemrc of the- cab to the rear. The number of spokes in the wheel was increased from six 10 eight (although
the- six·spoked type continued in use). The- cab was originally curved at the- front and changes to a de-e-pc:r, and
perhaps rCClangulur, shape. T he number of cre-w increased from twO to four, as demonstrated in a representation
of 11 veT)' heavy Ch3riOt on an ivory from Nimrod (170 and 171). It is also probable thatlhe number of horses increased
from tWO 10 four 10 enable the increaSC' in weight and number of crew. Like- many Assyrian re-presenlations, Nco­
Hinite anists did not ancmpt to show four horses, usually making do with only one, (an anislic convenience which
the authors IhemSC'lves have found useful!). A captured chariot from Lachish, shown in an Assyrian relief, has a
yoke- for four horses and this number we-re- in use in Egypt and Cyprus by the 7th century. Funhcrmore, some
Neo-Hinill~ reliefs show the horse without a yoke saddle and with a pendant on the outer rein, chal1lctefistic of
the outside horses of a four-horsed chariot which were harnessed in a different manner to the inne-r pair. until a
new type of yoke wu inv('nt('d in Assyria in Ihe- 8th c('ntury B.C. Th(' horus and crew of the 81h century Neo­
Hinil(, chariots are oft('n shown wuring consid('rabl(' amounts of seal(' armour, but this was protnbly also available
earlier. Crossed quive-rs on the sides, ellipliall supponing rod for the yoke·pole and the shield hung al the rear
of Ihe cab. remained characteristic of the Nco-H ittite chariot throughout Ih(' period.
The cab of 169 is based on I rdief from Carchemish. It is probably covered wilh low bronze bosses, unless this
is a convention for a scale cover. long known in the Near Easl. later Assyrian chariots also being co\'ered in bronze
plales. The scale armour for the hone has the scales arl1lnged in a different direction on the neck to enable movement.
An Assyrian text m('ntions an iron sariam for a horse, captured from a Nco-Hillile kingdom. The chariot in 170
is cJelIrly me origin orlhe Egyptian design shown in 40, and a similar hand.grip is present in the relief from Sakjegozu.
A fabric panel was hung from the supporting pole, possibly 10 balance the hull)' chariot cab.
119

The ' .... ,o-man ere ..... ' comprised an archer and a driver. The armoured charioleers ""ould resemble figures liS and
120, ..... hile unarmoured chariol crew ..... ould resemble 172. A fouT-man crew, consiSlcd of an unarmoured driver,
an n eher, a spenman, and anOlher soldier, possibly a shield-bearer or anOlher spearman. 171 is based on the ere .....
in the Nimrud ivory plaque, butlhe Ur:lTIian-style helmtl is taken from a relief from Zinjirli. The crew arc wtll
armoured. The spearman ..... ears a shon, scale corsltl wilh what may be pteruges, but the shape suggcsls a row of
large scales like that shown in 4h. The scene makes it quite clear how the spear was mcantto be used. Its size
and the knob al the e:nd suggest Ihot it is more than JUSt a javelin. It would be: useful to fend orr cavalry or infamry
..... ho ..... e:re: attacking the vulnerable reu of the chariot, in the same way as reliefs sho"" it being used against lions
in hunting see:ne:s.
Nco-Hinite fdids are more than 400 years later than the Hinitc Empire, and do not constitute valid evidence: for
the appearance of chariOlS and troop! of that lime:. They cxhibilthe influence of Assyria and Uranu, nOI pre5CnI
in the earlier period.
180

171
172. NEO·HITTITE GUARDSMAN AND OFFI CER 9TH CENTURY B .C.
These figures are based on reliefs from the royal palace at Carchcmish. These depict a file of soldiers equipped
as l72a, and officers or nobles like J 72b. These were probably 11 unit of elite royal guards. Further evidence for
such troops could be the 3000 infanlTY of Plairi ofCarchcmish, recruited into the army of Sargon II following the
rebellion of Carchcmish. He also recruited 50 chariots and 200 cavalry, probabl}' also elite troops. Figure i 72a wears
a distinctive variant of the Nco-Hittite or Uranian type of helmet, which hilS IWO short 'horns' mounted lit the
from. T hey aTC probably low, bronze boSKS. Both troops ClIrry large, flat or slightly com'ex round shields, slung
on their backs by leather straps. The faces of these shields may have bun cO\'ercd in sheet bronze, possibly with
embossed decoration, as in Uranu, and may also have had bosses in the form oflions' he3ds, as sho~'ll f!Xed to
the back of chariots (169, 170). 172a wears traditional Hinitc-style boots. Weaponry comprised thrusting-spea,.,
and straight swords.
172
a
b
181

173 & 174. ARAMAEAN AND NEO-HITTITE CAVALRY 9TH CENTURY B.C.
The use of cavalry by Neo-Hiuile and Aramaean slales is attC'Sled by numerous references in Assy rian records and
reliefs depicting cavalrymen from Zinjirli and Tell-Halaf. A representation from Tell-Halaf is Ihe basis for figure
174, and shows Ihat cavalry were using shields, as they were also in Urartu and for a short lime in Assyria. 173
shows a mounted archer. T hc lisl of for cC'S al the battle of Karkar includes equal numbers of cavalry 10 chariotry
in Ihe forces of Hamalh and Damascus, and this mighl suggesl some connection between horsemen and chariol
crews in the mil ilary organisalion. T actically, they were probably required 10 operate with the chariotry, :as were
Assyrian cavalry. The position of the shield in the Tell-H:alafreliefindicatcs that it was either strapped to the arm
to allow the hand to control the reins, or possibly slung on the back. The shield had a ce-ntral boss, and Ihe horseman
completes his equipment with a helmet and shon spea r.
175. ARAMAEAN INFANTRYMAN, 10TH TO 8TH CENTURY B.C.
The majority of the infantry levied by the Aramaean and Nco-Hittite states were lightly equipped. This figure is
a spearman, but archers and slingers were dressed almost identically, though lacking shields and wearing their hair
as shown in 175a. Weapons were now made of iron, shidds were prob:lbly of leluher and clothing was made of
woollen cloth, with simple decorative borden and fri nges.
176. ARAMAEAN CAMELRY 9TH TO STH CENTURY B.C.
Representations of camel· riders are known from Zinjirli, Tell-Halafand Carchcmish. T hey are sometimes shown
armed with a bow, so may have been used in a military role if only to prOleCt caravans. Camelry were prob:lbly
introduced by the Aramaeans, but were also found in Neo· Hittite slates. Al lhe battle of Karkar, 1000 camel·riders
of an allied Arabian tribe were presem, fighting 310ngside tht NCO-Hittite and Aram2ean comingems. The twO ClImel·
riders illustrated in 176 show the \'lilriatioo in appearance-. Two t)'PCs of saddle were used, one apparently a rectangular
'cushion' or pad of cloth, the other a 50rt of saddle-doth and harness, which had straps for the rider 10 grip with his feet.
177,178 & 179. NEO-HITTITE TROOPS, STH CENTURY B.C.
These soldiers arc derived from reliefs at Karatepe, and so may re present the forces of the sme of Que. One of
the most interesting fea tures of equipment is Ihe helmel worn by 178. who is presumably a guardsman, or elile
infanuyman. This is very similar 10 the helmet worn by 172a, exce-pt that the crest has become larger. T his is the
ultimate development of lhe Uranian style of crested helmet and gives this soldier an almost 'hoplile' appearance,
although Nco-Hillite representations pre-dale Ihe introduction of the hoplite panoply in Greece. In fa ctlhe Greeks
may have been influenced by items of Neo-Hittile and Ura rtian manufacture as the Argos panoply would indicate.
The cavalry are shown unshielded bUI using a Ihrusting-spear in an underarm manner, contrary to contemporary
Assyrillfl practice. The archer is equipped with a narrow bronze belt, as would be used by many Nco-Hittite troops.
He wears one of the many different types of , turban' by which the various Aramaean tribes and North Syrian peoples
may be distinguished.
174
173
182

176
((
175
r
17~7====~~~~~~========~~
178
179
18J

ISO.
ARAMAEAN AND NEO-HlTTrTE HEADGEAR
By examination of foreign tribute-bearers in Assyrian sourCC$ and comparing them to representations from the various
Slates of Northern Syria, Anatolia and the Levant, it is possible to establish their distinctive styles of headgear.
Judean styles ofwntpping a long, scarf·like headcloth are shown in ISOa . 180b shows ",arianl forms of Phoenician
'turban'. 180c was worn in Tyre. The cap shown in 1SOd is depicted being worn by Jehu of israel on the 'black
obdisk' orShalmaneKr III, and was also worn in Damucu5, Kallina, Unqi, and Bit-Adini. l8Oc, which ends in
a tusel, was worn in Hamath. 180fis another fashion from Unqi. The headgear in lSOg ""'2S worn in Carchemish,
and 1SOh is further headgear from Que and Sam'al. The hat on the right, was fonned by tying·up the cheekpieces
on top of the head. ISOi shows twO heads belonging to Mushki. The plaited forelocks on the righi-hand head are
allowed to hang over the front of the fillet.
a c d
e f g h
180
181. JUDEAN SOLDIER 8TH TO 7TH CENTURY B.C.
This figure is taken from the Assyrian reliefs showing the. sack of Lachish by Scnnacherib in 701 B.C. This represents
the equipment ora typical Judean soldier, and exhibits marked AS$)"Tian influence, panicularly in the helmet and
shield. Scnnacherib conscripted many Judeans inlo the kilir Jharruli (royal army). In this corps they appear wearing
Assyrian issue boots, socks and shield but retaining nalive tunic and headdress. This huddress, a son of wrap'
around scarf shown in ISla, could be worn instead of, or beneath a helmet.
181
182
184

182 & 183. A.R A.BlAN DESERT NOMA.DS
I
~ included the Midianitcs,. Amalc:k.iu:s and the later Allib tribes of the hamme, Nabaita~ , KJdnaya and Atarunwn
\\'hich fought the Assynans. The camellirlt IPpears as a mount for warriors II the beginning of the 151 mllienmum
B.C. Before the 7th century It was probably more usual 10 lind a smgle nder, since Auynan repreknllilons of
Arabs riding tWO 10 a amel may well be: an mdlCalion of the succeu of dl(: Assymnl' campaign of allnuon. ThlJ
in\'OI\"Cd poisoning of well. and garrisoning of oun. forcing lhe nomads 10 .lauGhler their camds and n 'en to dnnk
their blood.
Tribes were headed either by kinp, or surpmingly, queen5, as IIluSlnalCd in 182. Organiuuon would be: ~Kd
on dan. Ind In army would limply comprise: a muster of a11lribesmen acknowledging the authonlY of I panKUlar
leader.
\V'hen raiding, mobility and speed would rcqutrC all'lo'afTiors 10 be: mounled, as tbey could always diimounl ifrcquiml..
The main armament was the bow. Standmi Ixtia consisted ofhit·.oo.run raids in search of easy plundc:r and CJpthu.
183
184, 185, 186 & 181. URART IAN WARRIORS
Uranu .... u rich In melal5, and beame 1 cenlre for the manufacture of arm •. The inOuence of UrAnian drsigns
can be: uxcd over a wide arel, utending beyond the conlinel oflhe Near East, II lellSt as far lIS Grrett. Items
of Unruan manufacture were not only spread by trade. but no doubl: also among the booty of the Cimmerians
and Scythians, and lhe tribute nK'!ed by Auyria. Bronze was used extensively, not only for weapoos, scale corslel5,
helmets, shields, chariot finlngs and horse: Ifllppinl', bul also bellS and quivers. Iron "''IS a cheap alternative to
bronu, uxd for ffiO$I tools and weapons and also 10 some exteot, for armour. The amount of mel:!l rquipmenl
available to dlt Urand.QS II uldicatcd by the quantitiel of tribule recorded in inscriptions. and archxologial evidence
from excavated cit.dels conllming arsenals. Sarduri II of Uranu once received a .. ribute of 2000 coppcr shields
from Kushtuhpi ofKummuhu, Ind when Sargon U sacked Musasir, brontA: crests, scale corslet., hclmelland O\'er
25,000 copper dlirlds were limon, the booty. Howevt-r many items mlly hlI\~ been votive ofTerings, unsuitable for
USC: in blttle.
185

These illustrations are based on represtnl:ltions of Uranian uoops in Assyrian reliefs, and on Uranian embossed
bronu belts, quivers and armour as ..... ell as extensive an:h.aeoJogical evidence.
Figure 184 shows an Unnian spearman of the mid 9th. century B.C. He wears a crested helmet of which there
..... ere many varian IS. 1843 shows a type: "lith a purely metal em!. A type depie1C::d on the 'bronze gates of Bala ..... at'
daling 10 Ihe reign ofShalmanestr II of Assyria, sho....., a helmet with a crest running directly over Ihe crown, a
type Huested in other sources and by surviving examples. It is reminiscent of descriptions of the Karian helmet
and possibly anctstrallo it, ultimately influencing Greek designs. Around his waist, over his shorl fringed tunic,
he wears a bronze bell, which could pro\'ide limited protection for the abdomen.
The Uranian chariot shown in 185 wu similar 10 contemporary Assyrian types in general design, bUllighter, being
cre ..... ed by t ..... o men and drawn by twO horses. The chariot and harness feature filIny bronze fillings, such as the
bosses decor-lling the cab, the bells around the horses' necks and the frontlets ( 185a) protecting their foreheads.
Heads of animals, such :as horses, could be mounted at the end of the draughl pole. Armament comprises the bow
and spear. the Jailer fixed althe rear orlhe c-ab. Chniotry ..... eR probllbly provided by Ihc nobility and high offidals,
Uranian engraved seals depict the king in his chariot accompanied by an umbrella·bearer, and a variant rype of
chariot ..... ith large looped hand·grips attached to the cab. The profile of this variant Cllb shows that its upper edge
curves do ..... n at the sides and up at the front, and the wheels have eight Clltved spokes which are rather bulbous
at the base.
Figure 186 shows an Urartian cavalryman, the cream of the Uf1lrtian army. He is equipped wilh spear and shield.
Horse·archers probably also existed and Cimmerian mercenaries were probably employed, who would no doubt
make extensive use of Urarrian equipmenl.
187 is an Uran;mn noble or omen . Both he and 186 wear boou and leggings and 3 shon tunic, over which 187
wears a long, fringed kilt. Both are equipped with convex, embossed·bronu shields, probably backed by wood or
leather. D«oration consisted of concentric rows of animals (187a shows a profile view). Sbields with bosses in the
form of the heads of dogs, lions, griffins and bulls were also used.
186, 187 and the crew in 185 are wearing scale or lamell-ar corslets. Scales were usuaUy bronze, measuring Scm
long and 2cm wide, with rounded boHoms. They were assembled with Ihe lacing exposed. These figures are aU
equipped wilh Ihe conicallype of helmet, ..... hich could be of bronze or iron, decorated with stylised thunder or
antler symbols, or rows of serpents. They also wear VlIriant types of bronze bell, which were often highly-decorated
with embossed motifs.
Archers were similar in appearance to 184. Bronu quivers found in Unnian Drsena\s contained betwee:n 354 0
arrows. There were tWO main types of arrowhead, mOSI ofwbich were iron. The mltive type was fiat and spade·
shaped, with two barbs, while the distincth'C, barbed, Scythian types were also available. Surviving bronze quh'ers
are tubular in shape, tWO examples measuring 70 and 90cm in length and IOcm in width. Quivers could also be
part bronze and pan leather. Figure l86a shows a bronze quiver.
a
•
184
186

Uranian wall-paintings depict garments coloured red and white, with red or white borders. Chequercd and strip«!
patterns were used. Other colours appearing in paintings, which could have been available for clothing, comprise
dark·blue, light-blue, bbck and reddish-brown_
185
a
a
187
187

188. CIMMERIAN HORSEMAN 8T H·7TH CENTURY B.C.
The Cimmerians, or Gimirraya, were forced from their homelands in southern Russia and across the Caucasus by
their dose relations, the Scythians or Ishkula)'a. In terms of dress and appc:ar.mce thtse two tribes of nomadic horsc~n
appear virtually identical. Indeed, the Babylonian! of the 6th century B.C. knew what we call the 'Scythian' bow
as the 'Cimmerian' bow, and describc

189 & 190. PHRYGIANS AND L YDlANS 11TH TO 6TH CENTURIES
Th~ illustrations are baxd on representations on poltery, temOOlti plaques and &.syrian SOUfte5. 189a is a Phrygian,
or Mushki, as they were known in Auyria. A representation oran Anatolian emissary in the Assyrian Til·Barsip
paintings depicts a style or dress Ih:1t bears comparison with figures on the plaques rrom Paurli. Tunics decorated
with broad coloured or embroidered bancb were worn. So were A 5sy ri~n·style socks decorated in the same way.
The Phrygians were noted ror Iheir skill in Ihis kind or decoration, The Pazarli plaques show what may be greaves
WOrn over the socks, while the Til·Barsip painting shows boots. This figure wears the typiCliI type: or boot worn
by many mountain peoples at this time and which was adopted in Assyria. Armamenl comprises a shon spear and
highly-decoTated small round shield. 189b is an archer carrying what appears 10 be a bow c:lSe on his back. The
helmet shown in the Paurli plaque is often considered 10 be or Greek type, but it could equally well be de rived
rrom Unrlian or Nco-Hittite designs, which is perhaps more likely (c.c. 137, 178 and 184). Clothing colours included
red, black and blue on white.
190
a
Lydian ClII'alry are shown in 190 and 1903, Lydian or Karian inrantry would be like the mercenary iIIus1r.lted in
47. These horsemen are light cavalry. Heavy cavllry would be equipped as 47 but bare.legged. Again, embroidered
bands and brightly coloured clothing arc features orthese tcoopt. The horse in 190 appears to have a brand. According
to Het(xlotus, Lydian cavalry were armed with long spears and were the most imporlant pari of the Lydian roren.
They also seem to have been good and tenacious fighters. Lydian cavalry do not ap~ar to have used the shield.
191 & 192. CYPRIOT WARRIORS 7TH CENTURY B.C.
These illustrations arc based on discoveries rrom the tombs of Salamis, pottery figurines or warriors, Ind chariotS
and representations on embossed metal bowls.
Cypriot chariOtS generally followed Near·Eastern designs. This chariO! is one of the latest lypeS, daling 10 the 7th
anlUry B.C. Earlier types would closely rnc:mble 9th century Nco-Hittite and A5S y ri~n \'ehic\es. From the 81h
century B.C. Assyrian influwce beame stronger, following the conquest oflhe Phoemcian statts, (for yet euli~r
chariots refer to 115). This chariot is baxd on actual examples aca\lllted at Salamis on CYPIl15. The cab is constructed
of leather over a wooden rramework sUPporling panels or osier. There was a central parlition ending in i bronze
looped hand·grip al the rear. The third crewman stood behind the driver and second crewman, holding on to the
hand·grip which could also serve as a shield support. In this WDY the rear orthe chlriot was protected. From the
late 7th century B.C. onwards, the chariot would have two draught·poles, also appt:lring in the Neu East, furthe r
reslTiaing the chariot's manocu'lTlbiliIY. The wheels of the chuiot had ten spokes, strengthened by len iron nails
dril'en through the rim and secured to the axle with large decorated Iynch·pins. The twO drnught'poles were joined
by a straight yoke accommodating four horses, and decorated with rour bronze 'standards' in a similar manner to
a model chariot in the Oxus treasure.
189

Horse armour comprised an Oll·hide 'apron', as shown here, wilh a melal breast.plate and side pendanl!. Thesr
wrre derorated with Assyrian·inspirrd motifs such as a naked figurr of !shlar (a goddess of 10lle and war) standing
on, or holding bac.k lioD figures. The horses also wore metal frontlets and creslS. These tnppings were of bronze,
or iC'3ther covered wilh sheet gold. One chariot cab .... 'IS deconted with Ii\'e lions' heads.
The crew were armed with Ihru.Sling·spcars and round shields. The headgear worn by twO of the CTew are 'turbans'
of Ar.lmaean Style, popular in Cyprus al Ihis time.
Figure 192 is a CypriOt spearman, based on pouery models of wlrnort and some piclorial representations. Cypriot
forces also included arch".rs and ClInlry who were similar in appraunce but lacked shietds.
The shietd shown in 192c has a red centre and small red dots on while petals against a black ground as painted
on a ponery figure. Olher shields could have long, poimed, bronze bosses. Variant helmets are shown in 192a,
the lower example originating in Urartu, a major apoTler of arms and metalwork.
191
'-
!) ~
"""- J o 0
192
a
.. •
'.,' ". 0
•
11 ~ b
190

193, 194 & 195. MINOAN' AND MYCENAEAN SPEARMEN c. 161)0- 131)0 B.C.
There are many represemations of this type of infantry in Aege:an ut, The principal sourccs for these figures arc
a fresco from Thera, a battle-scene on a sih'cr crater and a decorated dagger blade from Mrcenac, and various engr.lved
seals.
These spearmen appear to have fought in dose formation and were probably drilled. The spear. called t }u-Q, was
used for thrusting and was at least 4m long. To achieve maximum effect with this weapon, both hands were used
and a large body-shield was hung from the shoulder with a Strap. Spears and shields answering to this description
are mentioned in the Iliad. 193 holds his spear in a posi tion suitable for advancing into combat, as depicted on
the Them fresco, where a line of spearmen is advancing in this fashion. 193a shows a man who has been beaten
to his kn~ in combat, taken from a gold seal engraving, and demOnstmt C1 how the shield provided complete covemge
in such a 'receiving' position. 194 and 19 5 have spears levelled for the charge. Two opposing bodies arc: shown
dashing in this way on the silver crater from Mycenae.
The elabomtc: boars'-tusk helmets and the possession of swords indicates that these spearmen arc pc:ople of some
wealth and social standing (unless infantry were equipped from palace armouries). The shields render body armour
unnecessary. Ifsuch troops ""'eTC to keep rook with shields meeting edgNc>cdge, they would achieve efficient protection
for all the individual soldiers by acting togtther as a cohesive body. Such a 'shield·wall' would be paniculariy effective
against missiles. Archers opc:roted from between the ranks and files of the spearmen, seeking the protection of the
shields, (200 shows an archer from the same source as 194 operating in this manner). Swords, or pakana, were
long" narrow and, like all weaponry, bronn. They were better suited for thrusting than slashing. 1953 is a Minoan
sword.
It would doubtless be difficult to break into a densely packed shield·wall. AnemplS to fmd ways of doing so may
have led to the invention of the ·figurc.of-eight' shield. This type is carried by 195 and shown in profile in 195b.
It is clearly a shield that could be used more offensively than the 'tower-shield' curied by 193 and 194. It is deep
and possesses a dt-flective ability. A ridge of wood or tough leatht-r Nns down the centre. The 'waist' might allow
greater usc of the thrusting·sword in the 'press'. With such I shield the bearer could have a better chancc of battering
through the ranks of his oppont-nts. When this type appears it is used alongside the tower·shitld. Perhaps only
a proponion of the formation were equipped with them in order 10 give a 'biting-edge' to the body, bUI personal
preference cannot be ruled out.
191

-
194
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."
"
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,
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. ;:', .:. ,:' ~ "-.
195
a
b
The shields were made of ox·hide, and paneTOs consisted of black. brown or buffblolchcs on a while ground. Lines
of stitching visible on the from correspond 10 the machment of the shoulder-snap and frame on the reverse. The
central ridge of the figurc-of-eight shield was generally buff, the outer edge of the rim being blue, and the inner
«Ige. yellow,
Helmets, koroto, were m3de from 51iven of horn CUI from boars' tusks and bound 10 a leather base with leather
thongs. The ef(5[ oflhe helmet worn by 193 is possibly also made or horn, alternatively, black or black and whilt
horsch:iir plumes and crests could be :l1I3chcd.
Kilts could be fringed and elabora tely embroidered. Dress sometimes consisted only of ~ coloured 'cod.pit«'.
The Aegean peoples werc gener~lIy laU, slim and h~d a 'bronzed' complexion. Hair was very dark, wavy alld usually
worn long. Burds were uncommon, but gold death·masks from the shaft·graves of Mycenae suggest that they could
Ix worn by kings.
196. MINOAN AND EARLY MYCENAEAN CHARIOTRV c. 1550· 1250 B.C.
Introduced inlo the Aegean in Ihe 161h celllUry B.C., Ihe Aegean chariol soon began 10 differ in terms of delail
from the Near·Easlern Iype. The four·spoked wheels remained standard for a 10llger pcriod but were made stronger
and more robust. The axle was posilioned near Ihe rur of the cab, and the draught-pole was strengthened by iii
second pole joining il horizolllally from Ihe yoke 10 the fronl oflhe cab. Both shafts were funher Strengthened
by ~ wooden suppa" or thongs. It is possible lhat Ihis second shaft c:xtended backwards wilhin the cab and curved
round to join the noor, providing a panition and means of suppan for the crewmen. These: are all developments
designed 10 increase: the strength of the vehicle. In Egypt and Canaan the emphasis was on lightness because: speed
and manocu\'rability were requi red for a primarily skirmishing role over nat open ground. The Aegean chariOl,
however, was clearly ~ more robust vehicle intended 10 take the strain of close·combat over broken ground.
192

196
a
D ~
a
c
0
b
197
d
198
'9]

Aegean chariot warfare is 11 much debau:u subiect, the discussion of ..... hich might benefit from the appreciation
thai chariO! design underv.'em signific:mt change within the period c. 1550-1150 B.C. T he carliest design .....:as a
type: that has been called the 'bo)«hariot', illustrated in 196a. T his W,IS in usc: bet ..... etn 155{1 and 145{1 B.C. Bet ..... etn
1450 and 1200 B.C. a type: C1Illed the 'dual

Arm~mcnl for ~ chariol warrior comprised a long spear, il being 10 denea the thrusts ohhi! weapon thaI armours
such as the Dendlll panoply were e1pecially devised. An engraved gemstone from Vapheio shows a chariol spearman
in aelion. hc uses bolh hands. The source from which 198 is lak ~n shows short spears or javelins. These could
have ~n alt~ rnali v~ armament or laler have replaced Ihe long spear. Side·arms comprised a lapering shon sword,
up 10 60cm long, suilable for insening bet .... ·cen Ihc plalcs of an adversary's armour, (197e).
The appearance of lhc armour worn by 197 calls 10 mind medieval lilt-armour. and is clearly designed to deflect
IhruSIS. The prolection of the throa! and shoulders is particularly emphasised. The armour imposes limitalions
on manocuvrnbility, especially if the wearer was forced 10 fight dismounted. He would be well advised to follow
the innruclions attributed in the Iliad 10 warriors of the old .school, such as Nestor, and not break rank and attempt
to fight alone, but 'when a man in his own chariot cornell wilhin reach of an enemy chariOl, he should attempt
a spear thrust'.
from the mid 13th century B.C., charioteers began to appear as in 204, which probably indicates a change ofl:lcti($.
Followers may ha\'e worn special uniforms. Tablets refer to (trlain while cloaks as being 'suilable for followers'.
The lablelS also confirm lhat an Aegean warrior migh! actually bear the name Achilles or Hector. They also reveal
thai so could many of his less noble companiots!
The linear B tablets make no mention of shields in usociation with charioleers' equipment and there is nO real
evidence thai lower or figure-of-eighl shields were ever used by chariony. The use of round shields by charioteers
occurs laler on with the in!roduction of the 'roil' chariot (sec 204).
199 & 200. MINOAN AND MYCENA.EA.N LIGHT T ROOPS
A fresco from KnosS05 depiclS a line of dark·skinned troops dressed and equipped as 199. The IWO plumes suggesl
that they might be Lib~n auxiliaries from Nonh Africa. Tbe so-alled 'siege rhYlon' from M.ycenae shows 11 lown
under Inac:k. It is defended by Q few men bearing large reetangular shields and more numerous archers, slingers
and slone-throwers. These are completely naked and probably represent the local peasanl! and IOwnsmen nsisting
Ihe soldiery. One of these slingers is iIluSITaled in 200. The archer in 200 coml:S from Ihe silver ct"llter from Myctnae
mentioned under 193-195 on which archers like lhis arc shown shooling from among Ihe ranks of the spea.rmen.
He wears an elaborate boan'-tusk helmet with crest.
Archery figures quite prominently in the Iliad, wherc both sides included conringcnlS of archer specialists. This
agrm with the impression given by Aegean art that archery played an imporlanl part in warfare. In the Iliad, bows
arc made of goats' horns, one hom providing each arm of Ihe bow. Arrows wcrc originally lipped with bone or
flint, but later langed bronze types were used.
Javelins werc most probably called palarja, a term ancestral to the later patton meDning 'javelin'
199
200
195

201
202
(0 :: '
...
.
a
b
201. MYCENAEAN U GHT INFANTRYMAN AND OPPONENT
Combat betwet:n Jightly-cquippcd Achaean troops and rather barbaric opponents is the subject of a fresco at Pylos.
II is a mystery who the$( barbarians might be. b\lllbc Iliad reo>rds that the father ofPo]ypoetes, (who led a C

203
• •
•, •• . •
a
204
203. LATER MYCENAEAN WARRIOR 13TH TO 12TH CENTURY B.C.
Taken from the famous 'warrior vase' from Mycenae, this figure chtes to the darkening daY' of My~naean civilisation
around 1200 B.C. He could answer to some of the descriptions of warriors in the Iliad, with his sheet·bronze cuirass,
greaves and almost round shield (like an invened peltl, Iller characteristic of the Troad and Dardanelles region).
The markings on the: inside edge of the shield reveal how the outer layer of hide, possibly even sheel bronze. was
attach·ed. He wears a 'bell' cuirass of bronze. a type allesu:d also in central Europe. The helmet could be studded
fabric. leal her or embossed bronze. The auachment of boars' tusks or cows' horns gives an effect reminiscent of
the Sherden. The bronze greaves were possibly worn O\'er the textile t)'PC. or even over woollen socks as were later
used by the Phrygians, Urartians and Assyrians.
He marches wilh a few personal nllions tied up in a bundle and hanging from his shoTt spear. His principal side·arm
would be II long slashing sword, as shown in 20)a. This replaces the carlier narrow types and t.he design may havt
originated in cenlnll Europe.
On the vase, the armour i.s coloured black, probably representing dark bronze, and the inside of the shield is buff.
197

204 . LATER MYCENAEAN CHARIOTEERS AND HORSEMAN, c. 1250·1100 B.C.
The IYPC of chariOl shown here, known as the 'rail-chariol', appeared during the 13th century B.C. and eventually
replaced the earlier Iypcs. This illustration is based on various depictions of chariOlry on pottery, which show chariots
consisting oflinlc besides a platform and a rail. The legs of the crew arc clearly visible through the open sides.
The appc:annce of the charioteen is similar to the warrior described in 203 and similarly markedly diffcrenl from
Ihe preceding age. II was common (or one or both of the wurion to carry round shields and they were armed with
short spears or javelins.
This chariot and its crtw arc most cenainly Ihe rcsull of a major change in chariot (actics, if not military organisation
in general. h would 5«m highly probable thai Ihcsc men mighl dismount 10 fi ght more readily Ihan earlier Aegean
chariotry, and they answer well to mosl of Ihe descriptions of chariot fight ing contained in the Iliad.
These charioteen seem to be wearing linen cuirasscs which do not eXlend over their shoulden. Around their waim
the)' may be wearing bronze bellS. They wear woollen socks beneath bronze greaves, or only linen greaves. They
!u\'e simple crested helmeu. There arc drawingsof'dual'-chariots wllh three·and four·man ~drcsscd in a similar
manner to these, accompanied by standards like that in 204b.
204a is a hOl'$(man, also known from drawings on ponery. There are a few such representations daling from the
late ISlh century B.C. 10 around 1200 B.C., bUI they probably became increasingly common beyond this date.
One example shows a m:ln currying what appears to be a round shield. This figure wears a bronze helmet, a 'bell·
cuirass' and possibly greaves.
The evemual breakdown of the Aegean palace economics (and therefore the elabofllle organisation required to maintain
the chariotry) may have hastened the development of cavalry. Litency was lost and only returned centuries later
with a different scripi (derived from I'hocnicil), so the palace regulation of mililary foren probably ceased . It is
possible thai the horseman was simply a warrior not wealthy enough to possess a chariot and so uses a horse to
transport him to the b3lllefield. Alternatively, the dnmalic change in chariot tactics might be partly due to t.he
appearance of horsc:men who could fulfil the majorily of their roles more economically.
205. HARAPPAN PRINCE
The drcss of Ihis figure is taken from a fngment of sculpture which is usually regarded as represcnting a prince:
or II pricst. His dress is quite possibly purely civilian or religious in function. It is illuslflilled here to portny a
high ranking personage. The rank and file probably wore a plain white cOllon dhoti. Small domed pieces of copper
have been found which might have been fixed to II textile base as II SOrt of armour. The decoralion oftMS man's
robe mal' be a stylised imitation of animal skin or similar scwn-on obiects. A rectangular shield is possibly represented
on one Indus seal.
205
a
b
198

The metal weapons were made of copper or poor-quality bronze and arc rather weak in design. They include langed
spearheads which ne brood, leaf·shaped and flat. They would need to be insened into the shaft to provide a
stn:ngthening central rib. :\xe blades were also flat; socketed types being known. but f'~re (205b). A type of shon
sword is shown in 205a. Three ty~ of SlOne mace head existed. round, pen.shaped and mOSt commonly, lentoid.
The under-del'eloped close-rombat weapons 'tand in contrast to Ihe missile weapons. The balhed arrowheads were
alwars copper. Sling proi~ l ill.'$ came in three types; a small round or slight ly o\'al type, and tWO much hea\'ier
I)'pe.$ of baked clay \\'dghing ]75g and 750g. Some large potlery balls found at the bak: of defences could ha\'e
been hand thrown mbsiles. A) sling ammunition is associated with the defences oflown5, this may be the weapon
of the rank and file milit ia in times of emergency.
206. EGYPTIAN SIEGE DEVICE
Siege methods during the Old and Middle Kingdoms included the use ofooltering-rams and wheeled scaling-ladders
(shown in a 10mb at Saqqara and demonstrating that the wheel was known before tht Hrksos). A de\·ice depicted
in tombs of the 12th Dynasty 31 Beni·Hasan was a long·shafted weapon with. presumably,:J. hefty melal poim,
which required three men to wield. This was opcr:ued directly beneath the battlements, the crew being protected
by a large pavise. h WllS either used to prise apm the mud bricks or thc rampan or to kctp points of the wall clear
of defenders to enable assault by scaling-ladder. While the ass:lUh ",us in progress, archers suppressed the defenders
with shooting.
In the New Kingdom, d ties were assaulted through breachC':S in the walls, probubly created by rams or mining.
Elite units usually led the aS$2ult. Other methods were 10 assault the walts wilh scaling. ladders or desHoy the gates
wilh axes or fire. On one occasion an assault party was smuggled into Joppa hidden in b.1skets. Rdiefs of the siege
ofOapur in Canaan at the Ramesseum show troops approocbing the walts under co\'er of pem.houses. These were
fab ric stfetched over a wooden frame and concealed a smDll assault pany from missiles.
In later pcrioos, siege techniques became more sophisticated. The !'iye stela memions siege'lOwers, b;illering.rams
and siegc--ramps. Egyptian cities comained \':1.51 (emple enclosures which were used as fOTi resst'5 in times of emergency.
lo\emphis was captured by Piye by means of am phibious assault through the harbour.
206
207. ASSYRIAN SIEGE ENGINES
Fixed or mobile siege towers equipped with a massive iron·shod ram fi rst appear in reliefs during the reign of
Ashumasirpal. T he re is te)(t ual evidence that such de\'kcs existed in some form a few centuries before in the Near
East. These towers appear to have bet'n cOnStrocted at the siegt' sinCl: they utilise large numbers of infan u,)' shields
and sometimes chariot wheels. Two of Asburnasirpal's engines art' shown in 207a and b.
".

207
•••
b
d
200

By the reign ofTiglath-Pileser HI, the ram had developed into a lighter and more-mobile weapon, (207c-f are engines
from the reigns of Tiglath-Pileser 10 Sennacherib). The ram body could be made of three sections, front , middle
and rear, most probably of wicker, covered in leather and sometimes secured b}' two double rows of toggles (207f,
daling to Sennacherib). The front was usually taller than the rest forming a small turret with a window. The ram
was usually moved on four wheels, but some early types show six.
T he ram itself was long and thin, protruding from high up the front of the machine, ending in a large 'spearhead'.
This type of ram, known 10 the classical world as a 'drill' was inserted between the courses of the wall's brickwork
and moved from side to side, pulling out the bricks and weakening the wall.
Often twO such 'drills' are preseO! (207d and e), which together with a long hanging loop that sometimes occurs,
gives the impression that the ram was intended [0 imitate an elephant, (herds of which still existed in the wilderness
regions on the banks of the Euphrates, and were hunted by Assyrian kings). Indeed, other siege engines certainl)'
attempt [0 imitate other animals, such as 207c and another shown on the bronze gatcs of Bala""'3t, dating 10 Shalmanescr
Ill. In these cases, the 'snow' of the beast was probably shod in metal to provide a ram. These rams would be
used against [he gates.
The size of the crew and how the ram was worked is not readily apparent. One archer and :I man with a water
ladle arc shown in the 'drill' types, and perhaps four men were required to work the 'drill '. These together with
a couple of archers, an officer and a 'ladler', comprised the crew.
T he body of the 'drill' engine was about 5-Sm long and was pushed up to the wall by the crew inside, with perhaps
some outside help. The ram itself was probably some Sm in length. A text of Sennacherib refers to siege engines
as 'great wall flies', perhaps this is a reference to the rather light rams shown in 207d-f.
Rivers were crossed by means of innated animal skins, either supporting individual swimming soldiers (207g), or
joined together to support rafts. Horses were swum across, while unharnessed chariots were transported by means
of the kelek, a large round 'coracle' of hides stretched O\'er a frame.
208
208. NEW KINGDOM EGYPTIAN BAGGAGE d
In enemy territory Egyptian armies constructed marching camps surrounded by a palisade of shields. The entrances
were closed by large grid-like gates and guarded by sentries with staves. Chariots and ox-carts (208 a-c) were parked
in special areas, and the Pharaoh's large pre-fabricated tent was set up in ils own enclosure in the centre of the
camp. It included a throne dais, shrine and folding campaign furniture. 20Bd is a pack-donkey.
The soldiers pitched small, rectangular-plan, round-topped lents which probably served a small group of men.
Equipment and packs were stacked at the enlrance of the tent.
Camp followers included artisans 10 repair chariots, boys who carried OUI menial tasks for the soldiers and no doubt
numerous women. In faci some female members of Ramesses' household had to be instructed to keep clear of the
fighting by the vizier, when Ihe Amun camp was attacked at Kadesh.
201

209. ASSYRIAN CAMP AND BAGGAGE
Assyrian camps depicted in relief" are shown 10 be:: fortified. They were 0 \'31 in sh3pe wilh lowers al regular intervals.
These camps firs! appured during Ihe reign of Ashurnasirpal, when Ihey were divided imo quarters by cr05s· r o~ds.
By the time of Senn~che rib Ihere is only one road running Ihrough Ihe cenlre of the camp. It is probable that thest
camps were n01 buill every nighl, but as a secure bast for a whole campaign. The ClImp w~s probably buill of mud·
brick for the lower p~n ofJhe wall, with wooden upper·works and b~l11ements. It was possibly surrounded by a ditch.
The reliefs show the interior of the tamp laken up by twO types of tent, and baggage animals and equipment. The
ordinary soldiers' and officers' lents resemble Ihose oflhe Bedouin (modern and ~ncient), being open fronted to
altch the cool brec-zes, the side walls kepI up by guy ropes, helped by a three-branched internal support, CUt from
a nec-. This type is shown in 209a. The scene inside is shown in gre~t detail in the reliefs. Jars and pots hang from
the tent-poles, often also a double·yoke fo r ~ cart, and a donkey pannier.
Officers had proper beds and more equipment than do the 'mher-ranks', who make do with mattrnses. only. In
both ClIse5 each native Assyrian is shown with one or more attendants (grooms, kitchen servants), who, in the case
of 'other ranks' at least, would be a soldie r of a lower grade (an auxiliary or levy archer).
The king's tent is different from the olhers. It is mostly hidden by a canyas screen around ii, but the visible top
shows [I 10 have had an open stction in Ihe roof for lighl (209b).
209
c
202

It is possible ttJ.at one tent was provided for each live-or ten·man section in the Royal Army, the lower status levies
having to make-do without.
The tentS and equipment were carried on the backs of mules, donkeys and camels, attended by dril'ers (209c). The
bulkiest items were loaded OntO cans.
210
210. ASSYRIAN SACRED CHARIOT
Like many Near·Eastern arm ies, the Assyrians carried images of their gods into battle in the form of military standards.
These pro\·ided a rallying point and source of encouragement for the noops, and the practice is attested for the
Mitanni, Kassites, Egyptian s, HinittS, Sumerians and Akkadians as well lIS Assyrians. It was also common practice
to mount such standards in chariOI5 of their own and use them to lead sections of the army on the march. The
Assyrians regarded their chid god, Ashur, lIS a prolttlor oflheir army and the state, and belie:ved Ihaltheir military
conquests were carried OUt according to his will. The Mitanni and H ittites thought in a similar manner and also
regarded wa r between opposing counnies lIS a kind of lawsuit, in which the gods were the judges. This chariot
is one of a pair of religious chariots depicted in a relief dating 10 the reign of5f:nnacherib. It is shown unharnessed
in the camp. attended by priests. The dix mounted upon the pole bore the image of the god. Only the rare and
valuable white horses were considered suitable for the se:rvice: of the gods. Assyrian texIS sometimes mention a great
number of gods accompanying the army including; Ashur, Sin, Shamash, Adad, Bel, Nabu,lshtar of Nineveh, Queen
of Kidmuki, Ishtar of Arbela, Ninuna, Urgal and Nusku. Perhaps these refer to unit standards lIS well, or standards
accompanying wings and larger formations within the army. Armies .... 'efC olien accompanied by priests who considered
the omens before campaigns and battles were commenced.
SELECT BmLlOGRAPHY
The following works are some of the most useful for study of the warfare of the ancient Near East. Howe\·er it
is far from exhaustive and readers who wish to pursue the subjttl funher are advised to consult lhe bibliographies
of these works also.
ADAMS, W. Y. Nllbia, Corridor ro Afrim . 1977.
ANDERSON, J. K. Ancitnl Grllk Horu manslrip. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1961.
ANDRAE, W. CDlouud Cuamit:s f rom A slrur and Earlitr Ancirnt A ssyrian ]flail· Paintings. London, 1925.
Alugrabllngtn in StndSt:lrirll: V. Djt Kltinfllndt W II Stndst:lrirli. Berlin, 1943.
HAINES, J. and ,\1ALEK, J. Atlas of Anotnt Egypt. Oxford, 1980.
BARNETT, R. D. and FORMAN, W. Auyrjan Palau Relit/! alld Tnl'ir injlutnCl' on tlrt ScJllpturtl of Babylollia
IJnd PtrJia. PI1Igue, 1959.
203

BARNETI, R. D. and FAULKNER, M. The SculptllrtJ of Tiglarh·Pileser Ill. London, 1962.
BARNETI, R. D. North Syrian and Related Harness Decoration, Vordero{lsiatische Arcllaologie. Festschrift A.
Moortgat (ed. BITIEL K., el al). Berlin p. 21·6.
A Catalogue of the Nimrud Ivoriu, with other examples of Ancient Ncar Eastern Ivories in the British Museum.
2nd cd. London, 1975.
Sculptures from the Nor/h Palau of Ashurbanipal at Nillnith. London, 1976.
BIETAK, M. Avaris alld Piramesse, Archaeological Exploration ill the East"" Nile Delta. Oxford, 1979.
BLEGEN et al. The Palau of Nmor at Pylas /·/11. 1973.
BOEHMER, R. Die Klein/umle WII Bogazko;rHattusna. Wisscnschafiliche Veroffendichlungen der deutschen Orient·
Gescllschaft 87. Berlin, 1972.
BOTIA, P. E. and FLANDIN, M. E. MonlimentS de Nim.'wh: decouvert et decrit par M.P.E. Botta; mesure et
dessine par M. E. F1andin. 5 Vo1s. Paris, 1849·50.
BREASTED, 1. H. The Baule of Kaderh. Univ. of Chicago Decennial Publications 5,1903.
Ancient Records of Egypt I-IV. Chicago, 1906.
BRINKMAN, j. A. A Political History of Post·Kassite Babylonia. An. Or. 43.
BUDGE, E. A. W. Assyrian Seulplum in the British Museum: Reig" of Ashur,"asir.pal, 885·860 B.e. London, [914.
BUREN, E. D. van. Symboh of rhe gods in Mesopofamian aTi. Rome, 1945.
BURNE, A. H. Some Notes on the Battle of Kadesh. JouTllal of EgyplJan Archaeology 7, 1921.
CANBY, 1. V. Decorated Garments in Ashurnasirpal's Sculpture. Iraq 33(1) 1971 , pp. 3 1·53.
CARTER, H. and MACE, A. C. The tomb of Tuto{lllkho{lmen 1. London, 1923.
CARTER, H. Thr lomb of Tut~nkh~men II. London, 1927.
CHAMPOLLION. MOllumentt de l'Egypu et de la Nubie Ill. Paris, 1829.
CURTIS, 1. E. An examinatioll of Late Asryrian mtfolwork with special refi'TrnCi' 10 maurialfrom Nimrod. Unpublished
Thesis, Univ. of London, 1979.
CURTO, S. The Military Art of the Allciellt Egyptians.
DALTON, O. M. The Treasure of the OXIIS. 3rd ed. London, 1964.
DARESSY, M. G. Fouilla de 10 oollee des rois, 1898-99. Cairo, 1902.
DAVIES, N. de G. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna i·vi. London, 19{)3-o8.
The Rock Tombs of Deir el Gebrawi i·ii. London, 1902.
DAVIES, N. de G. The Tomb of Ken·Amun a/ Thebes, two parts. New York, 1930.
DAVIES, T. M. The Tomb of louiya and Touiyou. London, 1907.
DAVIES, W. V. The Origin of the Blue Crown. Journal of Egypllall Archaeology 68, 1982.
DESBOROUGH, V. R. d'A. The Lan Mycenaeans and fheir Sua:;mors 1200-1000 Be. Oxford, 1964.
DUNHAM, D. The Royal Cemeteries of Kush: EI Kurru. Cambridge (Mass.), 1950.
DYSON, R. H., Jr. The Architecture of Hasanlu; Periods I to IV, American Journal of Archaeology. 81, 1977 pp.
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207

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