shield. 166 is a cavalryman. His horse is decor-ned with a ... - Wikia
shield. 166 is a cavalryman. His horse is decor-ned with a ... - Wikia
shield. 166 is a cavalryman. His horse is decor-ned with a ... - Wikia
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162<br />
164<br />
163<br />
165 & <strong>166</strong> . MANNAEAN WARRIO RS<br />
The Mannal inhubilcd the Iranian highlands directly 10 the east of Assyria, and many Assyrian campaigns \l,rere<br />
dircCI!:d into Ih<strong>is</strong> region. These illustrations an: based on drawings on pomry dating 10 Ihe 10th «nlUI')' B.C. Ind<br />
Ihe archaeological finds from Hasanlu, dliling 10 the end of the 9th century B.C. hory pands carved <strong>with</strong><br />
reprcscmations of troops from H asanlu arc panicuiarly informative as 10 miliulry developments in North-Wesl Iran<br />
31 th<strong>is</strong> lime:. Figure 165 <strong>is</strong> a spcannan wearing some: son of textile body armour and c.arrying a painted wicker<br />
<strong>shield</strong>. <strong>166</strong> <strong>is</strong> a <strong>cavalryman</strong>. H<strong>is</strong> <strong>horse</strong> <strong>is</strong> <strong>decor</strong>-<strong>ned</strong> <strong>with</strong> a bead-colJar necklace: <strong>with</strong> 11 bell anached 10 ii, and a pfOlectivt<br />
melal from lei. <strong>166</strong>a shows 1110'0 types ofhdmcl which could have betn worn by wealthier troops, and may be romparcd<br />
<strong>with</strong> Uranian designs. Figure: 1 65~ <strong>is</strong> ~n infantryman from the Hasanlu ivories. The diSlincth'c headgear worn by<br />
troops from th<strong>is</strong> sourer <strong>is</strong> perhaps a 'crown' of roldw textile, held on by a chinsuap, <strong>with</strong> I studded neck.guard.<br />
It <strong>is</strong> somewhat remin<strong>is</strong>cent of the laler Persian 'tiara'. Metal, Assyrian-ltyle helmets, sometimes <strong>with</strong> separate earnaps<br />
we re also worn. Spears had socketed iron or bronze heads and side-urns cons<strong>is</strong>ted of swords , mam and small<br />
axes. The small round <strong>shield</strong>, which appears to have been convex <strong>with</strong> a wide rim, was probably made of leather<br />
or wood as no examples have survived. These <strong>shield</strong>s arc also shown on the ivories being used by the enemy troops,<br />
who are otherw<strong>is</strong>e completely naked.<br />
Archers depicted on the Huanlu ivories show more variation in appeal1lnee. Some have curly hair while OIhers<br />
have straight hair. Some wear turbans, and othert wear studded fillets. "I.ost appear to be dressed in the same type<br />
of tunic as 165a. 1l\ey arc olien shown shooting from a knteling posi!ion. Bronze quivert Ind bronze or iron arrowheads<br />
were used.<br />
Ca\'1lry on the ivories appear like <strong>166</strong>, but wear tunics and helmets like 165a. The ivories also pro\·ide evidence<br />
ofchariotry, which were crewed by two men and drawn by twO <strong>horse</strong>s. Crews and chariot cabs arc not completely<br />
preserved. but the cab has a box-like profile, wider a( the top than the bottom. The wheels have sll: spokes and<br />
the axle <strong>is</strong> fixed beneath the centre or the C1IIb. A knob 8t the rear may be a <strong>shield</strong> boS5 or Structural, and crossed<br />
quivers mounted on the side of the cab arc shown on a metal plaque. The chariot crew cons<strong>is</strong>ted of an archer and<br />
II driver. The chariot <strong>horse</strong>s reKmble that in <strong>166</strong>, but wear feathered crcsts.<br />
177
Th~ tlOOPS occur in battlc: scenes which show groups of chariotry, a .... alry and ar t"he rs operating together, and<br />
in one case tWO ranks of three cavalry operating in line.<br />
<strong>166</strong><br />
167. IRANIAN WARRIOR 8TH CENTURY B.C.<br />
Warriors and dignilaries wearing th<strong>is</strong> slyle of dress in Assyrian reliefs represent peoples of the Zagros Mounlains<br />
and Nonh·West Iran, such as the Madai (Medes), Mannai, and warriors from regions luch as Zikinu, Zamua, Na'iri<br />
and Shupria. The <strong>shield</strong> <strong>is</strong> shown being used by the defenders of the city ofPuashi. It was probably made of reeds<br />
inse<strong>ned</strong> through strips of coloured leather, in such a way that each reed passed through the strip twice, so that<br />
the s!rip would form a panel on the face of the <strong>shield</strong>. He uses an animal skin cloak, which <strong>is</strong> shaped 10 faslen<br />
over one shoulder lind hn a hole for one arm, to give some protection to h<strong>is</strong> un<strong>shield</strong>ed side. It would be a useful<br />
garment generally in these cold regions, (c.f. 73).<br />
168. IRANIAN INFANTRYMAN, 6TH CENTURY B.C.<br />
Th<strong>is</strong> figure <strong>is</strong> included in order to show the element of continuity of Assyrian and Babylonian practice into the<br />
early Persian period. Although largely outside the time limit of th<strong>is</strong> book, the Archaemenid Empire represents the<br />
last greal Near·Easlern military system, and hn more in common wilh its Near·Eastern and cullurally relaled<br />
predecessors than Iny later age. Also, before her r<strong>is</strong>e to power, Parsumash or Parsuash, as the small Inn ian region<br />
was known, was in conlact <strong>with</strong> Assyria and Babylon, and for a time, tributary 10 AHyria .<br />
Parsumash began her r<strong>is</strong>e to empire, probably <strong>with</strong> the take-over of Anshan from the Elamites in the early 7th<br />
century B.C. The Medel and Elamites were absorbed in the early 6th century B.C. Th<strong>is</strong> was achieved under King<br />
Ku rash (Cyrus I). The Babylonians referred 10 Ihe Persian trOOpS by a archaic term for the peoples of Ih<strong>is</strong> part<br />
of Inn, calling them '<strong>shield</strong> ·bearing Gudans'.<br />
178
168<br />
Tht headclOlh, tunic and d~gger are d<strong>is</strong>lincli~ items of Persian dress. but he wears A»yrian'slyle socks on h<strong>is</strong><br />
legs I1Ither than trousers. He carries a large: rectangular ~ed <strong>shield</strong>. II <strong>is</strong> interesting to notc that combinations of<br />
spear and bow, and <strong>shield</strong> and bow, wc:re: already being experimented <strong>with</strong> by the Babylonians al the time orlhe<br />
Penian conquest, possibly influencing Persian p~i~. The: basic Achacmc:nid unit was the khafro (I lima! Median<br />
translation of k<strong>is</strong>",) commanded on Babylonian lines by shaJtnu. With the conquest of the East by AIC:llandcr, a<br />
complete cycle: of military development comes to a close, to be replaced by another.<br />
169, 170 & 171. NEO·HITTITE CHARIOTRY 9TH TO 8TH CENTURY B.C.<br />
There ate many represc:nt3lions orNeo- H inill~ chariOl$; sour~ including reliefs from the sites of Care hem <strong>is</strong>h, Aulatya.<br />
Sakje-gozu, Tayanat, Te-ll·H alaf and Zinjirli, and the- ivory plaques of Syrian workmanship from Nimrud (which<br />
deconued furniture brought as tribute from Neo-Hinite ci lies). These represemations dale!O the 9th and 8m cmturies<br />
B.C. The-re- are many poims of similarity <strong>with</strong> Assyrian churiots, and the Assyrians may have- been infiue-nce-d by<br />
some a5ptC1.s of Neo-Hinite chariot design.<br />
Neo-Hinite- charion exhibit some changes during the 9th and 8th centuries B.C. The axle- was mO\'ed from beneath<br />
the cemrc of the- cab to the rear. The number of spokes in the wheel was increased from six 10 eight (although<br />
the- six·spoked type continued in use). The- cab was originally curved at the- front and changes to a de-e-pc:r, and<br />
perhaps rCClangulur, shape. T he number of cre-w increased from twO to four, as demonstrated in a representation<br />
of 11 veT)' heavy Ch3riOt on an ivory from Nimrod (170 and 171). It <strong>is</strong> also probable thatlhe number of <strong>horse</strong>s increased<br />
from tWO 10 four 10 enable the increaSC' in weight and number of crew. Like- many Assyrian re-presenlations, Nco<br />
Hinite an<strong>is</strong>ts did not ancmpt to show four <strong>horse</strong>s, usually making do <strong>with</strong> only one, (an an<strong>is</strong>lic convenience which<br />
the authors IhemSC'lves have found useful!). A captured chariot from Lach<strong>is</strong>h, shown in an Assyrian relief, has a<br />
yoke- for four <strong>horse</strong>s and th<strong>is</strong> number we-re- in use in Egypt and Cyprus by the 7th century. Funhcrmore, some<br />
Neo-Hinill~ reliefs show the <strong>horse</strong> <strong>with</strong>out a yoke saddle and <strong>with</strong> a pendant on the outer rein, chal1lctef<strong>is</strong>tic of<br />
the outside <strong>horse</strong>s of a four-<strong>horse</strong>d chariot which were harnessed in a different manner to the inne-r pair. until a<br />
new type of yoke wu inv('nt('d in Assyria in Ihe- 8th c('ntury B.C. Th(' horus and crew of the 81h century Neo<br />
Hinil(, chariots are oft('n shown wuring consid('rabl(' amounts of seal(' armour, but th<strong>is</strong> was protnbly also available<br />
earlier. Crossed quive-rs on the sides, ellipliall supponing rod for the yoke·pole and the <strong>shield</strong> hung al the rear<br />
of Ihe cab. remai<strong>ned</strong> character<strong>is</strong>tic of the Nco-H ittite chariot throughout Ih(' period.<br />
The cab of 169 <strong>is</strong> based on I rdief from Carchem<strong>is</strong>h. It <strong>is</strong> probably covered wilh low bronze bosses, unless th<strong>is</strong><br />
<strong>is</strong> a convention for a scale cover. long known in the Near Easl. later Assyrian chariots also being co\'ered in bronze<br />
plales. The scale armour for the hone has the scales arl1lnged in a different direction on the neck to enable movement.<br />
An Assyrian text m('ntions an iron sariam for a <strong>horse</strong>, captured from a Nco-Hillile kingdom. The chariot in 170<br />
<strong>is</strong> cJelIrly me origin orlhe Egyptian design shown in 40, and a similar hand.grip <strong>is</strong> present in the relief from Sakjegozu.<br />
A fabric panel was hung from the supporting pole, possibly 10 balance the hull)' chariot cab.<br />
119
The ' .... ,o-man ere ..... ' compr<strong>is</strong>ed an archer and a driver. The armoured charioleers ""ould resemble figures liS and<br />
120, ..... hile unarmoured chariol crew ..... ould resemble 172. A fouT-man crew, consiSlcd of an unarmoured driver,<br />
an n eher, a spenman, and anOlher soldier, possibly a <strong>shield</strong>-bearer or anOlher spearman. 171 <strong>is</strong> based on the ere .....<br />
in the Nimrud ivory plaque, butlhe Ur:lTIian-style helmtl <strong>is</strong> taken from a relief from Zinjirli. The crew arc wtll<br />
armoured. The spearman ..... ears a shon, scale corsltl wilh what may be pteruges, but the shape suggcsls a row of<br />
large scales like that shown in 4h. The scene makes it quite clear how the spear was mcantto be used. Its size<br />
and the knob al the e:nd suggest Ihot it <strong>is</strong> more than JUSt a javelin. It would be: useful to fend orr cavalry or infamry<br />
..... ho ..... e:re: attacking the vulnerable reu of the chariot, in the same way as reliefs sho"" it being used against lions<br />
in hunting see:ne:s.<br />
Nco-Hinite fdids are more than 400 years later than the Hinitc Empire, and do not constitute valid evidence: for<br />
the appearance of chariOlS and troop! of that lime:. They cxhibilthe influence of Assyria and Uranu, nOI pre5CnI<br />
in the earlier period.<br />
180
171<br />
172. NEO·HITTITE GUARDSMAN AND OFFI CER 9TH CENTURY B .C.<br />
These figures are based on reliefs from the royal palace at Carchcm<strong>is</strong>h. These depict a file of soldiers equipped<br />
as l72a, and officers or nobles like J 72b. These were probably 11 unit of elite royal guards. Further evidence for<br />
such troops could be the 3000 infanlTY of Plairi ofCarchcm<strong>is</strong>h, recruited into the army of Sargon II following the<br />
rebellion of Carchcm<strong>is</strong>h. He also recruited 50 chariots and 200 cavalry, probabl}' also elite troops. Figure i 72a wears<br />
a d<strong>is</strong>tinctive variant of the Nco-Hittite or Uranian type of helmet, which hilS IWO short 'horns' mounted lit the<br />
from. T hey aTC probably low, bronze boSKS. Both troops ClIrry large, flat or slightly com'ex round <strong>shield</strong>s, slung<br />
on their backs by leather straps. The faces of these <strong>shield</strong>s may have bun cO\'ercd in sheet bronze, possibly <strong>with</strong><br />
embossed <strong>decor</strong>ation, as in Uranu, and may also have had bosses in the form oflions' he3ds, as sho~'ll f!Xed to<br />
the back of chariots (169, 170). 172a wears traditional Hinitc-style boots. Weaponry compr<strong>is</strong>ed thrusting-spea,.,<br />
and straight swords.<br />
172<br />
a<br />
b<br />
181
173 & 174. ARAMAEAN AND NEO-HITTITE CAVALRY 9TH CENTURY B.C.<br />
The use of cavalry by Neo-Hiuile and Aramaean slales <strong>is</strong> attC'Sled by numerous references in Assy rian records and<br />
reliefs depicting cavalrymen from Zinjirli and Tell-Halaf. A representation from Tell-Halaf <strong>is</strong> Ihe bas<strong>is</strong> for figure<br />
174, and shows Ihat cavalry were using <strong>shield</strong>s, as they were also in Urartu and for a short lime in Assyria. 173<br />
shows a mounted archer. T hc l<strong>is</strong>l of for cC'S al the battle of Karkar includes equal numbers of cavalry 10 chariotry<br />
in Ihe forces of Hamalh and Damascus, and th<strong>is</strong> mighl suggesl some connection between <strong>horse</strong>men and chariol<br />
crews in the mil ilary organ<strong>is</strong>alion. T actically, they were probably required 10 operate <strong>with</strong> the chariotry, :as were<br />
Assyrian cavalry. The position of the <strong>shield</strong> in the Tell-H:alafreliefindicatcs that it was either strapped to the arm<br />
to allow the hand to control the reins, or possibly slung on the back. The <strong>shield</strong> had a ce-ntral boss, and Ihe <strong>horse</strong>man<br />
completes h<strong>is</strong> equipment <strong>with</strong> a helmet and shon spea r.<br />
175. ARAMAEAN INFANTRYMAN, 10TH TO 8TH CENTURY B.C.<br />
The majority of the infantry levied by the Aramaean and Nco-Hittite states were lightly equipped. Th<strong>is</strong> figure <strong>is</strong><br />
a spearman, but archers and slingers were dressed almost identically, though lacking <strong>shield</strong>s and wearing their hair<br />
as shown in 175a. Weapons were now made of iron, shidds were prob:lbly of leluher and clothing was made of<br />
woollen cloth, <strong>with</strong> simple <strong>decor</strong>ative borden and fri nges.<br />
176. ARAMAEAN CAMELRY 9TH TO STH CENTURY B.C.<br />
Representations of camel· riders are known from Zinjirli, Tell-Halafand Carchcm<strong>is</strong>h. T hey are sometimes shown<br />
armed <strong>with</strong> a bow, so may have been used in a military role if only to prOleCt caravans. Camelry were prob:lbly<br />
introduced by the Aramaeans, but were also found in Neo· Hittite slates. Al lhe battle of Karkar, 1000 camel·riders<br />
of an allied Arabian tribe were presem, fighting 310ngside tht NCO-Hittite and Aram2ean comingems. The twO ClImel·<br />
riders illustrated in 176 show the \'lilriatioo in appearance-. Two t)'PCs of saddle were used, one apparently a rectangular<br />
'cushion' or pad of cloth, the other a 50rt of saddle-doth and harness, which had straps for the rider 10 grip <strong>with</strong> h<strong>is</strong> feet.<br />
177,178 & 179. NEO-HITTITE TROOPS, STH CENTURY B.C.<br />
These soldiers arc derived from reliefs at Karatepe, and so may re present the forces of the sme of Que. One of<br />
the most interesting fea tures of equipment <strong>is</strong> Ihe helmel worn by 178. who <strong>is</strong> presumably a guardsman, or elile<br />
infanuyman. Th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> very similar 10 the helmet worn by 172a, exce-pt that the crest has become larger. T h<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> the<br />
ultimate development of lhe Uranian style of crested helmet and gives th<strong>is</strong> soldier an almost 'hoplile' appearance,<br />
although Nco-Hillite representations pre-dale Ihe introduction of the hoplite panoply in Greece. In fa ctlhe Greeks<br />
may have been influenced by items of Neo-Hittile and Ura rtian manufacture as the Argos panoply would indicate.<br />
The cavalry are shown un<strong>shield</strong>ed bUI using a Ihrusting-spear in an underarm manner, contrary to contemporary<br />
Assyrillfl practice. The archer <strong>is</strong> equipped <strong>with</strong> a narrow bronze belt, as would be used by many Nco-Hittite troops.<br />
He wears one of the many different types of , turban' by which the various Aramaean tribes and North Syrian peoples<br />
may be d<strong>is</strong>tingu<strong>is</strong>hed.<br />
174<br />
173<br />
182
176<br />
((<br />
175<br />
r<br />
17~7====~~~~~~========~~<br />
178<br />
179<br />
18J
ISO.<br />
ARAMAEAN AND NEO-HlTTrTE HEADGEAR<br />
By examination of foreign tribute-bearers in Assyrian sourCC$ and comparing them to representations from the various<br />
Slates of Northern Syria, Anatolia and the Levant, it <strong>is</strong> possible to establ<strong>is</strong>h their d<strong>is</strong>tinctive styles of headgear.<br />
Judean styles ofwntpping a long, scarf·like headcloth are shown in ISOa . 180b shows ",arianl forms of Phoenician<br />
'turban'. 180c was worn in Tyre. The cap shown in 1SOd <strong>is</strong> depicted being worn by Jehu of <strong>is</strong>rael on the 'black<br />
obd<strong>is</strong>k' orShalmaneKr III, and was also worn in Damucu5, Kallina, Unqi, and Bit-Adini. l8Oc, which ends in<br />
a tusel, was worn in Hamath. 180f<strong>is</strong> another fashion from Unqi. The headgear in lSOg ""'2S worn in Carchem<strong>is</strong>h,<br />
and 1SOh <strong>is</strong> further headgear from Que and Sam'al. The hat on the right, was fon<strong>ned</strong> by tying·up the cheekpieces<br />
on top of the head. ISOi shows twO heads belonging to Mushki. The plaited forelocks on the righi-hand head are<br />
allowed to hang over the front of the fillet.<br />
a c d<br />
e f g h<br />
180<br />
181. JUDEAN SOLDIER 8TH TO 7TH CENTURY B.C.<br />
Th<strong>is</strong> figure <strong>is</strong> taken from the Assyrian reliefs showing the. sack of Lach<strong>is</strong>h by Scnnacherib in 701 B.C. Th<strong>is</strong> represents<br />
the equipment ora typical Judean soldier, and exhibits marked AS$)"Tian influence, panicularly in the helmet and<br />
<strong>shield</strong>. Scnnacherib conscripted many Judeans inlo the kilir Jharruli (royal army). In th<strong>is</strong> corps they appear wearing<br />
Assyrian <strong>is</strong>sue boots, socks and <strong>shield</strong> but retaining nalive tunic and headdress. Th<strong>is</strong> huddress, a son of wrap'<br />
around scarf shown in ISla, could be worn instead of, or beneath a helmet.<br />
181<br />
182<br />
184
182 & 183. A.R A.BlAN DESERT NOMA.DS<br />
I<br />
~ included the Midianitcs,. Amalc:k.iu:s and the later Allib tribes of the hamme, Nabaita~ , KJdnaya and Atarunwn<br />
\\'hich fought the Assynans. The camellirlt IPpears as a mount for warriors II the beginning of the 151 mllienmum<br />
B.C. Before the 7th century It was probably more usual 10 lind a smgle nder, since Auynan repreknllilons of<br />
Arabs riding tWO 10 a amel may well be: an mdlCalion of the succeu of dl(: Assymnl' campaign of allnuon. ThlJ<br />
in\'OI\"Cd po<strong>is</strong>oning of well. and garr<strong>is</strong>oning of oun. forcing lhe nomads 10 .lauGhler their camds and n 'en to dnnk<br />
their blood.<br />
Tribes were headed either by kinp, or surpmingly, queen5, as IIluSlnalCd in 182. Organiuuon would be: ~Kd<br />
on dan. Ind In army would limply compr<strong>is</strong>e: a muster of a11lribesmen acknowledging the authonlY of I panKUlar<br />
leader.<br />
\V'hen raiding, mobility and speed would rcqutrC all'lo'afTiors 10 be: mounled, as tbey could always diimounl ifrcquiml..<br />
The main armament was the bow. Standmi Ixtia cons<strong>is</strong>ted ofhit·.oo.run raids in search of easy plundc:r and CJpthu.<br />
183<br />
184, 185, 186 & 181. URART IAN WARRIORS<br />
Uranu .... u rich In melal5, and beame 1 cenlre for the manufacture of arm •. The inOuence of UrAnian drsigns<br />
can be: uxcd over a wide arel, utending beyond the conlinel oflhe Near East, II lellSt as far lIS Grrett. Items<br />
of Unruan manufacture were not only spread by trade. but no doubl: also among the booty of the Cimmerians<br />
and Scythians, and lhe tribute nK'!ed by Auyria. Bronze was used extensively, not only for weapoos, scale corslel5,<br />
helmets, <strong>shield</strong>s, chariot finlngs and <strong>horse</strong>: Ifllppinl', bul also bellS and quivers. Iron "''IS a cheap alternative to<br />
bronu, uxd for ffiO$I tools and weapons and also 10 some exteot, for armour. The amount of mel:!l rquipmenl<br />
available to dlt Urand.QS II uldicatcd by the quantitiel of tribule recorded in inscriptions. and archxologial evidence<br />
from excavated cit.dels conllming arsenals. Sarduri II of Uranu once received a .. ribute of 2000 coppcr <strong>shield</strong>s<br />
from Kushtuhpi ofKummuhu, Ind when Sargon U sacked Musasir, brontA: crests, scale corslet., hclmelland O\'er<br />
25,000 copper dlirlds were limon, the booty. Howevt-r many items mlly hlI\~ been votive ofTerings, unsuitable for<br />
USC: in blttle.<br />
185
These illustrations are based on represtnl:ltions of Uranian uoops in Assyrian reliefs, and on Uranian embossed<br />
bronu belts, quivers and armour as ..... ell as extensive an:h.aeoJogical evidence.<br />
Figure 184 shows an Unnian spearman of the mid 9th. century B.C. He wears a crested helmet of which there<br />
..... ere many varian IS. 1843 shows a type: "lith a purely metal em!. A type depie1C::d on the 'bronze gates of Bala ..... at'<br />
daling 10 Ihe reign ofShalmanestr II of Assyria, sho....., a helmet <strong>with</strong> a crest running directly over Ihe crown, a<br />
type Huested in other sources and by surviving examples. It <strong>is</strong> remin<strong>is</strong>cent of descriptions of the Karian helmet<br />
and possibly anctstrallo it, ultimately influencing Greek designs. Around h<strong>is</strong> wa<strong>is</strong>t, over h<strong>is</strong> shorl fringed tunic,<br />
he wears a bronze bell, which could pro\'ide limited protection for the abdomen.<br />
The Uranian chariot shown in 185 wu similar 10 contemporary Assyrian types in general design, bUllighter, being<br />
cre ..... ed by t ..... o men and drawn by twO <strong>horse</strong>s. The chariot and harness feature filIny bronze fillings, such as the<br />
bosses <strong>decor</strong>-lling the cab, the bells around the <strong>horse</strong>s' necks and the frontlets ( 185a) protecting their foreheads.<br />
Heads of animals, such :as <strong>horse</strong>s, could be mounted at the end of the draughl pole. Armament compr<strong>is</strong>es the bow<br />
and spear. the Jailer fixed althe rear orlhe c-ab. Chniotry ..... eR probllbly provided by Ihc nobility and high offidals,<br />
Uranian engraved seals depict the king in h<strong>is</strong> chariot accompanied by an umbrella·bearer, and a variant rype of<br />
chariot ..... ith large looped hand·grips attached to the cab. The profile of th<strong>is</strong> variant Cllb shows that its upper edge<br />
curves do ..... n at the sides and up at the front, and the wheels have eight Clltved spokes which are rather bulbous<br />
at the base.<br />
Figure 186 shows an Urartian <strong>cavalryman</strong>, the cream of the Uf1lrtian army. He <strong>is</strong> equipped wilh spear and <strong>shield</strong>.<br />
Horse·archers probably also ex<strong>is</strong>ted and Cimmerian mercenaries were probably employed, who would no doubt<br />
make extensive use of Urarrian equipmenl.<br />
187 <strong>is</strong> an Uran;mn noble or omen . Both he and 186 wear boou and leggings and 3 shon tunic, over which 187<br />
wears a long, fringed kilt. Both are equipped <strong>with</strong> convex, embossed·bronu <strong>shield</strong>s, probably backed by wood or<br />
leather. D«oration cons<strong>is</strong>ted of concentric rows of animals (187a shows a profile view). Sbields <strong>with</strong> bosses in the<br />
form of the heads of dogs, lions, griffins and bulls were also used.<br />
186, 187 and the crew in 185 are wearing scale or lamell-ar corslets. Scales were usuaUy bronze, measuring Scm<br />
long and 2cm wide, <strong>with</strong> rounded boHoms. They were assembled <strong>with</strong> Ihe lacing exposed. These figures are aU<br />
equipped wilh Ihe conicallype of helmet, ..... hich could be of bronze or iron, <strong>decor</strong>ated <strong>with</strong> styl<strong>is</strong>ed thunder or<br />
antler symbols, or rows of serpents. They also wear VlIriant types of bronze bell, which were often highly-<strong>decor</strong>ated<br />
<strong>with</strong> embossed motifs.<br />
Archers were similar in appearance to 184. Bronu quivers found in Unnian Drsena\s contai<strong>ned</strong> betwee:n 354 0<br />
arrows. There were tWO main types of arrowhead, mOSI ofwbich were iron. The mltive type was fiat and spade·<br />
shaped, <strong>with</strong> two barbs, while the d<strong>is</strong>tincth'C, barbed, Scythian types were also available. Surviving bronze quh'ers<br />
are tubular in shape, tWO examples measuring 70 and 90cm in length and IOcm in width. Quivers could also be<br />
part bronze and pan leather. Figure l86a shows a bronze quiver.<br />
a<br />
•<br />
184<br />
186
Uranian wall-paintings depict garments coloured red and white, <strong>with</strong> red or white borders. Chequercd and strip«!<br />
patterns were used. Other colours appearing in paintings, which could have been available for clothing, compr<strong>is</strong>e<br />
dark·blue, light-blue, bbck and redd<strong>is</strong>h-brown_<br />
185<br />
a<br />
a<br />
187<br />
187
188. CIMMERIAN HORSEMAN 8T H·7TH CENTURY B.C.<br />
The Cimmerians, or Gimirraya, were forced from their homelands in southern Russia and across the Caucasus by<br />
their dose relations, the Scythians or Ishkula)'a. In terms of dress and appc:ar.mce thtse two tribes of nomadic horsc~n<br />
appear virtually identical. Indeed, the Babylonian! of the 6th century B.C. knew what we call the 'Scythian' bow<br />
as the 'Cimmerian' bow, and describc
189 & 190. PHRYGIANS AND L YDlANS 11TH TO 6TH CENTURIES<br />
Th~ illustrations are baxd on representations on poltery, temOOlti plaques and &.syrian SOUfte5. 189a <strong>is</strong> a Phrygian,<br />
or Mushki, as they were known in Auyria. A representation oran Anatolian em<strong>is</strong>sary in the Assyrian Til·Barsip<br />
paintings depicts a style or dress Ih:1t bears compar<strong>is</strong>on <strong>with</strong> figures on the plaques rrom Paurli. Tunics <strong>decor</strong>ated<br />
<strong>with</strong> broad coloured or embroidered bancb were worn. So were A 5sy ri~n·style socks <strong>decor</strong>ated in the same way.<br />
The Phrygians were noted ror Iheir skill in Ih<strong>is</strong> kind or <strong>decor</strong>ation, The Pazarli plaques show what may be greaves<br />
WOrn over the socks, while the Til·Barsip painting shows boots. Th<strong>is</strong> figure wears the typiCliI type: or boot worn<br />
by many mountain peoples at th<strong>is</strong> time and which was adopted in Assyria. Armamenl compr<strong>is</strong>es a shon spear and<br />
highly-decoTated small round <strong>shield</strong>. 189b <strong>is</strong> an archer carrying what appears 10 be a bow c:lSe on h<strong>is</strong> back. The<br />
helmet shown in the Paurli plaque <strong>is</strong> often considered 10 be or Greek type, but it could equally well be de rived<br />
rrom Unrlian or Nco-Hittite designs, which <strong>is</strong> perhaps more likely (c.c. 137, 178 and 184). Clothing colours included<br />
red, black and blue on white.<br />
190<br />
a<br />
Lydian ClII'alry are shown in 190 and 1903, Lydian or Karian inrantry would be like the mercenary iIIus1r.lted in<br />
47. These <strong>horse</strong>men are light cavalry. Heavy cavllry would be equipped as 47 but bare.legged. Again, embroidered<br />
bands and brightly coloured clothing arc features orthese tcoopt. The <strong>horse</strong> in 190 appears to have a brand. According<br />
to Het(xlotus, Lydian cavalry were armed <strong>with</strong> long spears and were the most imporlant pari of the Lydian roren.<br />
They also seem to have been good and tenacious fighters. Lydian cavalry do not ap~ar to have used the <strong>shield</strong>.<br />
191 & 192. CYPRIOT WARRIORS 7TH CENTURY B.C.<br />
These illustrations arc based on d<strong>is</strong>coveries rrom the tombs of Salam<strong>is</strong>, pottery figurines or warriors, Ind chariotS<br />
and representations on embossed metal bowls.<br />
Cypriot chariOtS generally followed Near·Eastern designs. Th<strong>is</strong> chariO! <strong>is</strong> one of the latest lypeS, daling 10 the 7th<br />
anlUry B.C. Earlier types would closely rnc:mble 9th century Nco-Hittite and A5S y ri~n \'ehic\es. From the 81h<br />
century B.C. Assyrian influwce beame stronger, following the conquest oflhe Phoemcian statts, (for yet euli~r<br />
chariots refer to 115). Th<strong>is</strong> chariot <strong>is</strong> baxd on actual examples aca\lllted at Salam<strong>is</strong> on CYPIl15. The cab <strong>is</strong> constructed<br />
of leather over a wooden rramework sUPporling panels or osier. There was a central parlition ending in i bronze<br />
looped hand·grip al the rear. The third crewman stood behind the driver and second crewman, holding on to the<br />
hand·grip which could also serve as a <strong>shield</strong> support. In th<strong>is</strong> WDY the rear orthe chlriot was protected. From the<br />
late 7th century B.C. onwards, the chariot would have two draught·poles, also appt:lring in the Neu East, furthe r<br />
reslTiaing the chariot's manocu'lTlbiliIY. The wheels of the chuiot had ten spokes, strengthe<strong>ned</strong> by len iron nails<br />
dril'en through the rim and secured to the axle <strong>with</strong> large <strong>decor</strong>ated Iynch·pins. The twO drnught'poles were joi<strong>ned</strong><br />
by a straight yoke accommodating four <strong>horse</strong>s, and <strong>decor</strong>ated <strong>with</strong> rour bronze 'standards' in a similar manner to<br />
a model chariot in the Oxus treasure.<br />
189
Horse armour compr<strong>is</strong>ed an Oll·hide 'apron', as shown here, wilh a melal breast.plate and side pendanl!. Thesr<br />
wrre derorated <strong>with</strong> Assyrian·inspirrd motifs such as a naked figurr of !shlar (a goddess of 10lle and war) standing<br />
on, or holding bac.k lioD figures. The <strong>horse</strong>s also wore metal frontlets and creslS. These tnppings were of bronze,<br />
or iC'3ther covered wilh sheet gold. One chariot cab .... 'IS deconted <strong>with</strong> Ii\'e lions' heads.<br />
The crew were armed <strong>with</strong> Ihru.Sling·spcars and round <strong>shield</strong>s. The headgear worn by twO of the CTew are 'turbans'<br />
of Ar.lmaean Style, popular in Cyprus al Ih<strong>is</strong> time.<br />
Figure 192 <strong>is</strong> a CypriOt spearman, based on pouery models of wlrnort and some piclorial representations. Cypriot<br />
forces also included arch".rs and ClInlry who were similar in appraunce but lacked shietds.<br />
The shietd shown in 192c has a red centre and small red dots on while petals against a black ground as painted<br />
on a ponery figure. Olher <strong>shield</strong>s could have long, poimed, bronze bosses. Variant helmets are shown in 192a,<br />
the lower example originating in Urartu, a major apoTler of arms and metalwork.<br />
191<br />
'-<br />
!) ~<br />
"""- J o 0<br />
192<br />
a<br />
.. •<br />
'.,' ". 0<br />
•<br />
11 ~ b<br />
190
193, 194 & 195. MINOAN' AND MYCENAEAN SPEARMEN c. 161)0- 131)0 B.C.<br />
There are many represemations of th<strong>is</strong> type of infantry in Aege:an ut, The principal sourccs for these figures arc<br />
a fresco from Thera, a battle-scene on a sih'cr crater and a <strong>decor</strong>ated dagger blade from Mrcenac, and various engr.lved<br />
seals.<br />
These spearmen appear to have fought in dose formation and were probably drilled. The spear. called t }u-Q, was<br />
used for thrusting and was at least 4m long. To achieve maximum effect <strong>with</strong> th<strong>is</strong> weapon, both hands were used<br />
and a large body-<strong>shield</strong> was hung from the shoulder <strong>with</strong> a Strap. Spears and <strong>shield</strong>s answering to th<strong>is</strong> description<br />
are mentio<strong>ned</strong> in the Iliad. 193 holds h<strong>is</strong> spear in a posi tion suitable for advancing into combat, as depicted on<br />
the Them fresco, where a line of spearmen <strong>is</strong> advancing in th<strong>is</strong> fashion. 193a shows a man who has been beaten<br />
to h<strong>is</strong> kn~ in combat, taken from a gold seal engraving, and demOnstmt C1 how the <strong>shield</strong> provided complete covemge<br />
in such a 'receiving' position. 194 and 19 5 have spears levelled for the charge. Two opposing bodies arc: shown<br />
dashing in th<strong>is</strong> way on the silver crater from Mycenae.<br />
The elabomtc: boars'-tusk helmets and the possession of swords indicates that these spearmen arc pc:ople of some<br />
wealth and social standing (unless infantry were equipped from palace armouries). The <strong>shield</strong>s render body armour<br />
unnecessary. Ifsuch troops ""'eTC to keep rook <strong>with</strong> <strong>shield</strong>s meeting edgNc>cdge, they would achieve efficient protection<br />
for all the individual soldiers by acting togtther as a cohesive body. Such a '<strong>shield</strong>·wall' would be paniculariy effective<br />
against m<strong>is</strong>siles. Archers opc:roted from between the ranks and files of the spearmen, seeking the protection of the<br />
<strong>shield</strong>s, (200 shows an archer from the same source as 194 operating in th<strong>is</strong> manner). Swords, or pakana, were<br />
long" narrow and, like all weaponry, bronn. They were better suited for thrusting than slashing. 1953 <strong>is</strong> a Minoan<br />
sword.<br />
It would doubtless be difficult to break into a densely packed <strong>shield</strong>·wall. AnemplS to fmd ways of doing so may<br />
have led to the invention of the ·figurc.of-eight' <strong>shield</strong>. Th<strong>is</strong> type <strong>is</strong> carried by 195 and shown in profile in 195b.<br />
It <strong>is</strong> clearly a <strong>shield</strong> that could be used more offensively than the 'tower-<strong>shield</strong>' curied by 193 and 194. It <strong>is</strong> deep<br />
and possesses a dt-flective ability. A ridge of wood or tough leatht-r Nns down the centre. The 'wa<strong>is</strong>t' might allow<br />
greater usc of the thrusting·sword in the 'press'. With such I <strong>shield</strong> the bearer could have a better chancc of battering<br />
through the ranks of h<strong>is</strong> oppont-nts. When th<strong>is</strong> type appears it <strong>is</strong> used alongside the tower·shitld. Perhaps only<br />
a proponion of the formation were equipped <strong>with</strong> them in order 10 give a 'biting-edge' to the body, bUI personal<br />
preference cannot be ruled out.<br />
191
-<br />
194<br />
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. ;:', .:. ,:' ~ "-.<br />
195<br />
a<br />
b<br />
The <strong>shield</strong>s were made of ox·hide, and paneTOs cons<strong>is</strong>ted of black. brown or buffblolchcs on a while ground. Lines<br />
of stitching v<strong>is</strong>ible on the from correspond 10 the machment of the shoulder-snap and frame on the reverse. The<br />
central ridge of the figurc-of-eight <strong>shield</strong> was generally buff, the outer edge of the rim being blue, and the inner<br />
«Ige. yellow,<br />
Helmets, koroto, were m3de from 51iven of horn CUI from boars' tusks and bound 10 a leather base <strong>with</strong> leather<br />
thongs. The ef(5[ oflhe helmet worn by 193 <strong>is</strong> possibly also made or horn, alternatively, black or black and whilt<br />
horsch:iir plumes and crests could be :l1I3chcd.<br />
Kilts could be fringed and elabora tely embroidered. Dress sometimes cons<strong>is</strong>ted only of ~ coloured 'cod.pit«'.<br />
The Aegean peoples werc gener~lIy laU, slim and h~d a 'bronzed' complexion. Hair was very dark, wavy alld usually<br />
worn long. Burds were uncommon, but gold death·masks from the shaft·graves of Mycenae suggest that they could<br />
Ix worn by kings.<br />
196. MINOAN AND EARLY MYCENAEAN CHARIOTRV c. 1550· 1250 B.C.<br />
Introduced inlo the Aegean in Ihe 161h celllUry B.C., Ihe Aegean chariol soon began 10 differ in terms of delail<br />
from the Near·Easlern Iype. The four·spoked wheels remai<strong>ned</strong> standard for a 10llger pcriod but were made stronger<br />
and more robust. The axle was posilio<strong>ned</strong> near Ihe rur of the cab, and the draught-pole was strengthe<strong>ned</strong> by iii<br />
second pole joining il horizolllally from Ihe yoke 10 the fronl oflhe cab. Both shafts were funher Strengthe<strong>ned</strong><br />
by ~ wooden suppa" or thongs. It <strong>is</strong> possible lhat Ih<strong>is</strong> second shaft c:xtended backwards wilhin the cab and curved<br />
round to join the noor, providing a panition and means of suppan for the crewmen. These: are all developments<br />
desig<strong>ned</strong> 10 increase: the strength of the vehicle. In Egypt and Canaan the emphas<strong>is</strong> was on lightness because: speed<br />
and manocu\'rability were requi red for a primarily skirm<strong>is</strong>hing role over nat open ground. The Aegean chariOl,<br />
however, was clearly ~ more robust vehicle intended 10 take the strain of close·combat over broken ground.<br />
192
196<br />
a<br />
D ~<br />
a<br />
c<br />
0<br />
b<br />
197<br />
d<br />
198<br />
'9]
Aegean chariot warfare <strong>is</strong> 11 much debau:u subiect, the d<strong>is</strong>cussion of ..... hich might benefit from the appreciation<br />
thai chariO! design underv.'em signific:mt change <strong>with</strong>in the period c. 1550-1150 B.C. T he carliest design .....:as a<br />
type: that has been called the 'bo)«hariot', illustrated in 196a. T h<strong>is</strong> W,IS in usc: bet ..... etn 155{1 and 145{1 B.C. Bet ..... etn<br />
1450 and 1200 B.C. a type: C1Illed the 'dual
Arm~mcnl for ~ chariol warrior compr<strong>is</strong>ed a long spear, il being 10 denea the thrusts ohhi! weapon thaI armours<br />
such as the Dendlll panoply were e1pecially dev<strong>is</strong>ed. An engraved gemstone from Vapheio shows a chariol spearman<br />
in aelion. hc uses bolh hands. The source from which 198 <strong>is</strong> lak ~n shows short spears or javelins. These could<br />
have ~n alt~ rnali v~ armament or laler have replaced Ihe long spear. Side·arms compr<strong>is</strong>ed a lapering shon sword,<br />
up 10 60cm long, suilable for insening bet .... ·cen Ihc plalcs of an adversary's armour, (197e).<br />
The appearance of lhc armour worn by 197 calls 10 mind medieval lilt-armour. and <strong>is</strong> clearly desig<strong>ned</strong> to deflect<br />
IhruSIS. The prolection of the throa! and shoulders <strong>is</strong> particularly emphas<strong>is</strong>ed. The armour imposes limitalions<br />
on manocuvrnbility, especially if the wearer was forced 10 fight d<strong>is</strong>mounted. He would be well adv<strong>is</strong>ed to follow<br />
the innruclions attributed in the Iliad 10 warriors of the old .school, such as Nestor, and not break rank and attempt<br />
to fight alone, but 'when a man in h<strong>is</strong> own chariot cornell wilhin reach of an enemy chariOl, he should attempt<br />
a spear thrust'.<br />
from the mid 13th century B.C., charioteers began to appear as in 204, which probably indicates a change ofl:lcti($.<br />
Followers may ha\'e worn special uniforms. Tablets refer to (trlain while cloaks as being 'suilable for followers'.<br />
The lablelS also confirm lhat an Aegean warrior migh! actually bear the name Achilles or Hector. They also reveal<br />
thai so could many of h<strong>is</strong> less noble companiots!<br />
The linear B tablets make no mention of <strong>shield</strong>s in usociation <strong>with</strong> charioleers' equipment and there <strong>is</strong> nO real<br />
evidence thai lower or figure-of-eighl <strong>shield</strong>s were ever used by chariony. The use of round <strong>shield</strong>s by charioteers<br />
occurs laler on <strong>with</strong> the in!roduction of the 'roil' chariot (sec 204).<br />
199 & 200. MINOAN AND MYCENA.EA.N LIGHT T ROOPS<br />
A fresco from KnosS05 depiclS a line of dark·skin<strong>ned</strong> troops dressed and equipped as 199. The IWO plumes suggesl<br />
that they might be Lib~n auxiliaries from Nonh Africa. Tbe so-alled 'siege rhYlon' from M.ycenae shows 11 lown<br />
under Inac:k. It <strong>is</strong> defended by Q few men bearing large reetangular <strong>shield</strong>s and more numerous archers, slingers<br />
and slone-throwers. These are completely naked and probably represent the local peasanl! and IOwnsmen ns<strong>is</strong>ting<br />
Ihe soldiery. One of these slingers <strong>is</strong> iIluSITaled in 200. The archer in 200 coml:S from Ihe silver ct"llter from Myctnae<br />
mentio<strong>ned</strong> under 193-195 on which archers like lh<strong>is</strong> arc shown shooling from among Ihe ranks of the spea.rmen.<br />
He wears an elaborate boan'-tusk helmet <strong>with</strong> crest.<br />
Archery figures quite prominently in the Iliad, wherc both sides included conringcnlS of archer special<strong>is</strong>ts. Th<strong>is</strong><br />
agrm <strong>with</strong> the impression given by Aegean art that archery played an imporlanl part in warfare. In the Iliad, bows<br />
arc made of goats' horns, one hom providing each arm of Ihe bow. Arrows wcrc originally lipped <strong>with</strong> bone or<br />
flint, but later langed bronze types were used.<br />
Javelins werc most probably called palarja, a term ancestral to the later patton meDning 'javelin'<br />
199<br />
200<br />
195
201<br />
202<br />
(0 :: '<br />
...<br />
.<br />
a<br />
b<br />
201. MYCENAEAN U GHT INFANTRYMAN AND OPPONENT<br />
Combat betwet:n Jightly-cquippcd Achaean troops and rather barbaric opponents <strong>is</strong> the subject of a fresco at Pylos.<br />
II <strong>is</strong> a mystery who the$( barbarians might be. b\lllbc Iliad reo>rds that the father ofPo]ypoetes, (who led a C
203<br />
• •<br />
•, •• . •<br />
a<br />
204<br />
203. LATER MYCENAEAN WARRIOR 13TH TO 12TH CENTURY B.C.<br />
Taken from the famous 'warrior vase' from Mycenae, th<strong>is</strong> figure chtes to the darkening daY' of My~naean civil<strong>is</strong>ation<br />
around 1200 B.C. He could answer to some of the descriptions of warriors in the Iliad, <strong>with</strong> h<strong>is</strong> sheet·bronze cuirass,<br />
greaves and almost round <strong>shield</strong> (like an inve<strong>ned</strong> peltl, Iller character<strong>is</strong>tic of the Troad and Dardanelles region).<br />
The markings on the: inside edge of the <strong>shield</strong> reveal how the outer layer of hide, possibly even sheel bronze. was<br />
attach·ed. He wears a 'bell' cuirass of bronze. a type allesu:d also in central Europe. The helmet could be studded<br />
fabric. leal her or embossed bronze. The auachment of boars' tusks or cows' horns gives an effect remin<strong>is</strong>cent of<br />
the Sherden. The bronze greaves were possibly worn O\'er the textile t)'PC. or even over woollen socks as were later<br />
used by the Phrygians, Urartians and Assyrians.<br />
He marches wilh a few personal nllions tied up in a bundle and hanging from h<strong>is</strong> shoTt spear. H<strong>is</strong> principal side·arm<br />
would be II long slashing sword, as shown in 20)a. Th<strong>is</strong> replaces the carlier narrow types and t.he design may havt<br />
originated in cenlnll Europe.<br />
On the vase, the armour i.s coloured black, probably representing dark bronze, and the inside of the <strong>shield</strong> <strong>is</strong> buff.<br />
197
204 . LATER MYCENAEAN CHARIOTEERS AND HORSEMAN, c. 1250·1100 B.C.<br />
The IYPC of chariOl shown here, known as the 'rail-chariol', appeared during the 13th century B.C. and eventually<br />
replaced the earlier Iypcs. Th<strong>is</strong> illustration <strong>is</strong> based on various depictions of chariOlry on pottery, which show chariots<br />
cons<strong>is</strong>ting oflinlc besides a platform and a rail. The legs of the crew arc clearly v<strong>is</strong>ible through the open sides.<br />
The appc:annce of the charioteen <strong>is</strong> similar to the warrior described in 203 and similarly markedly diffcrenl from<br />
Ihe preceding age. II was common (or one or both of the wurion to carry round <strong>shield</strong>s and they were armed <strong>with</strong><br />
short spears or javelins.<br />
Th<strong>is</strong> chariot and its crtw arc most cenainly Ihe rcsull of a major change in chariot (actics, if not military organ<strong>is</strong>ation<br />
in general. h would 5«m highly probable thai Ihcsc men mighl d<strong>is</strong>mount 10 fi ght more readily Ihan earlier Aegean<br />
chariotry, and they answer well to mosl of Ihe descriptions of chariot fight ing contai<strong>ned</strong> in the Iliad.<br />
These charioteen seem to be wearing linen cuirasscs which do not eXlend over their shoulden. Around their waim<br />
the)' may be wearing bronze bellS. They wear woollen socks beneath bronze greaves, or only linen greaves. They<br />
!u\'e simple crested helmeu. There arc drawingsof'dual'-chariots wllh three·and four·man ~drcsscd in a similar<br />
manner to these, accompanied by standards like that in 204b.<br />
204a <strong>is</strong> a hOl'$(man, also known from drawings on ponery. There are a few such representations daling from the<br />
late ISlh century B.C. 10 around 1200 B.C., bUI they probably became increasingly common beyond th<strong>is</strong> date.<br />
One example shows a m:ln currying what appears to be a round <strong>shield</strong>. Th<strong>is</strong> figure wears a bronze helmet, a 'bell·<br />
cuirass' and possibly greaves.<br />
The evemual breakdown of the Aegean palace economics (and therefore the elabofllle organ<strong>is</strong>ation required to maintain<br />
the chariotry) may have haste<strong>ned</strong> the development of cavalry. Litency was lost and only retur<strong>ned</strong> centuries later<br />
<strong>with</strong> a different scripi (derived from I'hocnicil), so the palace regulation of mililary foren probably ceased . It <strong>is</strong><br />
possible thai the <strong>horse</strong>man was simply a warrior not wealthy enough to possess a chariot and so uses a <strong>horse</strong> to<br />
transport him to the b3lllefield. Alternatively, the dnmalic change in chariot tactics might be partly due to t.he<br />
appearance of horsc:men who could fulfil the majorily of their roles more economically.<br />
205. HARAPPAN PRINCE<br />
The drcss of Ih<strong>is</strong> figure <strong>is</strong> taken from a fngment of sculpture which <strong>is</strong> usually regarded as represcnting a prince:<br />
or II pricst. H<strong>is</strong> dress <strong>is</strong> quite possibly purely civilian or religious in function. It <strong>is</strong> illuslflilled here to portny a<br />
high ranking personage. The rank and file probably wore a plain white cOllon dhoti. Small domed pieces of copper<br />
have been found which might have been fixed to II textile base as II SOrt of armour. The <strong>decor</strong>alion oftMS man's<br />
robe mal' be a styl<strong>is</strong>ed imitation of animal skin or similar scwn-on obiects. A rectangular <strong>shield</strong> <strong>is</strong> possibly represented<br />
on one Indus seal.<br />
205<br />
a<br />
b<br />
198
The metal weapons were made of copper or poor-quality bronze and arc rather weak in design. They include langed<br />
spearheads which ne brood, leaf·shaped and flat. They would need to be inse<strong>ned</strong> into the shaft to provide a<br />
stn:ngthening central rib. :\xe blades were also flat; socketed types being known. but f'~re (205b). A type of shon<br />
sword <strong>is</strong> shown in 205a. Three ty~ of SlOne mace head ex<strong>is</strong>ted. round, pen.shaped and mOSt commonly, lentoid.<br />
The under-del'eloped close-rombat weapons 'tand in contrast to Ihe m<strong>is</strong>sile weapons. The balhed arrowheads were<br />
alwars copper. Sling proi~ l ill.'$ came in three types; a small round or slight ly o\'al type, and tWO much hea\'ier<br />
I)'pe.$ of baked clay \\'dghing ]75g and 750g. Some large potlery balls found at the bak: of defences could ha\'e<br />
been hand thrown mbsiles. A) sling ammunition <strong>is</strong> associated <strong>with</strong> the defences oflown5, th<strong>is</strong> may be the weapon<br />
of the rank and file milit ia in times of emergency.<br />
206. EGYPTIAN SIEGE DEVICE<br />
Siege methods during the Old and Middle Kingdoms included the use ofooltering-rams and wheeled scaling-ladders<br />
(shown in a 10mb at Saqqara and demonstrating that the wheel was known before tht Hrksos). A de\·ice depicted<br />
in tombs of the 12th Dynasty 31 Beni·Hasan was a long·shafted weapon <strong>with</strong>. presumably,:J. hefty melal poim,<br />
which required three men to wield. Th<strong>is</strong> was opcr:ued directly beneath the battlements, the crew being protected<br />
by a large pav<strong>is</strong>e. h WllS either used to pr<strong>is</strong>e apm the mud bricks or thc rampan or to kctp points of the wall clear<br />
of defenders to enable assault by scaling-ladder. While the ass:lUh ",us in progress, archers suppressed the defenders<br />
<strong>with</strong> shooting.<br />
In the New Kingdom, d ties were assaulted through breachC':S in the walls, probubly created by rams or mining.<br />
Elite units usually led the aS$2ult. Other methods were 10 assault the walts wilh scaling. ladders or desHoy the gates<br />
wilh axes or fire. On one occasion an assault party was smuggled into Joppa hidden in b.1skets. Rdiefs of the siege<br />
ofOapur in Canaan at the Ramesseum show troops approocbing the walts under co\'er of pem.houses. These were<br />
fab ric stfetched over a wooden frame and concealed a smDll assault pany from m<strong>is</strong>siles.<br />
In later pcrioos, siege techniques became more soph<strong>is</strong>ticated. The !'iye stela memions siege'lOwers, b;illering.rams<br />
and siegc--ramps. Egyptian cities comai<strong>ned</strong> \':1.51 (emple enclosures which were used as fOTi resst'5 in times of emergency.<br />
lo\emph<strong>is</strong> was captured by Piye by means of am phibious assault through the harbour.<br />
206<br />
207. ASSYRIAN SIEGE ENGINES<br />
Fixed or mobile siege towers equipped <strong>with</strong> a massive iron·shod ram fi rst appear in reliefs during the reign of<br />
Ashumasirpal. T he re <strong>is</strong> te)(t ual evidence that such de\'kcs ex<strong>is</strong>ted in some form a few centuries before in the Near<br />
East. These towers appear to have bet'n cOnStrocted at the siegt' sinCl: they util<strong>is</strong>e large numbers of infan u,)' <strong>shield</strong>s<br />
and sometimes chariot wheels. Two of Asburnasirpal's engines art' shown in 207a and b.<br />
".
207<br />
•••<br />
b<br />
d<br />
200
By the reign ofTiglath-Pileser HI, the ram had developed into a lighter and more-mobile weapon, (207c-f are engines<br />
from the reigns of Tiglath-Pileser 10 Sennacherib). The ram body could be made of three sections, front , middle<br />
and rear, most probably of wicker, covered in leather and sometimes secured b}' two double rows of toggles (207f,<br />
daling to Sennacherib). The front was usually taller than the rest forming a small turret <strong>with</strong> a window. The ram<br />
was usually moved on four wheels, but some early types show six.<br />
T he ram itself was long and thin, protruding from high up the front of the machine, ending in a large 'spearhead'.<br />
Th<strong>is</strong> type of ram, known 10 the classical world as a 'drill' was inserted between the courses of the wall's brickwork<br />
and moved from side to side, pulling out the bricks and weakening the wall.<br />
Often twO such 'drills' are preseO! (207d and e), which together <strong>with</strong> a long hanging loop that sometimes occurs,<br />
gives the impression that the ram was intended [0 imitate an elephant, (herds of which still ex<strong>is</strong>ted in the wilderness<br />
regions on the banks of the Euphrates, and were hunted by Assyrian kings). Indeed, other siege engines certainl)'<br />
attempt [0 imitate other animals, such as 207c and another shown on the bronze gatcs of Bala""'3t, dating 10 Shalmanescr<br />
Ill. In these cases, the 'snow' of the beast was probably shod in metal to provide a ram. These rams would be<br />
used against [he gates.<br />
The size of the crew and how the ram was worked <strong>is</strong> not readily apparent. One archer and :I man <strong>with</strong> a water<br />
ladle arc shown in the 'drill' types, and perhaps four men were required to work the 'drill '. These together <strong>with</strong><br />
a couple of archers, an officer and a 'ladler', compr<strong>is</strong>ed the crew.<br />
T he body of the 'drill' engine was about 5-Sm long and was pushed up to the wall by the crew inside, <strong>with</strong> perhaps<br />
some outside help. The ram itself was probably some Sm in length. A text of Sennacherib refers to siege engines<br />
as 'great wall flies', perhaps th<strong>is</strong> <strong>is</strong> a reference to the rather light rams shown in 207d-f.<br />
Rivers were crossed by means of innated animal skins, either supporting individual swimming soldiers (207g), or<br />
joi<strong>ned</strong> together to support rafts. Horses were swum across, while unharnessed chariots were transported by means<br />
of the kelek, a large round 'coracle' of hides stretched O\'er a frame.<br />
208<br />
208. NEW KINGDOM EGYPTIAN BAGGAGE d<br />
In enemy territory Egyptian armies constructed marching camps surrounded by a pal<strong>is</strong>ade of <strong>shield</strong>s. The entrances<br />
were closed by large grid-like gates and guarded by sentries <strong>with</strong> staves. Chariots and ox-carts (208 a-c) were parked<br />
in special areas, and the Pharaoh's large pre-fabricated tent was set up in ils own enclosure in the centre of the<br />
camp. It included a throne da<strong>is</strong>, shrine and folding campaign furniture. 20Bd <strong>is</strong> a pack-donkey.<br />
The soldiers pitched small, rectangular-plan, round-topped lents which probably served a small group of men.<br />
Equipment and packs were stacked at the enlrance of the tent.<br />
Camp followers included art<strong>is</strong>ans 10 repair chariots, boys who carried OUI menial tasks for the soldiers and no doubt<br />
numerous women. In faci some female members of Ramesses' household had to be instructed to keep clear of the<br />
fighting by the vizier, when Ihe Amun camp was attacked at Kadesh.<br />
201
209. ASSYRIAN CAMP AND BAGGAGE<br />
Assyrian camps depicted in relief" are shown 10 be:: fortified. They were 0 \'31 in sh3pe wilh lowers al regular intervals.<br />
These camps firs! appured during Ihe reign of Ashurnasirpal, when Ihey were divided imo quarters by cr05s· r o~ds.<br />
By the time of Senn~che rib Ihere <strong>is</strong> only one road running Ihrough Ihe cenlre of the camp. It <strong>is</strong> probable that thest<br />
camps were n01 buill every nighl, but as a secure bast for a whole campaign. The ClImp w~s probably buill of mud·<br />
brick for the lower p~n ofJhe wall, <strong>with</strong> wooden upper·works and b~l11ements. It was possibly surrounded by a ditch.<br />
The reliefs show the interior of the tamp laken up by twO types of tent, and baggage animals and equipment. The<br />
ordinary soldiers' and officers' lents resemble Ihose oflhe Bedouin (modern and ~ncient), being open fronted to<br />
altch the cool brec-zes, the side walls kepI up by guy ropes, helped by a three-branched internal support, CUt from<br />
a nec-. Th<strong>is</strong> type <strong>is</strong> shown in 209a. The scene inside <strong>is</strong> shown in gre~t detail in the reliefs. Jars and pots hang from<br />
the tent-poles, often also a double·yoke fo r ~ cart, and a donkey pannier.<br />
Officers had proper beds and more equipment than do the 'mher-ranks', who make do <strong>with</strong> mattrnses. only. In<br />
both ClIse5 each native Assyrian <strong>is</strong> shown <strong>with</strong> one or more attendants (grooms, kitchen servants), who, in the case<br />
of 'other ranks' at least, would be a soldie r of a lower grade (an auxiliary or levy archer).<br />
The king's tent <strong>is</strong> different from the olhers. It <strong>is</strong> mostly hidden by a canyas screen around ii, but the v<strong>is</strong>ible top<br />
shows [I 10 have had an open stction in Ihe roof for lighl (209b).<br />
209<br />
c<br />
202
It <strong>is</strong> possible ttJ.at one tent was provided for each live-or ten·man section in the Royal Army, the lower status levies<br />
having to make-do <strong>with</strong>out.<br />
The tentS and equipment were carried on the backs of mules, donkeys and camels, attended by dril'ers (209c). The<br />
bulkiest items were loaded OntO cans.<br />
210<br />
210. ASSYRIAN SACRED CHARIOT<br />
Like many Near·Eastern arm ies, the Assyrians carried images of their gods into battle in the form of military standards.<br />
These pro\·ided a rallying point and source of encouragement for the noops, and the practice <strong>is</strong> attested for the<br />
Mitanni, Kassites, Egyptian s, HinittS, Sumerians and Akkadians as well lIS Assyrians. It was also common practice<br />
to mount such standards in chariOI5 of their own and use them to lead sections of the army on the march. The<br />
Assyrians regarded their chid god, Ashur, lIS a prolttlor oflheir army and the state, and belie:ved Ihaltheir military<br />
conquests were carried OUt according to h<strong>is</strong> will. The Mitanni and H ittites thought in a similar manner and also<br />
regarded wa r between opposing counnies lIS a kind of lawsuit, in which the gods were the judges. Th<strong>is</strong> chariot<br />
<strong>is</strong> one of a pair of religious chariots depicted in a relief dating 10 the reign of5f:nnacherib. It <strong>is</strong> shown unharnessed<br />
in the camp. attended by priests. The dix mounted upon the pole bore the image of the god. Only the rare and<br />
valuable white <strong>horse</strong>s were considered suitable for the se:rvice: of the gods. Assyrian texIS sometimes mention a great<br />
number of gods accompanying the army including; Ashur, Sin, Shamash, Adad, Bel, Nabu,lshtar of Nineveh, Queen<br />
of Kidmuki, Ishtar of Arbela, Ninuna, Urgal and Nusku. Perhaps these refer to unit standards lIS well, or standards<br />
accompanying wings and larger formations <strong>with</strong>in the army. Armies .... 'efC olien accompanied by priests who considered<br />
the omens before campaigns and battles were commenced.<br />
SELECT BmLlOGRAPHY<br />
The following works are some of the most useful for study of the warfare of the ancient Near East. Howe\·er it<br />
<strong>is</strong> far from exhaustive and readers who w<strong>is</strong>h to pursue the subjttl funher are adv<strong>is</strong>ed to consult lhe bibliographies<br />
of these works also.<br />
ADAMS, W. Y. Nllbia, Corridor ro Afrim . 1977.<br />
ANDERSON, J. K. Ancitnl Grllk Horu manslrip. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1961.<br />
ANDRAE, W. CDlouud Cuamit:s f rom A slrur and Earlitr Ancirnt A ssyrian ]flail· Paintings. London, 1925.<br />
Alugrabllngtn in StndSt:lrirll: V. Djt Kltinfllndt W II Stndst:lrirli. Berlin, 1943.<br />
HAINES, J. and ,\1ALEK, J. Atlas of Anotnt Egypt. Oxford, 1980.<br />
BARNETT, R. D. and FORMAN, W. Auyrjan Palau Relit/! alld Tnl'ir injlutnCl' on tlrt ScJllpturtl of Babylollia<br />
IJnd PtrJia. PI1Igue, 1959.<br />
203
BARNETI, R. D. and FAULKNER, M. The SculptllrtJ of Tiglarh·Pileser Ill. London, 1962.<br />
BARNETI, R. D. North Syrian and Related Harness Decoration, Vordero{lsiat<strong>is</strong>che Arcllaologie. Festschrift A.<br />
Moortgat (ed. BITIEL K., el al). Berlin p. 21·6.<br />
A Catalogue of the Nimrud Ivoriu, <strong>with</strong> other examples of Ancient Ncar Eastern Ivories in the Brit<strong>is</strong>h Museum.<br />
2nd cd. London, 1975.<br />
Sculptures from the Nor/h Palau of Ashurbanipal at Nillnith. London, 1976.<br />
BIETAK, M. Avar<strong>is</strong> alld Piramesse, Archaeological Exploration ill the East"" Nile Delta. Oxford, 1979.<br />
BLEGEN et al. The Palau of Nmor at Pylas /·/11. 1973.<br />
BOEHMER, R. Die Klein/umle WII Bogazko;rHattusna. W<strong>is</strong>scnschafiliche Veroffendichlungen der deutschen Orient·<br />
Gescllschaft 87. Berlin, 1972.<br />
BOTIA, P. E. and FLANDIN, M. E. MonlimentS de Nim.'wh: decouvert et decrit par M.P.E. Botta; mesure et<br />
dessine par M. E. F1andin. 5 Vo1s. Par<strong>is</strong>, 1849·50.<br />
BREASTED, 1. H. The Baule of Kaderh. Univ. of Chicago Decennial Publications 5,1903.<br />
Ancient Records of Egypt I-IV. Chicago, 1906.<br />
BRINKMAN, j. A. A Political H<strong>is</strong>tory of Post·Kassite Babylonia. An. Or. 43.<br />
BUDGE, E. A. W. Assyrian Seulplum in the Brit<strong>is</strong>h Museum: Reig" of Ashur,"asir.pal, 885·860 B.e. London, [914.<br />
BUREN, E. D. van. Symboh of rhe gods in Mesopofamian aTi. Rome, 1945.<br />
BURNE, A. H. Some Notes on the Battle of Kadesh. JouTllal of EgyplJan Archaeology 7, 1921.<br />
CANBY, 1. V. Decorated Garments in Ashurnasirpal's Sculpture. Iraq 33(1) 1971 , pp. 3 1·53.<br />
CARTER, H. and MACE, A. C. The tomb of Tuto{lllkho{lmen 1. London, 1923.<br />
CARTER, H. Thr lomb of Tut~nkh~men II. London, 1927.<br />
CHAMPOLLION. MOllumentt de l'Egypu et de la Nubie Ill. Par<strong>is</strong>, 1829.<br />
CURTIS, 1. E. An examinatioll of Late Asryrian mtfolwork <strong>with</strong> special refi'TrnCi' 10 maurialfrom Nimrod. Unpubl<strong>is</strong>hed<br />
Thes<strong>is</strong>, Univ. of London, 1979.<br />
CURTO, S. The Military Art of the Allciellt Egyptians.<br />
DALTON, O. M. The Treasure of the OXIIS. 3rd ed. London, 1964.<br />
DARESSY, M. G. Fouilla de 10 oollee des ro<strong>is</strong>, 1898-99. Cairo, 1902.<br />
DAVIES, N. de G. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna i·vi. London, 19{)3-o8.<br />
The Rock Tombs of Deir el Gebrawi i·ii. London, 1902.<br />
DAVIES, N. de G. The Tomb of Ken·Amun a/ Thebes, two parts. New York, 1930.<br />
DAVIES, T. M. The Tomb of louiya and Touiyou. London, 1907.<br />
DAVIES, W. V. The Origin of the Blue Crown. Journal of Egypllall Archaeology 68, 1982.<br />
DESBOROUGH, V. R. d'A. The Lan Mycenaeans and fheir Sua:;mors 1200-1000 Be. Oxford, 1964.<br />
DUNHAM, D. The Royal Cemeteries of Kush: EI Kurru. Cambridge (Mass.), 1950.<br />
DYSON, R. H., Jr. The Architecture of Hasanlu; Periods I to IV, American Journal of Archaeology. 81, 1977 pp.<br />
548·52.<br />
ELA T, M. The Campaigns ofShaimaneser III against Aram and Israel,lmul Explorafioll Journal 25, 1975, pp. 25·35.<br />
ELLIS, R. A Note on some Ancient Near Eastern Linchpins, Berytus 16, 1966, pp. 41·8.<br />
EMERY, W. B. Egypt in Nubia. London, 1965.<br />
Archaic Egypt. Harmondswonh, 196 1.<br />
ERMAN, A. L'fe in Anciem Egypf. 1895.<br />
The Litera/ure af the Anclem Egyptians. London, 1927.<br />
FAULKNER, R. O. The Battle of Kadesh. MDAIK 16, 1958, pp. 93·111<br />
Egyptian Military Standards. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 39, 1953.<br />
Egyptian Standards. JouTllal Df Egypllan Art:haeology 27, 1941.<br />
FINKELSTEIN, J. J. Cuneiform Texts from Tell Billa, Journal of Cliliei/orm Studies, 7(1), 1953 pp. 111·176.<br />
FRANKFORT, H. The Art and Archiucture of the Ancient Orient. Harmondsworth, 1970.<br />
FLOOKER, J. T. Mycenaean Greece. 1977.<br />
FRANKEL, D. F. Tht Ancient Kingdom of Urartu. London, 1979.<br />
GADD, C. J. The Stones of Asryria. London, 1936.<br />
GARDENER, A. H. The Kadesh /l<strong>is</strong>criptions of Ramesm II. Oxford, 1960.<br />
GARSTANG, J. and GURNEY, O. R. The Geography of fhe Hittite Empire. London, 1959.<br />
GELB, I. J. Hurrians and Subarians. Chicago, 1944.<br />
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The arn of Ancient Iran from in Origins to Ihe lillie of Alexander Ihe Great. New York, 1964.<br />
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GjERSTADT, E. The Swtd<strong>is</strong>h Cyprus Expedilioll, 11. Stockholm, 1935.<br />
GORDON, C. H. Ugaritic Literature. Rome, 1949.<br />
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Die KulrurgtJehichu des aSJyr<strong>is</strong>chen F1achbildtJ. Berlin, 1965.<br />
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provenam du 14e slecle avo lC., Archiv Orientalni 3, 1931, pp. 431·61.<br />
JAMES, F. Chariot Fittings from Late Bronze Age Bet h Shan. In Archatology in lhe Levant. Essays for K. Kenyon<br />
(ed. Moorey, P. R. S. and Parr, P) Warminster, 1978, pp. 102·15.<br />
KAMMENHUBER, A. H ippologia hethitica. Wiesbaden, 1961.<br />
KANTOR, H. A bronle Plaque <strong>with</strong> Relief Decoration from Tell Tainat,lourm.zl of Near EtlJ/ern St/ldie~ 21, 1962,<br />
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KARAGEORGHIS, V. Une Tombe de Guerrier a Palaepaphos, Bulletill de CorrtJpondtnct Hellel/iqut, 87, 1963,<br />
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Excovations in the Necropol<strong>is</strong> of Salam<strong>is</strong>, I. Nicosia, 1967.<br />
Excavalions in the Nuropol<strong>is</strong> of Salam<strong>is</strong>, Ill. Nicosia, 1973.<br />
and MASSON, E. A propos de la decoun:ne d'ecailles d'armure en bronze a Gastria·Alaas (Chypre), ArchaologiJcher<br />
Anztiger 1975, Heft 2, pp. 209·22.<br />
KELLNER, H. Uranu, Ein Wiederentdeckler Rivale Assyriens. Munchen, 1976.<br />
KING, L. W. BrOllze Reliefs from the Gates of Shalmalleser, King of Assyria. London, 1915.<br />
KINNlER WILSON, l V. The Nimrud Wille Lim. London, 1972.<br />
KITCHEN, K. A. The Third Intermediate Period in T:gypr. (1100-650 BC). Warminster, 1973.<br />
KNUDTZON, J. A. Die el·Amarlla Tafeln. Leipzig, 1915.<br />
KOSSACK, G. The Construction of the Felloe in Iron Age Spoke Wheels. In The EuropeiJn Community in Later<br />
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KUPPER, J. ·R. Les nomades en Mesopolamie IlU ltmp! des roi! de Mari. Par<strong>is</strong>, 1957.<br />
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New Lighl on the Assyrian Chariot, Orientalia 45, 1976, pp. 217·26.<br />
Rock Carvings of Chariots in Trans-caucasia, Central Asia and Outer Mongolia, Proceedings of the Preh<strong>is</strong>torit<br />
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In addition much useful information on military matlers may be' found in the rev<strong>is</strong>ed edition of the Cambn"dge Ancr"etrt<br />
H<strong>is</strong>rory I-IV, 3rd ed., Cambridge, 1970-.<br />
207
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