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. . , • !
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accompa ny tl'llsthesis. , .-
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':'.1'>" -
!R£. DijrtOPtn.lIt AND nSTING 01 AN' i lfSTRUCtI ONAt.
PACKAGE TO TEACH
TH! BASI C tW' READING SULLS
:S~;:::::""~ ::::'s::; :~ l~ '"
.•..
. ' . ' , ' . '.
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. ) .. I~t enl s b 1p . prOj . c ~ · · ". ', '
Sub.1tted. to
the- D

, I
.
"II" . • : .' • .' • ":..'
The PUrp?5E1' o£thh ,s t udy was tr:de v.elop 'and te at:
inst ructi.on~ l unit on . th~ topic: "iatitud~ :~.d .Long i ~ ud e . " ~ndto
. .. . ' ; -' . .
d~c l~e .~lle.t.h~ r" ~ uch a .•llodel ~ .t~dlea. i~_B.t ~uc:~10nal unit- produced
." , , . - -: -: .
positlvsachievellient fot s10l.-1ell.mlng atudents'at , I;he j un i or h.1gl\
scho'ol level. The un U was devefcped .iIi re ,sponae to an. ed u ~ 3t 1onal
. p~oble Q\that; ce ni~r~r~u~d th~ fa-ct',th ~t' ch ildren vary. i n di vidually . . ~
. " . - . ~
in tMir le8rn lng.~8pD.clt les 8S t h ey enter jun.lor h 1~ school.",P d?t
. . - .
~o. and .in coriiunc t~~? vi t~ . t~e ' develo~ent of t~\l ri 8 t r~

c '
at Beo'i:bUk tollegiate , ,Baie v~rte·,NCwfoilnd'l~nd . 'The' kit was.
. . " , .;: . . . ,,' . . "
. compa.red ~ith .t he t ex tb ook- l ect.ut e method of ,1ns truct1bn in an
. .-'
" 1! l

":,.
~ ·Vr1ter 'giate fuli,. llcknowl~dges~ co~trib utions of
, . ;. ,
~. HauriceBrewstcr lor. h is ~ncouragetllent. g~idance . andw11Ungeeee
to' d'lec:uaa , o f t ~n through l e t. t e ~ s a~d,long Jstance phone •
. !
'ca lls. ~ any problems Il~Bing ~urlng the deve lopm en t and wtiting of
t h e in ternship r eport •
.The vri,ter ~b also deePly'1ndellted"tt:
(i) M~ . G. a. Farmer of the Geography Depe,rtlll'ent at Memor"iU
un1ve.r !'1~ y . fO,r , s u g.(. " ,~" ".nc e~ing th ~ : cont~~t pat

'i.
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Cn) the .~udenbl at . Be.othult Collegiat e .mo h e lp ed v1.th the
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" ,".
' " "/
!
,
/ Cha p ,", "LARY,":"'".::.. " '/ ' :~ ' '' ' ' ; '':"':';:'!',: .
. REVIEW ~F RELAT ED LIT ERATURE ANDJ{ESE.Alt:CH• • • • :. ; 26 ',
I NTRODUCT I IJ~ ; .', ; ~ '.].: " • • ,. :. ~. , ~ " , ~ , _• •,:'.., ~ ; . : . ~_~~ ; , ,~' • • : 26
GEOGRAPHY AND-GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION••• ;·; • • • ••• • • ~. ,. 27
~ NEEDFOR MAP, ~KiL~~. ; .,':. -; , :. : • • • •,: ', • • ; ••' ~ '•. . 31 : ,
, ' DEVELOPING MM'·Slcl.LLS'••• •• ,; ., ; ;' .- .' . ~~' . : • • ; ~. 39 .
, aRAllIN C, MAP·-SKnLS ; AND THI ,SLOW·LEARNER• ••••• • • '
MAxi~G..PROVISI O~ -; OR rae '~ LO'/u~hm:l . ~ . . .','.,.... .
. " . '- - . - .
SUMMARY. ,: " • •.•• •.•,• • , ~ 2 ; ·.., ,_. _. ' :,_~ .., .
3: INS T~UCTION~ IDEVELOP~T PROCEDU~~ • •• • • • • •• • ; • •• _• •
INT~DU CTION . .... ; .• • •••• • •• ••• ~ ,/• • •: ••\• • • •_•••• •·•• , &4
SYST EHS ANALYSIS AND DESI GNING
INSTRUCT IO~AL PACKAGES • • •• ••; • • •••••• ,' • , '", . ; • • •
DE~~~~~;:~~E~~~~ ~~~ " ~~'" "...: :' ..
Id ~t1 fy: 1n g ' the l nstruc t to"na:t Probl em. . .. .. .... 76
;.'ck~ rQund•. . .• ' • • ~ ,~ ", .';':'.;.:'• • . ; .:•• •• '. : . •••'. . 77
I ' ' . " - . , ' , '
./ 1 . 1'urp O S I! . ~ •••• ~.- ; ,. ;: . ·;. • • , ; '.~ · , : , ~ , ·

'·L','
'.\
!:'.-
L '
~" ..'
j"
~pte r
)
I,'
;T•• ~ 'and Subta.s ks ~ : · :. : . '. : . ~ ••.•.• • : . ;". : • • • ; , (
" ae~",o 'l: la~ Obj ~CUve . ~ ;.: • • • " : " ','" 94
.... U DDal. f or tho'let o f Medl ••• • ••~ . : • • : .: . : 99
, , : : ::~: ::d;~: :; ' ; : i ;~ : : : : : : : : : : :f : : : : : : I::
'
'
:'Sel ect"i oiJ. of Media', ' .. ~ :•••• • • ID2'
." " - . '.
De~e lp P lll en' t P [ ~ e edure !l and . .
Eval 1on • •• • ",-, ' Poni.at i ve t •; : 107
'I ni t i a l PrOduc t ioo
...' -. -
·• • •,;; • • • 107
. ... . , . " : .
S~y ••• • • • •• •••• • • • : ;~ • • •••• •: • • •••• • ~.• • ~ :·. ·• • 110 :'·.· ·
.' .
. 4 • • ~IGATIVI ~THODOLOGY : : •• • : ; .'; •• •• . 112:
· .-PIEVl Ew••• •• •• • •• • • • • •.•'; • • • • •• • :~ • • •• •. , • • • 112 . / "
UST~ 'OF THE ~RQ31DI .!' . :.•.. ~ :.•.•..., . 113
. MMOR BJ~IS ,, : •.•• •••• • • • •• •• ,. ~_ . : '. :• • 113.
. ,,:
. '
:" .sub:"l!1pot he . e• • • • • • ••• •• • •••• • ; • • ~ •.•• •'. ~'•••• •• ' 114
. . . .• ~L'«TAtI Oli S OF TBE.STUIlt • • ~ •.•••• • • • • •: •• • • '.:• •:~ ~ . -· 114
. ' . .5EL~ IOIi OF ~~LE. ~ -••• : • • • • •\ : ; . ~ . ~ ~ ·. ; ·: . ~ -.'116
· ,v.ut.iA:aLEs••••••:••••.' ~.••••:•••••" ' ; ' ! • ~•• . • • • . 117
. ~n l p u l a t :lon.o f Var1 ab l ~ ' • •• • • •·• • ; • • : . ~ '• •r • • • -• •• ' l ~ 7
. . " ~ ".
Oba. i-vat :lon of
.
V8'I"iables.
.
; :; . : • • :;, .. ~ ! ..~ " '... .118
" . . . .
. I Tis:; ; ; ;L~ ' :; .~: : :: :: :'::.:::::.:::::::::.:: ::
vl1 ~ . ' .~ "

\ .
y .: ,
Pag _
122
DATA ANDST,ATISTlCAL ANALyS tS : • • •
SUMMARy • • •• •• • • • : .: : • • 126
CONCLUSION,S AND 1l.EC~ATIONS •••• ; 12.9
r nIDI NGS : -•• • • • • ~ •• • • :..'; •• •• .•• • • .," 129
, .
CRITI CAL ANALYSIS OF STIIDY • • • • •'•• • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • 130
CONCLUSIONS .., • • • ; • " . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • •• •• 131
RECOMMENIlA'r·lciN ~ • • • •• : : ·: ~ • • : • • • : '•• ••• •••' 133
1l1BLIOGRAP1IY • • ••• • •• •,•• •••••· ~ •.• • ••· ' 141
St1P~EKENTAB.Y BIBLIOGRAPHY : • ••• _ •• • • • ' ,\ ''' ' ' ' , ' / '
APP~ICES
SLID~S ~D ,T/Il'ES ' UNDER...SEP.W.TE COVElt;.,.: ,•.••••:".; . ,i.5'i .
B• . AUDIO SCRIPT •• • •• • • •••• • ; •.•• • • : : ~ • • •• • • • •• 15S
~: :=::=:: :. ~ '::: :' -: ~ ~ : . : ! :. :.:~: :: : :::.~: :: : : :: : ~ :::
E. PRETEST ~ POSTnST. • • • •. :. ~· : .~ • •.• -'• • •• • •• : 239 ,
F• .1"ICURES 13; ' 1 4 ~ , 1'5, ~~d .1 6., ... ..: ;. : · • •• • • • • •'· . · •• : 11· .·, 261

1: Seq~en~iBil . St~uc'ture for Map Skills " " , .
2. ' Sy::::o:::t~~~ ~~ :: ::': : : :: ~ ;: :: ::~ ::::-!'I ::.: : ~ ::: : :" '''~~ ' '
Sy s.tems ~p;toa

___ _ _ ,.. ~.. ._ . _' c.--='", . ._~._,.~,
J."
" /
.
...,.,'..o t '~ i l · o ~ e:ra i: i~ & at th e ...~ e level ~f ~'ognitive
"develoPllle nt . an,cs..a s .. eonsequen ceeer r a in lIo c i~ l 'Ill udi ea. ' s k ~ i ls
. may ~~ may 'not , ha~e bu n t augh t by • t e'. cha r ' or ...~lla t e4. b~ - a
student : . ' - . . -,- ',".
. ',-
Spe cificd l y th . write; ~ried to anBWllt the .,following qvee-
. ~ ,',
t i on : Will an iD atrueUonal pacbge e spec ially designed ':0 i . pr ove
• student .~. u~ e.n t .n'Un 8_ o f _t l:\e n e~~,
" i
" _.-'-- '---- .._ . ~ ~

; :
"
Newloundla,.n~ , and the instr~ct1ona l . met hod.s.·whi~h ha ve ' o,ften been
elllP~oyed ~heriein ha,ve tended to ,make it:clif f i cul t for- an ,i'ndi vi:dual '
t o ' achi ev e ? :ts f 'ulle~t potent~,a1. I n th e ~a8t ~ore than 's few Bocial.
8 t~die8 .teache rs th roughout Newfoundland 7'ave pbced undue e IllPhas i~_
on th a , l ecture t yp e of i nstruction .and the Uei'e'of
the' f1ingle te?

QUa'U ty ed ucationa l pr~'g ra..s W~ i eh ' ~ve ~ ; . their ra ::son ' d ' ~ ~ r e
tne fullest ,devel. o pmen t of a ,s t udent should be stre s sing gro....th i n a
wi d e va rie,ty of skil~g ' 8~ atti,t "udes: :Henc e ' ~eac her& : ' ~ U g~ t 'no t . t ~- rely
on t h~ t radi~iona.,; selection and i IllP~~mentatl on '.O.f . \lla t e r i ~ 1s . ,Di \,rerai t y :
" 8lIlong studenti!' .nis-t be ~ef1ected i ,n t he selecti on
, ,of ,.t eaching t echniquea :
ROdge{ t s••s t s t e s th8t c o ~"ternp~r~'ry ed~ c stionalbts vou kd ecn-,
s ld:r the ' co=?nl y us'ed te,,; t b~o k-a c t~r e met'hod ; a ~ h1~hly u~d e s i r a &'l e .
1n ' that 'it vlolat'e a r eeo gnb ed prineipl es of pe dagogy} One obs!!,rVer
l
"'-'.
who' woul d co ncur . w1r,.h, Hodget tB s ~ e s ~ he peraist1ng e ducational trend
. , .
as b eing t owar d the pr o gr es !ll1ve ,philoaophy of ed ucation with an emph
a d s ' on ~e sta1 t t h.:arie.9 o f " l~arn i l\g , 5 Thi s .s e~o l of ' thoug~t " ... t~e "g elll
t ha t l earning must .bl'! a ccompUshed by -t he ind 1v 1dU3l hi mself ,
. .
, ,
Suc c'easfu l teachin'g of subhcts ' ~~~ h as' Bocial S: t ~d i e s ~ann o-!, '
" , " , ' .
be ac hi eved .u ntil t he t eache r co"'-e9 togtips r ealistically, with. t he
problem of 't he, wid e ra ng e o~abilH~~s sod background ~ whic h · ",dst
a,:""ng :~tudentB:. :~articu l~r,~l th~ a~ fr()lQ ·t h!l : ursl "?".. ~ nd:r tb e
present edu.c:ational system til. Canad a (andehewhere) t her e is. a sub ­
st'an~ia ~ group. of ~ tu li e n ts '~hG a'r~ ,unabl e to. IIlBke..nereet. prog;e~a in .
3i..:Ji; HOdgetts . ~at ' Cul t ur e? ~t Heritage?
(TOronto!.
Ontaritl. Onta rio I nstit ute f or Stud ies in .Educatt,on . 1968)JP, 45. ...
4I bi d , /
5Nel~on L . Bos s ing . 'Teac hing in ~ ee o ndary Sch oo16 ( s to n :
Houghton-Miffli n . 1952) . p~ 61 ,
'7
---~-----
. J

" .
- ...' .
tb~ 1;r 'lic~OO l i~arn l~g'. · Th a ~ e are pred ~:i.n~nt lY the l!Itu'd~n t8' ~~se
".'i', " ' ,' " - ,' ,- ', '-, , : " ,. ", ";
early Bicpl!X'ienc:es i n the home, '\/hose s oede-ecoeo afe baek gr cu nd, and
Wh08 ~ lriotlvatiOn"fO~ seh~l l~earnl n g ~ lIlc e s tbem in. t he' c ~ ~eiory o'l:
" - ' , '-\ ' '." . '. ' . .
8low:-learners•
.\ : cu~sn}u~ e~ ent ~ -a'l even fa~torB: f O ~ : 1den~ifYi.~g t he 9 ~O~lea~e r :
\.;: ~ ' ~::~b~ ~; ~dl:e~::~~a ~~ i:~ : :~d has dl f ficultY-1D ll e.arn .2-..
ing lIymbolic le.ljguBga •. . , . . , ' _ : .
\ " ~ : :~ B~:n~ ~:~~e:~~:,~~~~ :~ ~~; slower thad ' ~ha t of " nonaal
'
. : I -
~~~. ' ~ . . ' . - I
S ~ Ue has llnsy stcmstic t hou gh t pr Oc e &B~
. : " . •
: 6,. ' He .ha,. ~im ite d powers tcf 1.nde pen de nt s , nitiative and j-esource
fulness ; ' .,' . - . •
7. He has, a.tende ncy to . U ve only fOl" .the peeaeae,
8 ; Hia 'a't t ent i on epan is ehort.
9 . Hl!ha s 8 tendency to be a follower rather than a l eader.
10 . , He haa a l ow self concep t , '6
11". H~8 valu ~$are ,uncla r if1ed ,
>
Due 1n p a r t "to .c ultur al condition s , 's uch chi-l dr en re",d'at" a
I'
. l ev el three Or four gra.d es be lo w th~ i r ~?rma l ' devel o Pl:lent ; Th~y obvi- <
· 9ua 1y ach ieve in ac.ademi c ~,r eias at , ~ 'con ~ ide r ably s l.Ower pa c e. t~an do
other ch ildren", ciften t,hey d~ no t exh ibit t he curo s i ~ and cr;eativity
shown b~ bdghter · chil~.ren .
A large 'proportion of
theee youth eome froo i ower-el.aas ho mes
(aodologic all~ ; s peak~n~)' ~~ . J'hi ch t~e pa r ents may h ave h ad a minimum
of f ~ rma l ed ue~'t1on. 'TIl 'e s e fa~t o t8 exert p ro f ou~d in fl~en~es on · t he
he ehildre
. "
Steinbrink,
. .
cognitiv e s t ru c t ures of t n; who di~ , ollie "r e.-
ae areh on t he ef fec tive ne88 '~f .. dvanc·e organ i zera f or t each:ing geo -
6La~ry Cuban . " Yet or o Be Tau ght: The T~a eher, .iI.~d ·'St ude nt: as
SlowLe ~ rners, " So cia l f.duca,tion , X:o :r v . 2 (February . jg70,l. 145 .
1, L

-. ,':"
,-'"\::'
"':" ,
. ~
'. ,_' .~~4e."t , 1~ .~SPer i~n.t l.\ ?, ~Ia~Van_~. l ed. ' ee~ rcl~n ~.to; he c~~~er~~..• ~t •
. ', d.OWll by t he hoo l s ,.. t._ which ""'P ha a h u ver b.l l ••rning . ad f On:l&l
. :. -.. ~~gu.g ~ -"?", res... 7 t~~ ~~:rd.i~'..;~ ' AU~·:.be l . '~~ ~~~~ ~~.8_ '.a~- - ~.i ao.: "~. ,',.
. Davis , and .He.. , initial ·l anguage defic its t end to increa se the longer
~ h.~ ' d ~ BadV~nt8 &e;d r emal n'. ! n ~ehoo l: .
. If ~e ~~.a a~e : .t!i .a:.8IJllle re 5~ns.i~1 1 .1.t' for ~ n~uring t ha t t he
si~~~arn er ~'~ ~b ~ . oP~o~.t'u~~·t )' - t ~" ~~"~l~, P.,:,· 't l:.: . , ~e~ ,ess,,~~ _skUls :,to .
fun~~n d fe F ~ lve l Y l ~ a "d emo c r a ~~; t {"en_ .hb>~~:~n.i !'.K P~C~.1~8 ne- :
~l!lIire·. te t hat , th e ..tl!8 Che r go beyond th e~.~ ~ow ly ~onc eived conUn...
. o(t;e- ';r e 8i:~ 'eun 1culu.... _il i.oo~. ~ '~r e s ~ ~ s ~hi ~ p ~ in ~ :..~'~7y . 1I ~ r~n ~ /.~.' .
when he ex pl&1la:
\
r:'
• • •the cul t urally depriv'e:.t· child C~lI to achool with
defici t a i n l . anini aets ' and t he abUit y ·to 'learn- t o " , ."
learn' . Si nce he l a clls parti cu l lr experiencea and a i nce
. he- is at a rel ath ely l aw lev..l .of linguhtlo;:dev elop-
..ent, be b ua ually no t ' r e ~y t o beliD hi _ 1....rnlo& at;. ._c
th .. __ 1.....e1 and b y the Bal'le approachaa b d t.. r a ct er- .
1&Ue of ch ildren froa favorabh cu1tunl enVi r OIll'>ll'l'ltl, .
U1Ileaa t he 8cllOo,1 r e llhap e s , i t s cur rlcul u. 'a nd. .... t hod s t a . ;". .
beiin vith the child v ile r I"' he ill, h amb, canno t pr acl"'l"d
, in a f rv.1tful and ee antng!ul VII; , I 0 . , ~ '- . - " - s,,-.
:;.
- - .-, ' :;..
10 ."
Ibid,p. ,20.
"-- " ,'. ""j
".J

: .
. .
-K~p ~ ' a t ~ Q "ug,g ell, t ':'t hll~ " to;llchlng t he ' s l ow-learner invo lvllB
: . ' . ,,' " ', , : : .. , 11 : I
' .
'lllaking adj,:,stlllentlil an,d li~ i ting expec tl!-tions . "
The loW-a bility stude nt needs lIIIlny concr ete, first.,.hand
exp e'r i em:e s: Ins~ rU~~ io~"ust " ,~ e ' based On activitiu requl~ing, ~itt1-e
r;ead~ng or analy:roing.,. Learning eeese JlIu.st be Ilpecific, and simple or
.,- aa Kopp aUS'gests; ' ''' t he load of absrr act an d v~rbal '8)'111001s mUst ' De'
· :~,~nimi:roed- . "12 · ' ' . '" • . " : .' " -; , -:',.' "j ," .,. , ' ... ....
" , ,~ O~l~ 'expl~ in~ ' that"l~ \ :l. Il _ .tb~ , t ;,ache~ ' Il· r e s p O n ~ lb ll i ~ Y :> 0:. 1IUI'k ~··
certain .t ha t" t he s lo wer Ilt ude~ t ' .~ ,n ~ ~ d s a r e ,pr ov i ded . f la' :,
NOlllatter how well equipped the clas!'{IoolU i s , t here will
always ,be the child with Bprobl"'" that ,requires s~e~
:~;:~t {~:eo~o~~:~:i:t~~~~ e~ ~;~~r~nt:d;~~::1~ nf ~~, ' ~:~
. child 's, needs . It also becomes ne cessar y t o ada pt, or /
cbnetr ue t lIlate riala when there ' 19 nothing commerc i ally '
ava~1sble that ad equat-:l I 3and ~Uectively pr~sl!nt9 a
concept, sk i l l, or idea . , , ' . '.' ,:
' , - : , ' " - ,' ' . ' ' ,'. - . .
,.t he ~portance of" prov iding for , i ndi v idual differencel!l.,:
. ~ ~ ~:d~; B t ~ B~;~~ i :~n~ ~:k :; :::in ;n o~p~ ~ ; ;:~:~ ~~:;l
,- p~an~ and. i natruetional,pr acticeB .nd 8~ek be t.te r ':ways
'" .. . ' ' .;; -.
-"---~--"-';'--' ---"-
I ICeorse ' ~ . ' Kopp , ,"Pr ovi di ng f or . IndiVldu~ l ,Diff erences , ,,'
-,;,---,_--,~~ ;~~1~~_' ~~'~~~::i~~~t~~:a:~~~~~o~:a~~9.~.~R~~i~~~lt~~u ' f~eE fi~o~: ~~ l
St ud l es,1960}, 'p.87. , , ' , .
12 ~bi~.
., " ~
1388r a J; Odl ';'; ', "con s tr ~ c tin'g' and Ad aPtin~ Ma'te~ 'ial ~ ;"
Ind,iv i d";'ali:roing Educatio nal Mater ials for 'Special Childr en ·i n t h ~
.~ , ed•• Itobert,M. "'nder Gon , J ohn G.. Greer , snd'Sa. aJ . ,
Odie (Bal t imOre: Un iversity Par k Pr es s , 197 8) , p • . I SS.
/ ' . .

util1~&tion if . ~~rning· _r e 8~&~~h a~'d theo~y i~ th~ f6~m.a.tto.J\ of ,in ':"
strue-tional principles. He cont1!nds that "Lear nLng t heo r ies and -,i ti-
, , ' ,. " _. _, ' i . , ' -,
st1:uct.:lonal t.h~ori.cs .ar e ,int.er dependent ,and , that both acre "need ed .f cr '
' II c O ll pl~ ~ 8 ~c-i.en c ~of pedagog; aine'e-neither 'ca n adequa.tely seiv~ as
a lIub s tit ute f or ' t h e' oth er ? 6 ~ , - "
S~9u encing In Bt ruc t ~on ' .
ca~ne - Bilgg'e ~tB - th~ t " th~ ' act 'of " in s t r'~ c t i ~n is amatt~r o~- "
~f1Jin:llati~gtlie 8t~o:i ent i n-certain wa.ys .·',2J S~1mula~ing' _ t he stucien,t : "
lIc:!wever , mean s t ha t t he l~el of inBtrtictia"~ ~nd informati ~n must be
.~ t c hed·to" the l ev'el 'o f ctigniti~e d ~velopmell t ' -o f th e ch ild . When t he
chU d 's ' co gnlti~e s t rli'ct ure andsubje·ct .m'atter ,a r e llli Slll3.t chcd , l ~rni
ng is 1mp~ded,and81owed d'Own. E a c ~ future at;p i n th e cog nitive
. " . ,
dev'elopcent s equenc e,.depend s upon t he. s uccessful 1m.plelllentati0tl: pf
paat ,s t age s . ..
Jaroi.~ek em.phasi i ~d ' ·thene~

I
I t ,18 Miller ' s e~.tendon . t ha t "an e f f ,:c ~ lv~ se quence of .1u"-
struetion , i n any medium , "'us t inc:1~de providon ,f or . fo ur condltl~,,:
.;. J:lOt~vatlon • .cue, res ponse , r eward. ,,29 · "fhatth l ~ ,Illeans , l s t ha t t o b~,
mos t effee t 1ve ; t he 1III)tl~at 'lons ~rouli~d by ins t r uct i onal materiab
~stbui1d upori those : t hat are already in the
. . l1fee-;;p ~;iC:nees
.. ' ' . ' . ~ f ' the
s~uden ~. S kln~ er ' s analydaof 'i n9t1:uc t l of\ ssseees ~ha t ' ''lIlo tlvat lo_o' '
"must be preaent .'" 30
Gagne , iii. his book The" COnditions of Learning, "refers t o ';:."
, - . . " . ' . ' ,- : .
"Clnz"ulat1v ~.: lell.~.lng :~ ' .' j.~18 is th e principle "that the learning., o ~ any
n ew cap ac ity buil ds upon prior learning .: Unless th e lear ner ca n recall
~ " , , ' 31
capability, nnot learn task, t hb ' pr er equi sit e he ca t he new Gagne
has app~oached t he pr obl em of "human learning and ita contr1~ut ions t o
development
" " ' , "
f r olll t he point of 'vi ew of deten.ining 't lle prerequiai te s
f or IIR!!,c1fi c l earning" t'aaks. According t o' "his modal 'o f "i earn i ng the '
a c,qui s1tion of " complelt 'cotlcept or IIki {1 i~" II h i ersrch~'cal , " p,ro~eg l!l, in
whi ch lOWer order conce~ts or '~ki 11 8 ~re g e n e ~a ll Y i~tegrat ed ,.t o f o~ .
2 8Jobn Ja~oViil ek, Guideline"a for El ementary Social Studies
(Wa shi ngton, D. ,C. : "Assoc1e.t i on f or Supe rvision and CurriculU1llDeve.J,opment~
NEA. , 1967) ; s- 16 .
29~e;d·"E ~ ' Ht i ~ e'r , "Gr~pbi c Cormroniutlon and the Crisis "i n
Education,," AV ColIDtll,lniution a Rev ieW, V. 3 (1957), 6 .
I
": ~ ' , 30ROb~ rt H. Gagne, 1..i.ea 'rn irig "Theory , .Educa t lonalt;led i~ , a~d
I ndivi dualized In s t ru ction , " To Improve Learning: An Evaluat ion o f
Instructional Technology, ' II , ed , Sidney G" Ti ek t on,: (liew Yor k: ,R. R.
Bowker Co.'. 197I) , "p . 63. , ' 'C
. .
" , . ".. . : 31Robe~t M. Gagn~ , nie Conditions ?f u."a rn t ng"'(New Yo~'k ;
. Rol'll!' , ~ inehart - ,& Hlnston , ,I nc. i ' 1965'>. ... . '

- -
' t.he fo l l owing way.:
" .:. ' ,. ' ',
From ....here dOllathe "s t tid

· .'
li~ Ausubel l~o , a identifi es the attainment of a ,cl ea t . s table.
o;~an~zed'~;;dy ~f ,know~ ed8 e ' 8 ~ '~' ~e ans fo J; enha ncing the lea rner's '
eapad .t Y to. l.esm' n ell iil. foma't i~ ~J7 He takes i n t o eccccnt t he 'de-
" ve l o pme.nt a l findinga th at cbildren initially de a l \li th ,thefr environmen
t ,'at ' a ~o~ cr~te .l evel , and t ha't ·.t lley l:ter 'I1ppl~ 1\or e abs'~raet ' ~onception~
. Thus he suggu ts t aa t' i ns t r uc t ion; likei.ri~~, sho;'l1d p ~occ ~d'
fr(illi _ ~ o~ ~r e ie')'JUl.'."~ l e ~ t~ mo're ab~~ra,c'~'fo~t':LO ns :
If it :i.s·'true 't hat the usual co';r s e 'of in tellectual'de.,. ·
velopment moves f r om enactive t hr ough i coniC. ' t o symbol ic
rep resenta tion ,of t he worl d, it ia 'likely , t ,hat an optimum
se quence will progress,in ,t he same d i~ectlon'.J8 · "
'~~ p r ci ceed ~ng , frOIn e oneJ::e t e ~~ . I!-~~,tr a c t forma t ions; B~ner :d~ e ~ 1
'
'
~o~ oVerlook the fact thin it ma~ ~ e ne ce esar y t o re tur ~ to ~~r~~'in
.', . " , " " , \
.-- . , " ," , .
or a'pi ral curriculum ,apprc:i",i:h:
. ' .' , " " .',r
•• ~ id ea !l are ,pr ealin t ed i n, hoao'lcgue returned '
'f ol1l., to later ,
id eas t o r e infot ce ·'and expsnd, coneepts." Thus he advoc'ates i:he episod i c
with moJ;e pr ecision and poWer, and ,f ur t her ' developed ' and
· .". ps n. .' .. .n.tll •. in the end , a studen . t has a 9~,seOf. IlIastery ",
over ,a t 'le as t some body of knowledge . J9 .. '.
,. " , , ' , " '.-- : ' ,' ,'."

~ ~h e" 'oth e r -h~n d 't her e i~ Pisset, ..h o· .haa . eOlli.'lle~ted "t hat t he
~" " 'e~ c~l ien t p~yt:.hOlOg'~s t . ' Je r~me . B r une r . ~ a s · g Ot!'; ~ ~ f ~r .uto . atate
~h~ t you ' can. teach any thing to any ' child at any "';&8 - 1£ ':onl Y you sa t
• . , " " . ',' •. •. . 4'0 . •
about,it in th e r i ght wa y ."
Piaget : rej ect s - th i~ _ ~ot:f.O~ ' . h~s r eason being' t~ t ~ s devel o p":'
e en t takes place in sev e r al 1llaj or s t eps , t here are c e rt alnthlngs
. . . ". :.
t hat are b eyond t h e gr a s p of 'the child un t il t h e earl i ut of mese
I
B tep~ 'h a"';e been Burmounte

pro s ~ ~ ss \o' ~O;~~~tiO~~ l '~~~ ~~ t~o~~ WH:hout sUi' P o r t froll
previous ,co ncrete o~era tions " e tc ;4 .', :
west ' a~~ F?s t e r :Ln"~~ tin~' , o ~ ' Th ~ , P ~y c~ o l o'~v" of lI ~lIl-an Learni
ng s n d I nstruction in Edue a tio~ explain ,that Pi~ge t " ~heo ~ ies , h .ave , ', ·
~'Pli~u i.on ~for l e,arnifS 'an~, ·in s t r...e t iOn. His f~k se rve.s ·as ebe," . .
the or e t ical f rs",evork f or Wes t and
Fos ter's s ta tement thst "i ns truet
iO~~l_ e~eri en~ es ~y be1IIa~'

u. .
- ";
A8 ~' i::~ t~ ea~l'~r~ : the pu~s;, 'O f ' :~hit p rOj l!Ct " ';~. ' t ~
develop and:\ . t t an i~ t~ctiona i ~nit . Al t hough ' the l~tUal d.'USUS '
. . " . " . . "
.. urro l,lll.d~ng " " ebo i ~~ o~ topi~ ; tnd .development of ~~ ~ns:tru~t ~~~};~ .:
'"paeh ge Yin b e dh cu aaed l a te r , it _n b a eaphasbed that any '". ~i('
, '.'.'._..ee t ~ ..,...tJ . !l truc:.t iO.~ . .l _ .t e d .•lo.. ~.o d~V~. l(lP ' OC~ i. i .t ud l. • •.:.. · .:
conc:ep.~s ...Tut ..s k l~s ~.t u.k~ t nt o,·a ceO\1ft.t. th~ fadt ,t ha t ~ IIP U va r - ' . .
t attons t re of vc.h r u t magnt t ude en d t he overla p of achie vement '.
t n .kill deve l eP-nt frOO!l one gr ade t o a n~t h~ r ' h 80 exten8 t~1! thet
pup:t1s wit hin. a 'g n de or c l a llt ean be ' u pa cted t o differ ':' ld~lyln
tha i r att ai nmen t of ~ ' ~~eep ~\~d ' 1n th e·~t · , ki ll p rof1e ien~y . Fo'r t hiB
I
, L
r
. r~;l8~n. i ~ 18 unwi.. to u t a hl1s h a , f ~~an'd ~ t!l id · ' e ~ uen e e tied t o
, p ~dfi e !I ;.d ea ~ M J n ol1l11Ck, · ex Ji la~ e :·, ':'~~:': i ;,~ e ill \/b ich I eM U .~ ,
" '--' it~ t e'~ hu : 1~1t ~o"tM n g ~t" d~ '~~~ '~~~~~~ ~ I ~. ~~~
S IQfI FJ:oo;CE OF ntt:"5'i'tmt
" '.; . .
the projt ct v a l concehed as a co~eqUl!oce of t he wri te r ' o,
", . . ." " • " , ..J
i nvol v eeel1t .with I c:1.• • • of low-a eh ieriD, a rtde .evetl . t u dl!:il ta a t
" " . ~. ' . " . "
kot huk Collegiatt, ~1e ve e ee , ¥ewf0un6 ltn4. Aceord1JlB t o.; thiI· 1.0-
" I . '. . '.
n ruet ianal and learn ing th e e d .. deacrlbe d ' i n the for egohl ' 1Ib- .
I · .
l ect i on , any iD . t ~ uet.i o ll t o lbe designed f o r the ~e l aw-ac:hievtn& s t udent. "
. .".\ ..' . ..' ' .
45 . .\' .' . I
J ohn J ar olillleir., Gu ide line s f or E le \ll~tary Soci a l Stu dies
(Ilashingt on , D. C. l A8a o ~ ia t. ian for Superv1sioll and Cur r ic: ul WD. De-:-
;-'el~~en ~ . NEA•• 1967) , p. "17 . .,
',~
; !
I
q

i _ , ,. ' _.
t~ehl~~ ~o'c1al s tudie$ ' t o d ow-le arning. grade seven 8'tude~ts a:~ "
Be~th~k COll~g~te. Frustration has 'arisen "bee.a\ls~;';;i ';-~he· her. - th~t. a
lot-oi theile. , 8 tu d ~ n t 8 a:'i:e not being ' pr epar e d to take thei.r position as
I
'eee be e e of society. Te xt book s lind Qtherteach lng-lea~ ing , social s t udies
,.'
: . . ,. . "
devalopingthe im it ruc t i onal package was eee eet v ee , The basic solution ;.
. ' , .
" , . - ' . ' ./
was t o a t ar t. with t h e child ,w ere he is and proeeed by a carefully
developed and 'aequen t i al program t o ,br l n'g h im up 'to a l evelwhete
. .
~!:\: U l d ~earn as WC!~~ . as ot h.e~~ in h i S.011s8 and avenr uak fy unde r .
th e \~ can dl.tiona 88 th e ,o t her students •
. If the ,r es ul t s of thb ' atud )' ..1us tify it , the us c of I n~t~uc-:-
' . ", .
tiona l pa ckages could provid~ te~chers . " ith one pOssible .s ol ut i on"' to

th~ : 'folloW1ng de f f.niti~ns 'aJ::e: prBleOted (i n ~lPh'abe t.1.Cal o rder) :' ,
- .i->:". .. ~ ',. ,. ". . ; , , ~
·~ ...aB operatiOnal.!Y de fi ned as test. 'c or e s obt~tned ,
by ~ t u den tl up~ CO~l~tion~ "Il\ i ~ ' ci f 'stUd~ by bot h cont~~ land '
. ' . . , ~ , .. ' . "
.,
, eXp8l'bental groups •
paekage .
~n trol Grcu pw;as the .grOUp of _stude.ntawh.ic h vae. a s dlll1lar ,
a s p,oss:tble t o th e experuental group :iii tem ~ f s e l ec.t i on ' proeed ul'ee "
. , ~ , .
:.\.''l'ie x ; IDCntsl ' age; and 'reading ab iiity~ The con trol, group ~as ta·u~t. by
. , .t ext b ook- I e

,
. "".."""-=='"
target ,eh~O l ; \ . , . ' ,
" .~ . ,,'~::": : :: ::;~ 1~·,:;'::::1:,';::1. ::.~'::::.C,:::':::lt·••
., . :-

,.",.: .'
.;.
. ' .' :.:.:.. : ' . :: ..' " ""
llo~bOOl< ;.
'J" ' . Kedh ... n a the h.8~re · ~~t VIl. Dt! ~easlll'J" ~o ., h cU ~ t.t•• t h e .
': \l6e ,' ';f tile iD8 t ru~ ~i0fl8 1 k i t :
. ->:
~ . re t ~.e bas ic:to·o-l .! of l .... ~in& .', .In tbis s tu dy . ' ,u n ll . ,
.' : . . . . , .' , , " .
low ' a~ad~ e . cM e v lftllant · • • dete~~1Il. f r o. ,'.eh"ool 'r acord. ' . nd ~. '
~s 1& ~~ lOu . : re ' d 'iD I · ~ ~ f.iri:it~ cy ( U ~ ':'l~Y tllO' o~:~~ee · .Ye ~;s b e h~~
" t~e pru ent sr ~de J fi.ve l) ...... d ete-rwi ll~ 'fr a. th e ean. ~ i aD iu t~ , of
Baste Skille, " " .
. :. ..
s\IBlIIl8f1_ Ev~~~ ti.on vas ~ bI! a S8e..~'~t of th~ i~tr~~~~~
. " ~ i t : ~ O~ tb~ ~rpo~" 0 ~ ':,"-Wafd1n8 'f~ 1 '~rl

REVIEIf OF uUTED LITERATURE , ANn RESEARCH
I NTRODUCTION
Earlier in Chapter One it was stat ed that the PUl"pos e" of
!. , ', ' " ',,'. • .' {
this study was to develop and test an instrucUona l unit t o, t each
ba a i c map "re ad 'ing s k:llls. BP~~ if1cally la.t hude ' end l ong i t ude ; to
l ow

~,~
:-_/v1~';"l-P ;; ;;f :h~::SC:O: progr am.' Section ~o deni s spec1 i all~
I ' •
with J,:lteJ:'sture pertain1p.g t o th e ililpor t ance o f map skills III l!ss en -
i
t1al·part of the soc i al studies curric ulum, an d empirical r es e than
how IIl.8p skills are deve l op.ed , Wit h particular e efeeene e to I s it d"
-, ' .,;-.,;3"'-~~d :l~ n & itud e .; . S ectl :~" th r~'e ,I Dolta ,at J::~s earCh 'ie'la~t n~ "IIlSP ll~S t~- '
· . i'~ im';"". pmi' u" r ' y these w1

' I.;
.: The ~ ~ 'll C I! ~ t o i ·g eo&~'.·Pb".~ · . _4Ul 1nif~ U~l.n:.: ti o~ :O f t'~ e
.. i ~~la t i~~b.ip becv~ea ~l.c e . ud - -p:~le '- ·~ ppe.n to ~ , t ~~ ceo~'~a'~ .
~~e:. e ~~ in i' '~hrOUCb t ~e_'~Ul~~~ ~ f ·..o . t vd ~ boVn' geo~ J;~~lie ~-~ .
·: . : V 1d a l· i~ 18 : B l~~he Hell ~ eolr.l.phy . i " th e 'K i encl! o~ pla~ el 'no ~ ( ~hat )
. ' 50 .~. ",... , .". . . ' .., '
.of men . " . )Ir o..k also, expla lnll that geos.r aphy 1. coac.erned with "the '
.. '. . . . . .. • _ . ' . ,- I : ._.
chara cte r . of ,plac e , .·• • • th~ i nte gr a tl!d vholt of • peopl e and I ts "'
~ ahlt .i. t . - .'~ _ t~e i nt er r el ations be·tw e~ · p l a ~ e· i· .,,51 ·
, " , . . . '"
Sca rfe als o lI,t re s ..... th e con cept of pl ace when he, explaius th at
th e _t ,rul y geosraph lc ~l angle "ill t'ne Inte ra~ting ' influenc e of _placell '
andPeopi~ -. • •• ,,5 ~ . .. .
.- ..
\... ' '" . _ Gr ~:"" ~~,~ t ~ II ~ 't ha t ~.eo ll~aPhY ilI .a ~' t ud y of '" a.1Id;~8 l"el at1on': •
" .,. ! ,.
,j' .
:' "j.
I
·f
l
-. " IIh l p t ~ the land 11 t be " p e~a ll i ng pa~ad i~ 'of l easeap hy .... ' He late r
. .
goes on t o pr od d a t Mot , beCllu,e t he pr ev aili n g p.atad ip fo r g eo gra ph y
.. .
' is the ' ar ea l d l ff eren t ~ ~ io~ ' or ngloo.a l .yut heais Dadel i t fiu v ';ll
'.. 1I1 t~ . ~ 'j ~' t i fl e~ t lon 'f o:r , g eo~aPh1e a1 ~uc~tion . 54 Othe r ."geo~rapbers .'
, , ~P.ul Vid al ~e la:' Biacbe ': ~t~ · ~ ~s . v . · Vool ri d g ~ ~nd ~ " 'G ; :~"
.',' Ea , t ~ The Spirit a'nd Pur po lle of Geograp'hy . V d ed.i. r evised '(Lo ndon . .
'. Bn&land: Hutchi nson, 1966) . p . 2S . .
si ' '. ' , " . .! • ' , ~ ', ' '~ .
. J a n O. H. Broek . Goonap h! : ItB Scope and Spirit (Col -.bu l ,
. Ohi o.: Charles E. H.errUl Publiahing Co . , 1965), p . 3 .
5~evll le V. Searle , Geogr a~hY in ~S ehoo l , G "o~nPh ic E

. 29
. .. , "'.'", -"55
rgue pattern . . cm a f or t he 11let •
uch
. -
a.sPatt1s
".
IIp.&Ual
- '
oqanhation
. .
· dU~ e~tlg P I:~d if:l" .o f. lleo graphy ha ve .led Gnv~. to clr~ th e ro'nowi,;,g
c~nclus~on us',rdina aaolr aph;'S position i n t he _ry broad field of
· e ducation : I
. I .
1.£ ODe t.~•• view of education a s .an i nltati on i n t o V('Irth- ' , . .
wtd l e acti viti es; then both paradigms are r e l evant ; bu r If
· one vilNS educat ion as having an essen tia l ly instrument al
· r ol e i n econ Olll1e and aoei a l life, ,',t he n t he spat ial organl';' .
zatlon parad1p ~y _ee lll mo~ r elevan t . nd 80 t he broad
a i N of ge og r ap hi cal education 1llay be eee n . as .ehes e ' of "
:~:~n~h:~ ~;: r :~~;t:~~conceP t s and . p ~ l n ti ple ll '~bs uille d ..
. Wha t eve t: th e p~·r~dl g'lI . hoW' ~ l~ e c a ~ · .te a C hel:'8 help IIt~den t/l
u~~er&tand t he idu ll of spa t ial lo clltl~n; ·llP.t1~1 ..soc~a t l0n . and
apa t ia1 intetaction"than t h r ough t he s t r uc tured context . ~f
geog t illphic
· ed uCillti0ll 7 J~es _ku ... aU 'oug pitch for , t he lnelu.lion -.nd b.p~rt -.n c e·
of
geography i n edue ation when he s ays I
. i f geog ;aPh1 cenes t o i:tt oduce stude;t~to a syat~ __ f
at1.ca lly orga.o.1ud pi ctur s of .th e wor l d in w ich ve live ..
=: ::~: :5,ubjeC~ ~ tte~ vUl be .ea ~ l e d upan ~O 'f~~ --of0:
. . .
, Bowar th IlIIlintaina t hat .. . . . geogt aphy . ~ ,C01l. j unctiOU wi th all
other school au bjecta. is ,i n a POS i ~ iOll~ to
o " :~
..kevaluable con t r i bu t ions '
· 55W: D. Patti ~ on, " The Eduea tion~l Purpoaeaof 'ceography , " . .
Evaluation in GeographiC Education, ed . D. G. Xudll4n (BeblOn t . .
C&lifomi\: . Fea ron Pub l ishers • .1970) :
'
'
. S6N~t;IIl

i
I
I
> '. I · · .
,t owar d ~lle de,:,~loPDlent .of Bocial, rC$ponslb i lity upon -s n ' int.erna; ional -'
8 e ll le . ,, 5 ~
I . .
l e,seareh by Wise i n d ie B e ~ onda t"y grammar and compteh enS1ve
sc hools ~ l;:ngiand' and W~le 9 in 197'2 C~[irmed that geog rap hy 1',; an
I . . . .
i mpor t ant 8ubjeet in th e curriculum. I n ee ee r- e r e e. e t r ee eet ee , i t 18
. . I ' _ _ 59
Jlurpsssed' onlY ,by Ill3themat l es, En8~1sh. a~d .Fr enc h .
AI'though Wise 'UggeB~s t ha t . geogr aphy " can not be ,r egar .de d
I ellSentially as a kub j e ~ t having f un ct ions n:,rmally ascri bed to S?c1a l
.studi es cun leui., ~ ,.,60 hedoe s ag re e wi ;h Long and Rob~ r;son :.rho have
. stated that- " geog~aphy 1a necessary to a " • • :. kn~l edge o f othe r ways
. . ", " . . _ ' . , ,' - ·" 61
_of eon d~tion living, world r dependence •"
of life. B of and ,of inte •••
' MeTee r ecn du et.ed vre eear ch 1n to high sch ool s t~ dent a 1 a t t i t udes
, .' t owar d ge~g raph y . , A1 thou~h ~ i s f i':' di nga Buggest . a > e ~s than pos i tive
at t i t ude t ow.. r d the 'subj ect , MeTe'ar ,blames' t he a t titude on in structio nal
deficicncies ' and maint ain s that:
. " ' .'. '
. ; ~ an un~er9 tanding of ,geographical , co nc ep ts. , pr in ci ples ; ,aM
ideas a,re' neeea eary if • studen t 'is to at t a i n those goals
r .and .obj~~ t iv es outlined for th~ _soe1a l at ud i es , pr o,gr8l!l .i n :'
580 • J . R. Howar t h , : "Th~ Commoriwe.a l t h in ,th e 'Ge ogr aPhy
Syllabu s, " Geog ra ph y" XXXI X ,(1954), 5- 13:
59J ohn a .'-Iuae. ' ''Geo g raphy ~ i n th e Sec.on dary Gr~r and COlnprehenaive
Sch ools of F.ngland and I /ales : A 'Br i e f Apprliia.. l ". (pape r
'. pr.asented to a · meeting of t he COl!llllisston fo r Geography in Educa tion ,
tWenty-second Internat i ona l ' Geographical, Corigress, Tor on t o; Canada,
.Aug us t , 1972. , ERIC ED 066 362 . ' .' .
61 ,, ' .
• , " M• .Long an d .B. S. ,Ro berson', Tea ch i ng Geography (London.
'Eng la nd : Re1n elll8nn ,Educational Book a,-Ltd. , 1966) t 34. "
(
\

~ '. . '.' , " ,, '~ ' . r .
es t impor ap hy t 'sec!';"l .
's t r es s h'" o s ,
.:
McAuley
. .
tance ' of
. .
geo gr
iIt/
t'Udi (!8'
.
especially d~el place;
in op ing a sense of
: Geography h e lp s· g.ive ;j 't l: u':: t~ r e ' to ~Ha~· stud'i eS ; ,Yith-.
out, t his s t r uct ur e social studi es ha s no proper explana- ,
tion of the i nt e r r elat io n sh ip s b etween peoples and t he
ea rth , 63, .
Thus , it wouiq ."lI;ppear that it is" g eogr~phy; ~ 8 a f i el d or'·
THE NEED FOR HAP SKILLS
SkUl 'dev ~ 10 pmen t , is s 'Yitdly important cOlllponen·t of ,the'
social .st ud i~ a c,urrieulullI , Jar0 11ia~k e x p l . i~ s t hat " skills at:e' the
1>aa'i

devel opaent i n ' so cia l studies :
. , -. '. ' .
:-The teachi ng of . s kills I:'annot be ha ndl ed in an i nci den t al
or per i pha r sl, mann er if good results are ant f.e dpa r ed ,
~ :: : t ~f i:o:~~ ~~ \l~~::i~::~u::i~~ ~6g~ t he central pur-e
Later i n 1967, Carpenter Wl:ote snart.iele once more s tressing
;t he ilnpor tanc:e of ' skill devefopaen t r
Among th e ,s everal , c l as s 1f i c.~ 1o n J of goal!, to · whi c.h ·social
studies te,sching.ts direct ed , agreellll!nt hgeneTs 1 that . 67
the -deve lopment of skills shou ld r

'""t o "help th~ l earner a cqui r e a w"' ~k ing und"~5 ta~din g of the essentLak
ge·c.'graphiC 9kill ~ ~ ,,69 "
" Ja r~~,imek , B t r~ 8 8 ~ 8 ~he "' ~eed for ~k.i ll de vel0l;'ment "and points
out that witho ut
pro perly developed skills pupila fa ll fu r ther and
" " , "
f ur t h'er ,behind i n th eir s chool achievemen t an d may ~ven ' reach ' a point ,
vhe r e t h ey event"uallY dr op ' out of sc hool::
" ' "" "
There can be no doubt that ' well devel oped skills enhance
t he, abili ty t o do othet: s chool - r el a t ed tasks. Conversely,
poorly developed skills result i n arrested sch'ool pr ogr ess .,
Pupils wbo are off to a poor 9tart i n, t he i r 9kill deve lopmen
t in primary grades fall fu r ther and f ur ther behind in
their ove rllll Ilchievement. Eventually t he deficit ac cumul
ate s to a point that becomes ovetwhalming t o t he pupil
and nearly ,impo ssib1 e f or h i m, to overcome . ~cho"ol dro p­
outs at t he Mgh echook level ' i nv ariably pr esent historiea
of "skill de f i ci encies that can b e t raced t o the earliest
grades i n sl:hool. 70 ' ' , , "
An examination of~eographY,t ext books. from gradel:l f o ~ r to 0
eight i n N""foundl~nd sc.hools reveals a pr olific ar,r ay of maps, charts ,
diagralSs , ,'graphs, and t ab,l e s which sho~ld
provide"ample opportunity
" , " ,
for , the stu~e n~ r ea chi n g junior high. school t o -have .deveLcped Igeogr allhi c
skills. A study by ucnee, ho~ever, i t\di ca t ea ' t ha t ~he lll8in mo~e of in- ,
struction in geography i n NewfoUndland achools' 18 expo~itor y. This in- "
~i ca~a~ "t~ a t t here is a l ack ,of, oPPQr tu :,ity fQr atudents t~ be actively
i nvQl ved i n developing !geographic "skl1h .
~9Clyde F . ' Kohn, "Gene;~l Ob~eCtiVee o f Ge~grap:hY ," Metho ds "
of Geographic In s.t ru u i Qn , ad. John 11. Mon u (Wsl thsm , Massachusett s ,:
Blaisdell Pub . , co . , 1968), p. 23. ' ; . '
70J obn J arolimek, ', "Sk i lls Teal:h!ng i ii th e Pr imarY-Grades ,''' .:
Social Educati on , 'XXXI, 3 (Mar l:h , 1967), ,222 . ' 0
"0 0 ~ / :
71 ' . "
F. C. Jones, C

"At the en d o f ~ h er . d is c. ~ lI ~ io~ of existing map 9kills 'inst ruction•
. Hey er' Bo.iggee~~dtha t " ·";;e8en~· "1DlI P sUlls l ns t lUction 'USi ng t e}\~~~k8
. ". ', - _. - , ' -:. ..
lIlay only ,be producing II rote type 0( , £;' 15'; mastery of .• lc ill s :T ~ther
, th&~ ' ~,~~l ' u~der s t ~nd i tig -O''-''\!I8Pll and ma s~ e~ ; 0'/ ~k ills>,72 ': ."'
, . " ~ ":"' - ' , - ' " '. ' " "' - ' , ~ '
No-wher e is the need for d,cvdoping geographic skills g reater
th an i n the area' of map sk ills. As Micha elis -ex'plaills:
I n aocla1 stud;Les , maps.and globes 'are used I to .
locate
>] pl ace s i n the c01lDD~nity. state , na tion, an d o ther lands, \
such a. pa rks, r esour ces , pro ,h,lctS. por ts , Wllt er bbd ies ,
his t or i cal aites. citiell. transpor tation 'ro ut es , IllOUnta i~
r a nge s , and pop ulation d is t r i l:i~io n . and to find dfatance
and ti~ e be tw een place s , along ~aVel
, !
r ou t e s , a nd .cross I
I
/
misra
~~ e:~~C~~e~f a~; a~~~°"r::~:~~~~:W~~'~~~:r~:O:f P lace I
tion, a nd to ~ lIlpire selecte d ~g:ons: wi th l' ef er.s:nce
~~o:~~; ,~~~~~~~s:e::r~;:;n,,":~:~~:i es , landf o1'1Ds, I
• -. I n a d~.{io'n, maps and globes are utd ,to int e r pr et
-, . I da ta ne eded t o an swer questions a nd t est~ot hea es , an d
t o dilllcov er relationships and dr.", infere ces r e s ar diog
, ..- c lilllate sod living conditions , i nd us t r i es nd resources,
~ • ~:~~~ ~~na~: ~~:~:;a;~;tn' and locatio n of cities i n
• J ames and Crape also empha ~ he the va lue o f maplII="
I n teaching, mapa ha v e considerable value in th a t they can
be us ed t o.' fUlfill, Il variety of roles: aa motivation dev
tcee to cr eate i nt e r eat in a 8ubj ect or concept , as to o l s
for t esting p,u r po s I!8 , as lo?rces f or' seographic info r mat io n
72Juditb M. ,W. Meyer , ''Hap . Skills Instruction a nJJ. · .the ·Chlld' f1.
Devel o pi ng ·Cog nitiv e Abiliti e s, " Jour na l of G eo grll phy ~ LXXII , 6
(Septembe r, 19n ), 34 ~ .
.
73 ' . ' . . ' . . . ' "
.. . , J oh n. U. Mi c haeli s , -Social Studies for Cblld 't en in A Democ'tacy, .
6t h ed , (Engl eWl;lOd Cl iffs,' New.Jers ey : · Pr e ntice-Hall , ·10c ., 19 7 6) ,
p . 408. ,.. . ."
, L . __' - .--.

cidental rather than eys t emat ir;: 'and , that. many 'map sk.ills were i nt r o­
~~ce~ , ~u~ ' only ' ~~me of ,.them were 'ay s t em: d ~~ l Y, ~e~e lo P ~d. ~5
• . J
Considerabl conduc area e researeh has beeri t ed in the of ,lIlap
ski lls dudng the 18 st thirty years &nd 'f or .de cade s the ~eed' f~rlllap
:.:.- , .. .- ' ," ,..' . , .: ,.
sk ills deve lOpment h a s been a topie of deba t e bywriters' direc:tlY or
, . '. ' , ' ' . , . ' . ' .
i ndire c t l y conn ected 'wit~ ,geographic edu cation. . '
' . -. ' . .. . t , , -,
As early as ,1948, WhittemOre atrusoed t he {'eed for map s ki lls
~~~~ he _~aid th at' ''when , t~~ eeuree is on~ 'of integrated ' ~oeial ~ t~dies,
~deVe l~ plll.'en(of map Ski l~ ~ lIlu'at bavs, a place. ,,76 Ove'r t h~ ye a~~ ' ~ ~.
. .,'" . , . " ',' , " 77
other s haves tres~ed t he need .f or map . ak ~ ll s _dev el.opment. Nieman,
. . . 74U nn i e R.' J ,lUIIes arid La Monte C~ape , Ge o g~aphy f or Today' s :
~ (New.York1 APp1 e ton-centu.ry" Cr oft~ " .l 96 B), .p ; 98 .
,
.' 75H1~hael L. HawJdn s, ''Map and ,Globe ·'Skills ,i n El ementarY
School 'T8Xtboo~,:" J ou rn al of Geouaphy , "LXXVI , 7 (Dec ember , 19770; '
261. ' , ' '. " ..
. .." , - 7 6ThO llUl s' ~~. ~ it temor e , "Maps , " Geographic "pp~oaches' t o .
Social Education, ed'; ' Cly de P. Kahn , Nine teenth Yearbook Df the
Na tional Counc.il f or the ~o c1al St udies OIe.ahington,D. C. : National
co uncil fo r the SOcial ,S t udies , ,1948) , p , -18.

-' "
: . 78 .: ,'"
" ",
", 79 - • l. .:. .: : . ';',
e l . . Rd J:ohn point that learning to . "II'llP 1__ .
Bl ock , t .a out read
.... . ab~olutelY ··ne c....aa;;. a~n t ha t ~~ lI;~t _ be und.r..ti-t~d.. .
; . ~1~,. "points OI1ttha~ IMp Bkilb an. vitally 'impo r t an t t o .." .
un.de~~ t~nd ln g· ~f .P. tl~l · re~t1on '~1~ . 'in .~~.'. t.ud1eS: J. '.~ •
'MBPS . ~nd ~obe. "are v"-luable and neces~l:Y toob of t he '
Bocial studt• • • . nu.,. he lp develop C01Icrete juoderat_d,1Ilgs . .
. of sp atial r elati on ship. and arrangellmts of locaUOll. '.
:::Il~:=Y~~~~:~.. ~a8 ~h e , ke Y6tone ,.t o ~ rop el' teaching of ' .
Ha~ dVic k. a t aL,81 lind H111er 8 2 .... in~~1 D. that"mapa are .. vuy
. ' . , ..
impo.,:'tanc , ~~Ol of th e . ge? s"rapher 8:l\d t~ ": t IMp 81

. J
, ..
-,~.

.. I
. ....".·,JI :.·
~e_O~r~ P h1~a l : te~~hi.~g . .in, t he j _~~i.or :- hi gh :s ehool , b~~il1~ . ~ n ~Y-: \i~ e.:.,'","
·::::::~:a::::;::17~E::E::f6:1t::?'t::::~~Gr::::::::.o ~
· 1I~~~Sli e li - f h ~ ' PO in~ --- :~h~·~_, ';'ti.IlP B - a~'d " gi~~i ~.' ':r_1I t ri ~ ~-li of:'.: i~str~

:, " , " " .. ... , . -- ,. . , " . ,: , .
-.r.8,t:'dtir~y, y ea~~ ¥ littl~ , att e~ ~ion' ha s ,been paid .to , th~ ' i:r e a t i~" o i
" "', ' . " , , " -:" , ', " ,' ~ " '.: : • " , " • • , ; • .. ,.- : ' 0,' . ; ' • , ' ., '.
an ~~ganhat;Lonal ,~~ de:,: elopmenta~ f r lllllewor~ fo r: t he ..B'k;ills . Mollt .of
'. -- , , ' , · ,C · -- , . " .-. ' " , '" ,, ', ; '
t;he Skill :out1 ~nell ..~~a ,t h av~been de~s~ d sug~e s t .-~~t ther e "i,S ,a vas t
number , ~ f un 1;"el a t ed map ~k~S. ra t~·e r t ~ lln ~h~t " the~e ' are onl; a ,few
.,.' "" .:' , ,:. ' " . , .. :;-. .'., .r: .' .
fundlllllentsl aldl 1G, ea ch with a n UDlhl!T of re lated subak1l1a.• ,I n a ddi~
J' " ' , " " • , " ' , " .: ,. : " . ', :" '"
tion to over looking such a developmental fral!lewor~, ex!sting i n'truc- :
~ ~o,~a ~-1M~erl als t end to , ig.,or~ ' i~~o~ t&n t .~ a Ckg~ ~ ~nd ' ~~ne~?t~ ' th a t
.' a child llIust unde rs tand bll~ore undertak;ittg a pa r t icular, ski1.l.
. S~imd~rdl;ed ~~~t~' ~ce m ' ~o pa~~ll ~ i" t he , 1~~~ rue t 1o,;;1:~ted~ls :'t n t ha t.·
._ , ' , ' ' , -:, . "
~.~e,' , t re~t the ekl1~,~, 'a~ .an .~l'ray .o ~ - . ~n:t:l:' 1a t e~, t~ols the. Chi .1d. Sfu,~~ "
acq ui r e, The a!dlls seem t o be 'select,tfd rall.domly f or as s es sment . ' !
" ' . . '. , , ' . " " , " , ' ~ " " .
" aurv ey' b; Ott~ ... K8IlIIII•. and Weibl ~ ahoved that up; to :1972: little'
. :housri~ ' ~~dbe~ given ~o e1ther ~he 1~terrelationshtp ~1S:tin~" ~e~~~~' ' .
.,:"':::':;:"'::h:::~:);~:::::::::,,· ~mhl'~'f.kU:" · ~'.':""

": L,.: w
. ' " ,""
also
"
proposed
'.
Ruahd~ony ~tel1ed a ra ther d "gradation, of. map-
-& ~ea.di~g " ~~~ll~' :l baaed' on '~ p Sk:111srese'areh' h e h;1i:1 r e ~ i ewed . 96
eevera j, notable flxceptiona, ,hiS oJ:'deri.n~ 1>( 1lllp skill ' deve l opment
li:oinc idea wi th ' ,th~ ' l iierature ' on dev~l~p~nta l and bemug the ories
, - , . ... , , ~ . '
ci ted earlier in ,chapt er one of this report.
, ~ A rt\S d o~f reports findingss.imilar t o R.ushdoony 's. He r inda that
a y ou.ngate r , 1~.aD : l ea rn lllaD, map ski lls ' '~sr i i ~ t: ~~~n ' w~s p'~vlo ua lY t h ought ,
when ,t ha c:"oneepes and aubskili., leading to thaseakille "ar e ;e ff e'~ tive l Y
~ aUght li!:evelopme~tallY , sye t~tl~ll~, a nd ' fun.cti~na.l iy at t h e l evel of
..
~ ch1l d · ~ p e r e.ep ~ l on and understandlng .97
Cox , like Ruahdpony , has als,o,made rec.ommendationsconceming
a map sk i lls sequence . 96 Both ' Cox 'and Rushdoon,y :agl:~ t hat ther s ,18 a "
. , ' . ' ' , " ,
p r"ag ress ive1iPr~vement.in t he ~ s e pf mapa by, gracie lev,el j: th .a t- defi-
. cien~1es in 'map', c on cept i ons are ' ~~e to '-lack of ' ~ y~ t ema ~1c instru ctiQn
-95w'U U Sll ~ " ·;oyce, ' ''~~ ;ev~ lop~ent and Grde 'Ple.ce1lleu t of
Hap and Gl ob e Ski l.1s ' 1n tlle Elementary. 'Social Studies Pro gr am. "
(unpub l ished Doctoral disa-ertation, Northwestern Unive r sity, 19 64) .
. , ' " ' .'
96Haig~~ ' R~hdoony , " ; 'A Child's .Abiiity to "~ead Maps ; · SUIlllll.J:Y
~ oftl;'&e Resesrch s" .Jo\l:rnal of Geography, LXVIl (~pdl. , 1 9 66) ~ 215 .
~7va l E. ~~a~od" . "GeOgraPh i~ · · Educa t 1on : ' P rln~1P l ea s0:1I.:­
Pl:s cti cea in, th e Pr;lmary "Gr ades . " Social Educa t ion,.XXXl (~o~emb er)
1967) . 613. · . , -- ,,_. .,.' ','
. ". '.
" 9 8ca~1.ton Wo,'Cox, "S ugges ted 'Map Ski\l.l S'equenee," wha~,' c~n ... .
Children Learn in Geogra phy? A Review of Research" Harion J , lice
and Rus eell L. ,Cobb (Eoul der , Color ado : ERI C Clead nghouae f or,
Social Studies/Soci al Sc i enc e Educat i on"and Social Se :Le.nce Edu c lltion
. ..con8 o r ~1Ull1 .In c ;, ' .1978) , p . 105 . , ' ' , ,
0 ' "

:;
'-
. .' - ' . . .
e tl,ldyre."~Ulid ..fMt student mastery of" ~ he b.8 ~ l C .~8:1': t :l- c: elements of , I
. geogra~hY ~I,l id h e~l.:ltaUl con~ln;""d l e.arn i n g of h{g~e ~-ord ~ r conc ep ee ,
:I­
\ .
and P J;OC ~BIl " . 99
.," ._ . _ :n~ ~ . l 00 R e g ._n.and ·~Ule·y.:~ ? l.,~~~ .: e ~ . a1 .

L
('
.' , , - , ... "l() 4 105 '
ed the as of Sllbarof~. -,Patti ,a Heyer has ,us ide .son " n d
R~ 8hd

.r.
Figurel .
Sequentid Stn..:tuu for Map Skilh Deve l opment. .Judith H. _
WO. Merer. "'Map Sldl1elnstruc.tion and,the Child ' , Developing
Cognitive Ab1lit i es. " '.Jou r nal of · Ge

t.. -L
r
44 :
: ' .. .," " ,, 108
In r eviewing re cen t ,research "m th:1s to p!.c, " t h e wri te r f ound .
/ .. . ~ . . .. .
that t here ,were 5ignificant efforts,.m t he e,rly 19508 to define a set
of IlIaP,reading skills for children an d t o test their 8bll~ty. to -Perf orm..
t~" e "kills . I n 1 ~ ~ 3 ....a'gner c~ lled a H st of skills she ' bel ieve d
appropriate -ror sixth grade .children. I09 One 'Of
the-·things 'llhe t ested
was , .seneral sk i ll in ~dng latitude and longitu~e . She used it~m !lIl8lyaea
on th e data co hected and co~cluded t hat the Itude nts she te sted did Do t
h~~e t his an d othe r spec1f1c akillB an d kn 'nI-i'edge ne eded to in terpre t ,I
map .s ymbo l s . She concluded t hat the poor -per!omance' on the part of the
. s t uden t s wa s dUB t o l s ck of ' r ein forcelnent r ather t han l aek of ins tructipn'in
ea r l.ier gi.-ades.
A

45
'" . j " ' . -. "' : ..
the c hildren wer e int erviewed in d ividually - fo r ab o llt ,f ! f t een t o
. . . ,' " '., \ ' .
thirty zai~u t e9 e~ch. Tes t Q;e st1ons were b u ed on ele\' en , maps f r.~./.
the' 1 964 Worid lloojc. Atla.s ren gtn g: i n Ileale f r om 1 :i,"OO'o,OOO to - 1 ;
~2 .00~.900. 'I he qu es t l o'~ covered eleven diff~rent t ype s of map reading
skilla :
1. Gen eral
2 . Latitude an d
longitud e
3. Direction
4. Scale
5 .' Sym,\?ol Compr e ­
hension
6 . Coinpr eh ensioD 0 ,£ layer- t i nts
7 . Polit i eal lIreaa
8 . Na.mes Rnd le,trering­
' 9 , "I nse r s ' ,
10. Gener al ization s
U. Hheellaneous . I
I
. Th e pu~po.se o f the test wae u. rat to der ennine wnat i ~~e child,ren und.er .. '.
. s t~d ~ f ~ymbol1zatlon in 8ener~1. as well as what t hey knew of apeelf!c
8ym~Io; a~d se~~nd . ,t o ,gain 80':"'; t nelght :into ' t h e . general problem ' 'a f~
. . T~e ' results of .t he eeee. s h? wed that · ·c h:l.1dr ~n ...er e fSllliliar ~ith
let:1. t ude and l ongi t u de but were ' un sble t o ' apply the concep ~ 1I to {roblems
.. n ' . ' ' ., . , .
~ f l ocst i on • .They also understood cardinal directions, bu t ~d .difficulty
....~t~ ..ap or1en~...t i onll ot her t ha~ that. ,of ," nor ·t h at .eu e t o p .~ G enera.l ly,
the ' dir ection s !!!!!. a nd west' ...et-e IIlOre .d i f ficul t to work w i~ h t ha n no t"th
\. or sou th, ~11
A researc jh .. t u~y by RU ~hdoony , .a s .~ l u d ed to u rti er On page
forty, lists s u categories representative of IUp ald.lls tha~ 'he tested :
Ill' . . .
. ' Barb sra Design Childx-en(Chicago: Bar tz , Map f or Fi eld
• Ent ,erprisss Educa t :l.onal Corpor ation , ) 965) , lIited in Carlton "'.'
Cox.- "Children 'a Hap Read i ng Abilities with Large Seale Urb an Maps , "
(Doc.toral dis sertation, Univeniity of "'isconsin st Ksdl eon, 1977) • .
Dupl. icated as Publication' rio.78:.Jo , Ceogt' a phy Curriculu.. 'Pn j ec t .
Urdversity o f Georgia, 1978,p. 54 ,.
J

\
\
\
"
'\ \
a) Size an d 'sha pe
. b} Od en t ati on and
c) Location
d) Distance
e) S)'IIIbolB
f) Map i n f erence r \
J .
. Rushdo ony auuinarhed the r e 8u1 t~ of ~ f~ · r e ~ e a r ch ' by dr awi ng thr ee
. ' . '
1 ~ • The re ~ends to be a gra de- to-gr ad:, prog.ression i n childr ?n ' "
ability t o rea d ~ps .
2." Children' s e r r ors and ' misconception" .te nd ~o be,at, ],eas t
in par t r elated t o l ack .,of any, ext

" . _ - ~"- -
41 ·
: . . , ," , . "
m.an:makes th t "read EvenT~ue e conne nt hat ing,dra wing ,
. .. . ~ " " " , ' " , c . ' , 114
" ' p l o ~ ti n g , ~ andint e t' pr et i n g maps are all key, skill i1reasin ge0jl.raphy ."
He alGo po' int ~ out t hat "the :i~ eq uen t ceeo ~ iongi '~ude and l a t i 'tu de
• , ' , " " 115 ' , . "
ein or lls. "
a l so r f ces globe s k i
The research con dl.lcted' by Otto , 'Ka,1IlIl'l, and Wei b l e indi cated that
~Y "" fo ur ' ,(\lh i ch i:' ~:refured to 8S,v e ~ E i~ th~ir ,~i ~ r'G r ~~y ' ~ f
lIl8p skills from kin~ ergnrt en to grade six) s t ude nt s s hou ld \Ie abl e to
, , ~s e, (a) 1 ipes .of l atitud e liS ref e ren t's for d'~scribing general l oC&t i ona
and (b) linea of l~ngitude as r ef ere nt .. for d~ 'l'lcdbi~ g gene r a l dire c t i ons . l"l ~ '
Carpent,er ,11 7 Harris , US and whi Pp'~e119 ~~gge s t " th a t .b y th~ i ~ t ~ r-
114 ·R• v;~u~n , T ~ ~cher 'B Guide for Introduci ng Ear t h .; '"
P~ t t I ' (TOr ntO , Onur10 1 1he Macllli,llan.,eo . of,Canada l,td. , ,197 9,>": 8 .
· l1 ~ Ib id ... " ,~
. 11 6Wayne Ot to , lCarlyn Kalln, an d Evelyn Weible~ Wisconsin
: De sign f or Reading Skal Develo!>!!ent : Rat1ona1e ~and Objectives for
t h e .St udy Skilla Element , Repor't on t he Wi s,conuin ·Design fO,r Reading
Skill Dev e l opment, Wisc onsin Reaearc h and Developll(!nt ce neee f or
Cogni tive Lea rning· (Madi sOl'l ~ Wi s consin: Univer s ity. of Wisconsin,
1 9n) ~ . -
117 Helen 'McCr acken Carpenter , 'Sk U ll; ' in Social Stu dies ..
Twenty-fourth Yearbook of the Natlol1s1 Council for t h e ,Soc :l"a 1 St,:,dies ,
(Wl,Ish~ngton . D. c . : Nae1.onal Co..mcil f cir "the Social Studies , 1953.
118Ruby, M; Harris , The Rand McNally R.a:ndb ook of' Map and Gl o b e
s kuis (Chi o:;~go :Ran~ Mc Nally and ce.; 1960).
119 Ge;trude ~ipple , How To In troducF Mapa a~d Ci obes : Gr ades
One Through, Si x . Hov t o do it lIe d es, No., I S (Wa s h ~n gt on, D. C.:
National COUDcll f or the ",Soci a l Stu dles, 1967) .

! \.
;.- ':. - .. -, ' . "
..ed,iate ,gJ;ad ~ ~' . ~4-.6~ students S'ho,Ul d be c;l.pabl e o'f findinilocat_i~r(of
specUic PI Les in ten.s of
latitude and longitude•
. - - , ~Ln l"~pot t s --a srudi by Brown , et a1.. 'eonce r ni ng ~.h~ ca pacit y
,;,' .

" ' " , " ' . ,"
The booklet Map and Globe Ski.lls : K';"7 publ ishe d by th e New-
· foundl an d and 'Labr ador Depar tment of Educat:Lon ,auggest8 tha t- by
" -, , ,' : ., . " ,
c?ildren ab

(
~ . .
r-.:-,
50 .
~'tN~ : "tw' " ;~ u.s ., m.TftE ; S L~'~
If ~M: p~r~ lCdar ' ~kU 1. 8 '~ Ia1~ried to . :grld e ,: ,.p ~~ll r bu1l.d··
. , 'up on tha:Sl!!. ~ P po8e.t lY ma,stUN 'in - t~' Pt~ioU H gude. then t~ ' sl~
.i e a m iag. p upU .1& re ally ·ilI difficul t y . ' lie do;", IlCt' have t he"f'O\Ind~ t iO"
. "
· i n I113p sk :l.1h•. ye ~ be 1s ~ u p po s ed to , acqul ~e n . v , U .1.1 8"Whi c h ere bun ~ '
'up on tha t f O \l.~d . t ~on. S,~ lIl lll t~e,s. a : eaei.et ....y ~ rUe a pu'p:l.l·s pceviau .
t e s chen for fa i i i ng to ' t each t he skil l . (dthougb those, te a l: h en . act u~
d l.11l8 Y hav e ex po . ~ d a l l PI,l~ i1 8 , t.O t he ~k~ ll S ) "nd t h en pr oc eed t o I
t ~SCh " '' '" ."?" ~ d the. 't k1l 1s .aR)"oI' Yo '. 'r . . 1. 1.,
:It i~ ai.e teac he r '. r e spond b :U ity to treat ea,c~ , s t~d';lIt a s ~ D
lnd iv id~all ,. furtctioPlng org. n~SIII ~ no t to 8"8_ . a o yt hing :unt1l the
· lodl " idual'" bac k s t ound ~nc1 p r~r lea:n1ni ~v e ~en a ~uss~. St endlt:r
· aDd Ilair point o ut t he n eed f ol' allow1.n& fo r i ndiYi d ua i ' difference. 1a
~ . s.k11h. d~loplll e~ t progr": I : ~ {
Ch1e o f the ~n f ori:una.te aspects 1.n tile grai, plac_t o f
1kU1. s.. t he ..s 1.gnoe ll.t o f the t eal:b.i ng of a particular _
P.1.11 ·t o a p a r t i cu l a r I r a d e ead. t o the t i r t:d. onl ,. . Ed.ueatora
for get t hat b~G e" of 1nd.1v1dua l differences 1.11.
~~~: ~ a ~ f s~~~ ~ll ~~ ~~ t&: ~~ e~ :"~ ~;~ l .....s te~ t hat par.,.
A 8tud,. con duct ed t hro ugb -the Nevfou·n.:l.1and Pr ov l~ ial c:, ~-r lc• .
ulullI Project"••' car~ i ~d out d u rin& t h e 1; 74_ 1975 se hanl year. Public
meeti ng8 ",e're "bili d 't hr ou ghOut tlle pro v i nce and later " " ~o";1nc i a1 con ~ . -. !
f ~ :renc e w';'li hel d . ill se; j~ hn ' ·8 . Newf ound lan d . lnv o l ~ '1.ng d ~1e. ga le !l' .tr o ll
124eei l a •• \,Stencller a nd Glen n tl .Bl a i~ , "Huaan 'DeveI O l""eD~ '
an d Skill Development, " Skills I n Social Sr ud le'. ed . Hele n HeCra eken .
CaT pentl!r. T1oIenty-four t h ,Yte r bo ok of t hl lIat ional Counc il f or the .
Soc ia l Studl.. ( Wu hl ngton , D. C. : Nat io nal Coun(1). f or t he Socia l
St';ldhll• . 1953) , p . ~ . - . -..
- - ' t : L. -~ . ":"'_--'--- ' ,............,.,--- . .- .-
- '- . --
- '.'!; ':.~ - . '.-. -.- ' ~ - '.-- -

I'roV:i sionfor indiv idual di.ff treaces in
in g :Ls deemphnhed .
the socia l 's tudies has
't oo oft~ meant or ga-nidng the content into Brade~ ' re adi.ng l evels.
, ' ,
Read1.~B , wh1eh is ' on e',of .th e ,M J D!:" det ermi. nants o f l earni.n g, ~ e e ms t~ .
jl i:edo~rta te :as 't!le ma in instruct1on'~1 procedure :tn - tea~~ ;lng skills .
I " ,
Cove1 1 f O\ll'ld t hat a c h ievem ent i n s o cia l s tudies i s ·dh ectl y , re1a t od . t o
',t he' a~ ~ lt ty : to. r~ d ao d al tt~db S; 1I .1te.r i~ 1 ~d ;alS~ ' t ~ .tl':e ~~"'en t' ~~ .
whic h a~h t' e il,Ung 1.s tallg h.t , and weakn'esse8 In. t' o adi ng Bre the prime
f ac t ol: of failure :fn social. ; t udle s. 126
sre e e the textbo ok :l.s, st'tll the major tea~hi ~ g , sou r t e ' :l.n lIO'Eii
Mewf o,!n d \~t.. d:'~thOo1 s. the ' ~ loW-a Chlev~ r . ' 'Wh ~ ,' h ' ~'adlng ' t~ t'o f our: .
gra de", below-his pr e s ent gl: a ds l evel.,w111 haye grea t difficulty in ."
cOmp re~ding explana tio ns , of IIISP concep t s ' such a ,s latitude an d 10"81.,.
·tu de . These s t udents requ 1.r e. eore eeeeree e exper 1.enc ea ..,.here in r e"d-
. ' ->
_"-_,,,,-_ ,,-_ '_ ,,-_ " " , " . i " 0,:
Government af Nevf.llundland and t he N. T ',A. ; Re.port of · t he
I'r ov 1 ncial Cur ri culum Pr0 1e c t Con fer ence (St , John's , New foundl. and:
Gave-nunent P rin trg Of fice . 1914 ) . ~ , 39 .
126He ro l d M. Covell. "Re~d1n8 i n the Soci al. Stud1.es," ~
...~. ~ (J Bn uaty, 1957), 1 4 ~ 1 ~ .

l
. I '.
""p." ref... ' 0 • o

- , - ", "
:lnvu't4 ~-t l0n . ~d on e ' ~ha t' :l ~ ~ery . ni.~~ t\~ :. thJ..· 1_ ~UdY " '~ t~t
. : Rushdooa,', f1n d1IlS' _i ndi liu e . a high pod t l~ cor r elatlo n "berli'eeo. Mr.
·~~ll1ng .~ ~te ll18enc. ~ a D'!"re~~ ' llb U l~Y' ~ 129::: -" ' " - .
. ". .' ,-" ,' . - ' ..'v ":"' " ," . . . I
. u euc.h ~. &eIluall,. llt.own tha t t~ re ad ab lli.t y I EVel_of ~s t
soc1~.l stuelie s' ~ut " 18 '~whil t h lgh lllr .~h~. their : &~.d' ·Pl~eeme~t• .
; Am sdo):"l . , ~ . r1Iport1ng n • • a reh by B U~OW8 of baa a l . od a l s t ud :f:et .. .
...~ .
~ ter~8 . ro v ea l ed tnat t he re~dab ;l1 t" 'l e vd ~t SIlc1a1 ' 8 t~ d le~
mater:~ . f or th e i nt e rmedi ate , 0; ~l1gher gradea . l~ · ~lgh~r ~~ 't h l! ' "
a~rage read i ng sbU l t)' of the ehildn n in t M gra de: fo.~ . ' ~h~ ~h t;a." . '. ,';.
bo ob we n ln t ended. 130 "mad'orf ' eb·nd\l e t~d , ~. ' . o a:.ewh~ t ~ l~lar- ~ t ud ; to'·
d e te ndne the 'l ev. i . of readability w1th~~;i~n·t. atY IOc.i..aJ. ·Bt.u cH' 1
t ell:t B• . I n his stud,., A~orf aJ:l.&lyzed . fo~r b";c 8o c:1 ~ 1 8 t~e ? ·l e rle s ',:
. ·( twent y- Uv e".boo b ) . n.. S~ rl ': B v~i:e selected with Ote:lt~ ' ~Va1 1ab l ~' ''' t :~
both the ·l.at e n ,i"Ua t a and pr1m.ary grade, _ In · tbe a~allt: .is . tvO 'r e Ad l~ & .
. . . } . . . . . .
·· f orllUlae vue wie d: .t h e Spadle i.ead abUltY 'f~~m.I.l. fo r 'p~llL1.ry gnde
ma ~~• .nd '~ the Di. le-~~.ll fOrmiIa f.o'; p.r ,:d l e t1n g "~ ~dabillt~ · . fo t"
btet"DBd~ te ' ·gt" a dU . Each text: V &B dirlded .iot o t hlt"dl ·&Dd. th

'\
_\ 1
. \
~ -.\
b~~ei1, t he., twe~tY:-f1.V~ - books' in ~he ' f our aeries ' were made thro~gh ,e."
, ~ tudY of ~be mean s , standard deVi.artoll' and range obtflbied. Differenc: ~s
. ' . , ' - ,
e eweee r ead i ng level of primary and ' intermediat e grades were found t o '
. . " ' , " .
be 1~r8e .The resear.ch Uldicat~d that re ading b a prob lem. to cont end
with. partieulariy l~ -the caa -~ of t he low-ac:biever. 131 ''Host 'of t en , '"
eays COnnor, '\then 8 .PuPU 18 categorlied as a ·sl ow-l eam er . what i s .
really' meant ' is ' t ha t he 1& a slOw ~eade:r .;,1 3 2
,'- . ' ," .
. . ' ~
Davie. r ep Ol"ts ' r es ea r ch by Raffner llhCl fou~ -that ,fifth'grade
.: , . ' ", . -''I . ~-
S=1_~1, at~le8. ' ;elltbOOka pr~ae~ted"" d;l. fflc~l~ voc8bu1a'tY~han sixt h
gr ad e boob and concluded that lIodal lItud i ea t extbooks a t both' grade
l'Vel8 : c~nta~ned · ·ex~~i 81Ve v~Ca~~ry'loada .and eg l1~eP t but~ldCrB.l:i3
'.. / ' . ' ." . ' - ,
Arnold applied t he Da,.l e-Ch,all Readab llity .Pormpla to tP-e a rade,
" ." '. .- .. ~ , "" . " " .
eight aeography, I tl.U:odudug Earth. Pa rt II, prese.ntlyJ1.eing used i n
~wi~urid ~and' 6ChOOls. · Be fO~ d ' · t~~the. : ~e~~ :Lng ' l ~ v e.l was m1ch t~ . '
•high f~S able 8 ~u de..iJ.t~: One unit of ~hc te.~~ ' ·wa6anll1YJ:~d ~d
~wtit ~en ~t ~ >lowe~ 'le~l : ' s ~udenu US,in g 'the ,r ~wri t t8n t~ tPOOk' .
~ ~ ~ ~.~ a.l: a .~~owe.d .an>iI!Ip;ovement "in a t t i t~d\ a ' and;~~~rs. ' an'Resea r ch. XlCXI I .:2;lAprU. 1962).
130. ' '.: ~ #

55
ach1evel

.
'-. , .' :,.. ~ , .. , " .
a chieving s tudent , A s t uden t l:eadi.n~g.. ~t a g r~ d e th ree or f our leve~
cann ot be exp ected to read ~ d _u.n~aiS~lld 'map conc e pts pre se nt ed 1.[1, "
t ~ x tb o ok~ written at a grade - sev eri-~or eight ,lev~ l . He 'n eedlil\ sOlle th ing
other th~n the ·tr ad1 tlonal .5ex tb~ok . wi th' its 1llajo r emphasis on reading,
material. to de~e lo p akiIls ~n' mafl-;rea~~g that sh ould. ~ccDrd~ng. ro
rue~~ch ccnducted , have"~een de'(eloped in th 'l-'i rtt e nnedi a r e gradell.
MAKI NG PROVISION FOR TRE- SLO'o/'-LEARNER _
"It COUld~be - ;qUlte poeisible, " says Chase, "" to reach a high
levd:"~ c;mp~ t~~

• "
57 :
~Sge1YiiB conduct~ d 'e 'st udy to discover th e effe cts 'on .r eadi ng
skil'l and , s ocial studies achievement ' of three modes o f.' presenta,t i on : '
"s imul t aneous reading-lisrening. list eni ng , and readin g . It wa s eon-
I ' ' . , ,' _' ' . .--/
eluded that simultaneous reading-listenlng tmd listening. when in-
, corp ~ratl!d with study guides. lIlay prove a wort hy add i t i on t o the
teaching methods used by junior and ,s en i or hi gh s chool te . e~ers of
,4t poor readers . 140 "
• ' Eile n stine 'i nves t i ga t ed th e efficacy ' of 'a n au di t,ory .o~e of
. .
learning'for Ii di .sabled r~ sde r in a sodal studie~ pr ogtlliP, In t his case
tape rec~rdings wer e pr ovided of all r egulllr reading'aasl ~enta , 'The
approach allowed the dlsab lad r eaderto ,c ontimie i n his'or he r , acl!l-
, , ,-' "
demic learning rather t!"lan waiting for reading sk.ills ' to develop. The -
.. reault~ showe d that i nput fr om t he audio, lllo'da 1:lt y pr odu ced a sig~if1-
. , '. " .',
.::ant recreaee in, social·studies achievement and that ,such II pro grsll ~y
\ ~eap a. vllriety "of beneflu f or the' di sabled J.'eader,1 41
Gritzner said that "particularly , in the field -of I;eogr aphy ;
verb~l~derllta~~ 'i~g, at ' ~ny ~ 1~8 S l evel can,_ s nd,should ,be llI u ppl e llle~ t e d .
\dth·visual i llpresalons. ,,142
, . ' 140p etl!r HaBseltiis. "Effe:ts on 'Re'adllig Sk.ill ·and Social
Stu~ies Achievelllent from Thr ee Mode a of Pre.B!lntation: S1Illultaneowi
Reading-Listening , Listening,· and Reading," ·Socilll Studies Dillser
tattons 1963-1969, ed , Richard E. GrOlll(BOuldu. Colora4o; ERICCleiar-
. ingho ~s e f o r Social St udies/So chl Sci en ce Educ ation, ~9 71 ). pJl,,' 89-90.
141Edwin L. E11en~'The Disabled Read~r: A Study of' :~
Auditory Mode of Learning Procedu r e on Social Stullies Achievement ," .
(mip\lb~1ahe.dDoctor " diIlBrtation, .S t . Louis, University, 197~) .
142 : ' , , -,' " , ". -" :--
Charles F. r.ritzner, ·Jr.,· "The .Geogr aphi cal Filmstrip: A
Negl ectedTellching Aid in Hi&her P.ducation," J our nal o f Geography,
U IV, · ,3 (March. 1965) , lOS . .

; , _ , .~ .,_-c~c, ~ , : ~\
~ ._ . "••erees----.,_:
ta"t~on · fo~ '~h~ alOW--le'1ne.\": _
\ . . . . . ..'
';;; ~~:n~r~~de~~C:~:Q~r::~~~d~:nU:lmar::;~:1:t::~~:8;8
graphice fac;t11t~.te lariat! l eam in g . POl" IDOs t ,sloW
learners, visual pr.urta~on is the IIOs t eff ective
f . av~ue of learning, -.: , , .
Pro b abl y one of the ec ae relevant: pieces of research to thb
pr~j-ect ';8 "S': st UdY by ~Cha80nlnvJ'(fng .the use o! :audiovisull.1"
M odal ':"hO'; in "",hl~ 8".i.p";\a; cerre'n. ·C011ese- ·R! oha "
", . . . ,' . \ , . . .
elQlldns that the. pl:lTPose for in t r oducing. audioviaual methode ' a t carroll
" , : , \~_.. ,. ,
C?,llege waa to improve t he ~ tent , of t he beg1nn~ ,cour se 'in phys ical
geography;. top rovl~ , the riece8aary .rele-~i.-e..1nterms of both con.ten t ·
and te aeMas str a t egy ; to pr ovide flex1bll~ty in class achedu ling; to .
.;;-omot e independent learnin g'; to p1:ov1de acou~~e whi ch' wllUid' allow'
\ a ll a tud~n tll ' ,to c~llte favo~ably regardlea's of ~he1.r bigh " 8cho~ 1 , pre-
. ~ . . ' . ' ' . . . .
p'aration. cultural differences , or les:mingabillties. His findings
indlcated that almoste1ghty pucent of those enrolled i n t he audi o­
rlausl ';tutor~ progr&lll felt ' t'~~ this 'meth od ' of in struction ~u
: ' , . ". "' -
!lupeda!' to t he , t 1:a di tional ~ o,&i tory approach. Almost , nin et y perc:ent
, '. . .
in dicat ed t h at the color s U des 'an.d extra vi suals aided their iu- ·
14Jceorge B. McCunne and, N .' ·p~llra:~."Interp r~'ting Haterial
, Pr e sented i n G1:aphic ·Yom," 'SkU l DeveloJX:lent i n t he Sod al'St udies
ed, ' Relen McCracke n carpent er , Thirty-tMrd Ye Arbook. of t he National
Council fo r the Soda! Studies (WaAhington ,., D., C,: National Counc:il
f or th e Soc:1al St~dies)" p , 202., ' , .

59 .
tl!rpr'et~t1oD of b~U and con~eP tir. . HO r~ th an '~o- th1 rd s of t h e ' 8t~ e~i:.
felt t~t 't hn e vaa DO 108s ~f personal C:OIltae~ wi th t he In9truc tor~ '
N1~~Y-~ ' per ce~t ~felt that' t~ cour ~ e el~ctted • ty pe ~f .t uden~
~thU .BiaSl!l DOt pr ellent in t'r . dltt ona lly pres ented courses . Th~ f~d -
. .
b gs aho t ha t l earned f &:,ner e1atllldal - ·
re~ea led
'.'
a t;.udenta
. j,-
and
'
retained
144 '
l onger t han when . ub j ected to expository lI~ thods onl y. ,"
.'Har r e l l exP l ains t ha t a sOIlIewba t s i mila r app roach vas us ed a t
o. ~
. . .. .
lIuf f -a t Cubbe r b y Hig h SchoO;l deve l oped t e chniqu el for i ndi vi dualizin g
. , . I ' J'
. ho r t t:lultlmedb. un l ~ti designed a rou~d t he .,t hi r t y -!1ve 1Il1lillleter pro -
o • •
j ~ c torc o J;Tel~ted 'wi t h written proSt8lll and .ynchronbed aud lo- t a~ d
lnet rtl c:: tl~ . \ :ln f or.at ~·n ; Rnrel l _rep~rtl tht the .ud~~18ual pro ject
. . de~lo Ped new:. ~"'s of atud yi n·, : So:ie n.ee o ~ t prcnri ded fIJIOre ' ind ividualization .
of ~ tI!!r1.i. ~ ~d i ,""b ed t he $~u~ntl lllOrfl pe r i onally i n t he ' ! ea fll1ll.g ,
. : - . .
p~gr_~ .Ile ~ earCb fhd1D.,. , rev ~sle d tb at .tud~nta enro lled: 1n t he p~­
Ir~ found the ~.u.al p a~tern ~f t radit1~l lecture • • vr~tten buay work.
. ' ....;gD-nt.: "~d . t r d cbt t ext book ~ lI!iad~g . borin, .. c~ared with the ·
~ov1aUSl _thod 0 145 .. . .. '
; Dwo'rk 1n an d HoI~ eceeceeea ';, a t udy t o fi nd out w e th er th\ ,
.ound f1 iD.~t ; iP ' "~ a ~OOd sUb s -ti tut ~ ( or -t he cla~ .r oOlllteai:he r . Th~Y~ , .
. f ound tha t, .t hen wa, n,o s1 gn.l f1~ 'ant diffe r~ nc:~ b ~ tlIee~ ~he tWo but t hey
1 44~~j· lIJI1n ' F . a." ~C:has o n, ~r • • ; ~e a~~~~ Geol r~PhY by th e
Audio vtausl Tut or i a l Method," Audt ovi's ua l Inurue t l on , XV. 2 (Febru ary';
1970 ) , 42. •
. j
~ 4 5Burt R.rreil. "A~ d iOV1sual pr OBrll'll; lind se re eee Inst ruc tion."
Audi ovisual I nllt r'uctioE" XV, 2 (Feb ruary. 1910) , 25-2 6 . •
r
,--,~~:; ; o;,-J;

'di d'.c onclude . tha~ "8~und il.bnstrlP~, .1J1ght ?e ' SUbst1tu~d _f~r mOre "
" "' " - 146
expendve f,l1ms ancl t elevi sion . r' .
ielley conducted a c:o lll~~rative study ;rl t h ~l rllt grad~r:a '~i: ;
Michigan Cit~~study the ~ffects of ,u sing fllmstripsin
~sCh:i.~ ,g u Jd ing.: He f~d th at th'~: youngS~er8 ~ho had. t ,he ~dV&ntage
of ue:l.ngfUmstrips 'in t hd r r~adlng di d dgn1ficant ly better on t he
, .Ga t e ~ Pr iiMry' .~.ading · t e ~ ts i n wo~d recognition. The t ea ~he r reported
th a t filmstrips ll11Proved student interest , stimulated class diacunlon ,
• I ." " ' .
: he lped fix basic ~ocabulary ,encouraged th e t:l~id chlld" , n duced
. .
teacher lea$o~l'reparation tillie, and hl!lped i n p~one t l c and,structunl
. an~iysi8.147
' . ., .
.Chance used twoh";'-dred t r 3nspaJ:ende,8, aud eight hund red Over'-
.:.~ya in te~'ching, e.~gineering· , desc:i:iPt ive geOllletiy'. to . f~_~S~ri , -eng i'~i e rlIig
students, one hundr e d four .of whomwendi vidlld between th ls met hc d lind
the usuall~liItructlon with t he chslkboat.9. Th~ 'tJ:anllp8x-en c y gr oup did
sign1fiesnt ly 'be~te t: tha n the ehalkboa x-d gt:?Up. Both ln~tJ:Uctor8 and
146 ' . '. .
Solomon Dworkin and Alen Holden, "AD FJtperblental ,Evaluat iou
of Sound Film stdps ve , Claasrol)lli ' Lect ure , " AV C01rIlIunicatlona Revi ew.
VIII . 3 (Sprlng,l960), 15'1. Alao , l n Journal 0[' t he Soe1ety of & tlon
. PictUI'e and Te l evi s i on Endneen , LXVIII (June ; 1959), 383 ,,:"385 , ' . ,
147; , D', Kell~Y, ' 'Uti~:lat'lol of Fi~s triP~ a8~ !l,i' i n ' '
Tea chihg Beginaing Reading, " (unp ublished . Docto r's d1saertation,
IDdi ana llni veral.t:y, 1961) , cited In John A. MOl dstad, "Se l ectiv e '
RevieW of Research Studi.es Sh0ll'1nR ~Jed18 Bffectlve ness: A Pd me:i: ,for
Hedlll Directors," AV. COIirmuoicatlona Revie w, XXIII, 4 (Winte r, '1974) ,
392 . ,

61
Other 'r e s ear ch b; 'Stuck snd Manat t re~~ ~ed t ha t 't he' 8ud1 0- '
tuto~lal met hod' ~ f. ins~rueti on ~a,s ~ i~f1eant' lY superior ' to t he
'. ·· 149
conven tional (lec tu r e ) inethop o f instruction.
A11~~' s uggested t ha t filmStrips and alid~ ~ have been fo un d to .
be. at l ea s t 's a ~ ff~c: t~~ e as f U ms because o f special learning condition
e f or whi c.h t hey .~e especially 8u.i ~e,d .e .g • • l~d:l.v1duai pac in g
and student partlclp~tl~n.150
. .
"I, review of 11;erature an d research in bot~ ' gene ral and specific:'
" . " . .
educ:at~on ever the pa st de ca de l eave s little doubt ,tlhat increased
s oph18tlcatl~n In 't he ' uae of te chn,ol ogy ' and media bY' t eac:her ~ :19 l1llperat~ve
in ' or de r to hJ lp sp acf.a~ children cope ' with . the regula'r educational
pr o·$l:8Il\. 'I t i ~ obv-iou a froll'lthe .;esearch that te ac hers need
/ ' :

'
62
I t 15 this particular group o f s t udents -who compri~e
' . -'. '- ', . - ' .
pdmary .t ar get populat ion fo r the', developmen t of th e. i n 8t ru c t l ~na1
the
I
I
unit (pa ckage ) DO ' "Map "Readi ng Skills: Lati-tude ~d Lo~git ude" . The
I . ',"'.
gen~~a1 obj e c: t ive fer de ve lo ping such a uni t ill t o ~ e l p a s t ude nt re 80;1\
. ~ . .
tenc)! wi th a pa:rtic:ul ar lIlllp ski ll le, a l eve l of compe s o &;5 t o enab him
t o proceed with th e maj ority ofhie elas sPi«tes t owa r d ac hi ev ing t he '
course . obj e c·t1v~s.
Chapte r t hree "e xpl ain9 h ow t he i ns t l:ucti ona l package ·was d ~ ­
've l o p~ ,8:cc.o J::'di , _to' i~ s tr u c t1 o ~a l deve.lopmen t'theory ~nd provld"es a'
de t ailed 'expl ana t i on of each step in t he. !ns tr u c t i oria1devel o p~.e nt
' . . ~ . .
. On t he ba sis of t he l"Bl~t e.d } 1terature and e.1IIpirical research
,
a numbs X' of generalizati ons ,may be ll\ade abou t , r es ea r ch ca rried out t o
' . - , c. · " . '-.
d,ne on map akilla ; Firs t ,of all, a r evie W" 'of t he geogra phic; literatul:e
implies t hat ·t he groW"th of childr en i n llI ap -readi~ ~ concep't s and skills
r oughi y corresponds
t o learning t heory and eognitive deve lopm ent t he ory.
The l iteratur e also, i n dic ates that there 1& a need for sk 1ll deve lo p­
··lIIen t ' bec~us ~ Ski ~ls ~r"e II ·.v'i ~a ilY i1n.por~ant' component of ·the tot~'l
aoelal studi es _ c u r r ~ eulu~• . Th ~ 6 need 'i s nowhere mor e. aPparent th an ~1n
. the area of' map sk i lls . xcv eve r , th e r u ea,r eh i n,Uea t es t hat there i s
.. gap betwee), aetual and pgtenti~ l a ch ie~ ement ' d~e t o unsys telllatic ~nd
, ., ' .. ' , - .' , ' ,, ' " ' , ' , :..
uncoord inate d i natr ue t ion an d t ha t _ p sU ll d ev81opmen t-. ~n 'school .
does not fo llOW" a~y . de.ve1~p~ ental 'seq~nce .

63 ·
, . -:; ' ; . - .'. :.
~ tte",p t~ "ljave 'been made ~_Y }, Q llI e .1 11ve ~ t1 gato r s t O develOP:-'8 .
hle ~~'r l:h1CailY defined' s equ enc e fo ~ map sld lli i nstr ucti on . ' B~sed ' on '
.: . . ' , " , . ' '.
. 'up t h e hier ar chy, wi t h low e l: ·con t e nt . sk1l1 s , ~elng ' p r e req l,1 i s i tB f';r
. higher le~el skills .
Other r esearch suggested that it was important fo r a child at .
. : . -' . ' ,
an e ar ly age t o be ab,le t o und er s t and a ",ystell o f ' r e f e r enc e a (l
- . . , . , ,
atituda
.
on'-glt ude). and t hat by, gr ades fo ur t ~ six s t uden ts' er e ca pable
~d l
o f -l o cating spe cific plaeea in ,t erms of, latitud e and'lons.ttude .
. ,
Due to t he na ture of the lea~ e r and 'the f ac t the't studentll
ar e d1fferent ;map -ski llB ,de~el~paen t does n ot alwa ys prog ress i n a
. . . " .
COlmllOn pro&rsllI will \lll'.et th e nee ds
of ,each individu al. 'reaching t he
slOW' ''learner invo l ve a Qaking adj ustme nti an d 'limi t i ng e xpe c.ta t i ons. The~e
. . " .
" . chll dr.en ' .ne~d Ill8ny concrete exPe riences , Resea r ch i~d ica ~e B th~ t IDOst .
geog raphy , and' social. ~ tudie s
t eXtbo oks are. a t ';''"reading. leve? much ' t oo
high f or t he l~ach iu.vin g,. .studBnt ~ In s tru ctlo~ tnuat' b e based" ex tensiv~ .ly
on ac t iv1.t i ell which de-emphasize r e ading.
. .
.
Studi ea i nyolving t he us e of media techn i que s aug'gest 't hat
" ' . . . :
"
low-sChi e.v_iug ~ tudent s. particularl y t ho se with 'a reading. pr ob lem ,
proUt IDOre
through t he us e of :audi o and visuai. 1IlOdea · o f p ~e ~~n ta tion
of mat el:iala. '.Teacool:s l'lus t be prepared to 'cons t r uc t media orle-nted -

f l·
i~NTRO DU~ION .' .
It eeees re aaotl;lble ~oa8sUllle that moat liIt udents. pa rric:ul a rly
slowlearniug st.Ude nts. ~re' una bi e t o cope with th~ .tr a d i t i onal di dact i c
l ec.t ur e. met hod of p re8 ent ~tion of llIlI t ~ r ial. ' A child i q a relatively l ow- '
~j, ility classroom s hou ld n o ~ ,be ' do o~~d to failure s illlply ' because he h~~
. .
been p l ~c:ed at a 1.~~el1n t~e ' ln s t ru~t1 o n al seq ue?,ce for ....hic:lI h~ha"
~ ---'---_._ ._ .__. _ " no t ~ste ied ' t he nliCe8 s~ryprercquis'ite skills.
The wide ta;nga ·~t )n.11Vidual di ff erel).ce s· lWlOn~ a class of
students eekee i t unlikely t hs t grDup :illter~c:t1o~ a lone w1U mee r t he
v.ari ed need~"o f" t h e studen~ s ; Some .,t ype ~f a~ a~tat l~ n in t he i"?st~~ - "
I
co.,
'" " "", 'N" ," '~ md;d sc ,," ~,~ .ff"" ve i ea"" ., ."".".,
specific t o t h~n e ed s of " ea c:h &tude nr" can be,provided .
I ruHvidua1i z ~d 1.nstruction . i~ . r~CeiViQ~ lQCreas~d.·ClJ:lpha~ia · I n ~
sch 0019 ' O ~ this nat i on . ,t he cOllllllon t heme th';'t runs ."thrQUgho~t, t he w:1ti
ng s on this topic i s that o f " deve ~op l ll g· a ' f onnat that..can .provid" f o.­
t he 'maxi lllUlD indivi duai."fulfillment. of eac h I stil.lIe nt with~ the' scb.oo ls.
l ~llitrp ct.ional m~,erla1s io~' ~eveio pin8 prer e,qub ite s~h . 111&)'
b e , o~8aDU ~d in many lIay';l and pusented ~,n,- a v i de. ,va r i et y ~f se queI!cu .

- -..,...-'--'-" - - - -
"',.1
undoub te~~~.i:h,e ~,p t~l ors anizati~n. .in~ ~ e q ~ ene~ of i n s truct
i onal materials, for a particular skills dev elo pmen t pragni...."st , be
': . '- , " , ' , " " ., ' .,
';':atch~' 't o .'t he ievel of cognitive development of . the ' i nd i v i pua l l~ar nE,r
~Md't S:,;,ed · ~ o -his ' o-~· her r ee e o f dev e l oplDl'~t . ' Thomp so~ 's t r essea thb._,.
. . I
factor when he explains t ha t :
' - - - ' - "
~~:~2i;~n~f~~:n~~:~e:f a~~e t~:U:;:~ e:h;~~~. i~ ~~ U ~~~: i .
of expectationaet for h illl in ea ch ar u . of lnstQl.c.tion
s hould he /cle t.er ni n e

· .·· 66
A b.~ dc premi8e of 'ed'uca't ~on a ~ ' t·ec~olQ&Y . 8"?ci;' ' ther e (~ r e ; ' - ~f
In~_t~uct ~ona~ d~V elopment. 1s 1ha~ ' in 8t-ruC~iO ~ -1s , an t ~ c e.~ e~ t iy rela·t ~,d .
f ostud ent l eat~lng . Hob an emph"asl ::es this U ea whe n he , ~ays: " .
. . .. - , . ,
Rega rdles s of achievements of the 'mst'ru ctions ! dev e f c pe r ,
however. learning must atUI be llo n~ by the s r ",de nt . For
, thia J;ea aon . the In 8truc ~ ional qeve lop!!t mus t co nce r n h :lm:-' 1.S4
, lIel f wi th theo! les 'of I .earnin g a nd theor i es of , I n 8truc.tl~n " ".
The ~ e ader I s refer re d .t o ~ha'p t .~ r· one . pa ges ,ei ght t o ,:,lg~elm. ·
£9.r -'" discussiClq of l enning· t~eory ~ nd inst r uc r,i onal theol:y .
SY ST~ At(j1'y ~ If AND " ,
DESICNI!

-') .' " .
;~~i'~a~~o: :~: t~~cp::~e:-~:: ai::;:~~g~~~ri;n~o~~"'s::Hic
objec.tivell. baa ed on rese aTl:h,in human l ea rn ing a nd co 1lllllUoi
-:­
ca t i on . and employing a combination of ,hUl!lll.n aod non human
r ~ aour c e9 t? bring sbouc IDQra,effective iostruct ioo. 156 " /
Her r i ll. in di'sb.ls9ing t he fund~en t als of ins truc tional
' , , ' . ' "
" . . :' ,
, ,pa r t i eul a'r env itonmental 'sitUlltions which ,cause t he learner · to interact
. ' . ', :" " ' ,: ' : . 151
in such a ....ay that a specified change occurs )Xl. Ms, behav i o r . ': ' .
, , . ' . . ' " " ,
The' d ef tn1ti ona of Xelnp and Her rill .have much i n comioon' vlth .
" ,' " . ' " . ," ,," /' ' " ' ~"~ '. " , " '
ot~era tba l; are ~re payc.h,ologically orj,e!':ted. ' .or ~amp le. LWIIsdairie
ssys: '
'. .
I natrucition ia u s ed ,as agenerl c ~t e rDl r ef~ r r i~g t o a~y sp ~ c­
t Uable meana of co nt ro lling or , manipulating. serieaof
eve:nta t o pr oduc e . lIlOdiflcadol1s ,of behavio t through l earn i ng.
. :e~ if~:~l~~S;~;f~:~:~~;; :':~l~~~~o~:~ ~ : a ;:;:~ tc:~e~; "
meaa urelllent. 1 . . ' , ,. . "
" " , '. , I . , .
s on according these of vi!=W' itl
In t r uc t.i co pointa i s a proceS8 ,
which a t e a che r 'pr e s ent 8 aubjec~ IDBt.te r t~ '~ l ~ a r n:e'r ~o : t hat he r e~.
" Brands to i t in , a~ way t ha t -enablel! th~ tea~b e ~ t " ··d~~.ermi~e t ~ e ~e,.t
it.... of information to be presented .' I n other ;rord ~. the t eaching...

••
: ';~ ~~ e ~et~een i~e e.o~po ";e ~~ · ·-o~ ~ aY8t ~1l ~ .. 1~9~ 'In th'i ~ ~.... e t he
. ; 8; ~ ~ e ;" ,i.' eO~~ ~ed, - Of. ·aD lin,~t:~cto~ ~ .~ . rrogr~ ~ I ~ ~__inst;ueCi on , ~Pd tbe .
. • ; 8 t y~eDt_ . ~l ~ ;a p~rticulal' pat t e; 11 0.£ ~nt~r ~ctio~ . , _, _ ,"
~. L.> '(. T.h~ te~ 1,' By~tems ap~roach" ' implie s ' tlmt s c i ent i f i C: ~Dd. 08i : 'ieaehet'l .~sUDIe
tha?t:h~~ ' ;:'-;: ~J:eadYdev';l: ~~ ~o~ :~ea~ed';~ ~e~~~~an..~pn·teq~.·ite
":' ~~~8.,:::.as.~-:'feir ~;; ·~~ · ·~~.~~.t~.~,.~~.eau: " ~ppr~~c~ .:~~~· . :eq~.ir 'ed :: ::'. .'
• ~~~' ~~~.~r~ ,' . T~~~ .a it~ t ~ o.~ , . as : ~~eady , ~~ed , r.:.~ ~e~Pter~01le
, and two ', ,:1.8 n.ot 1?-eceSllArlly. ,true; beeeuse studeDta 8~ldolll anive in
, . " ~ , " " '" . '. ' , . ~
bemogeneoua group. 'ready' to' b. ~~ug~ t . ·i he . teacher'" .':ut u:1t lo tl-m.ay
:'>~ ~8gea. ~ ',~ o ' h,~ ,t~~t/l~t '~~ ::S; udellts a~,~ . ,e,~u~,lY ~ r~;,il~~a ' t o. 'l~~~ ; .
,.j '..,;., ".' . ~. ;, ~ . , " : ~ ':' . 1~,9L~enee 1'1, St~~~~m:; "I~od e i'~ 'for' I~htti~nalDI!O~gn:A '~ '
n:~_~r~~~~~~ , ~ee'~'l! . , ,~e .~~a~~;. tha t ~ .i : ~jOb ,ill ,t o, t e a ~~. ~~~~CW~ib~ ,
, Syateae Approach tOo,ln9tl1lctlcili'."',ln9truc:t10na1-.:li¢aip: ReadiD!!j8, ed.
, H. Da~id ' Herrll~, {EOilewood Cl.ifh. ,New Jers;e,.: ..put\tite-Hall~ . lnc •.• :
: ~ ; ....' )' ~ 7l) : P : \~~ ;~" 'E :H:."~ ' A'y"_::::;,,"'. ':" ••"";"~d " ,
,. I : /; ~ (St. Louis : M e~a1llllC: Coamuni t y ·.CoUege,'·':1970ri' p. :, 1 3 .:,.'. ~
' , . .. \ .' . ., .\ . i:, _ ,,;: , ... '~ '... ""
~~}..'~ : ~ c;~' : ~.' ~ , ·':; ~"', :1 "' ",~,: ,!.' ,{;" ~ > ..,. " ." " ,. " ••' .' " ;:
,;'1)/: ,:,,::'S'
'~::-:,_~,;, ',i-.." " ." ' ''' _~ - ; ¥ "'ri'~ "'~.':~ _" .' , ' . '· ;- . ~ , . t..,(, ·" "\!::i~~\.;: ::-: , ,;,: ,j:., :-.·. ,>·:: ;.,\...:;.', ".\~ :((

cu.r'riculum . helDOves on and doeEl:'the bee t he tan do, ' U\>wever , ' ';f t e ~
• ~ , " ,. .

.. • . '.
71 ·

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II
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. ~ ,"
.....
72
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.\,-
,".' .. ' ..
,-:.".

73
~ e~ e ct ins~r ueUona~ , events;
6 . sele c t lIIed l l1i
' "7 • . d i:vel.0 ~ 'or :i.cicBte the 'm;~e s s ary reoou; ces ; '
.- S• .t ryout·l.e,"alu~t e t~e e ff ec.t iVerie ss of t ~e ruour.e es ~ _.
9 ~ r evise t he r esourcee u~'tl1 the y a u ef f ec t ive:
. . '. - ,.
r ecyc.l e ~o~-t1nUOUSl" th~ou 8h th e 'whol e p r o e ~ s s : '
A1~ 6 t all the JUny ' papeu ', articl es ; sTid b ooks which 'hil';'l! 'b e~
iii
.a.',ent in ~hde " .the ·.f O.~ ~ ~~~ ic ~1e~nt8 ( s ee F~guu 5) ': ~. ~ ny I nst tu c - ::.
•t~9nel de~elopment
sy s teD:
1. inll't r U(:tiC;;n.al ob j e c t l ~~s . :
.2:'- p r~t"e a t '
3 . instruetional .eHvi t1 e's
. 4 .. 'pos t r ast
. DzSIGNINQ' ANDDEVELOPING THE
, IHS1:IlUCllOOALWIT
. , . .
' The actual d~velo~ent of the package ,,'ali-d esig'!ed arid ca rried : .
_, ' .. ' _ , ' . , I
.out us1Dg' th e 4-D ·!.ode l of i ti a t t uct l Ottal devel opnlen t ~elJ l gDe d ,
::--:.....' ', ' .: " -,,, i6i •
Thla8araj ~ n. Se:lllInl .·a.rid S_e ~• . . -.
Th~ 4- D ~ CKI el ' b ~ lIIPo B e d ' of four stase, · O f, , ~~ 8 t ru o t i'O,1l.~ ' ·d e- ' .
~ ~lci Pm_ent~':'cl~f:l.n:e. clea 1S"l, - ~ave l o'~ . ' ~d d~8seminlite :,(l ee F~8ur~6) ~ \i . ' "
by

"
The',e-n ' ~del o f I nstructi onai Dev~ioplD ent . In
·S:i.v as allall Thi ag arajiln , Dot athyS. Sellllllel. a nd HelV)'n
1 . Sellllllel. Instructional DeveloJllH:nt for Tr aining
Tea cher s ' of ,Exceptional Children: ' A Sour cebook
. (Bloomingt on . lndhn.&l Cen t er fO~ : 'lItrlOV.tiOl'l in 'Tea ch-'
ing .t he Ba_n~ 1c apped •. 19' 4). pp•. &-.8 .
"
'.

·l evel . For thes e s t ud e n ts the r ~ i SB d1silati~'fac tio~ wit~ ' scliool such
C.'hat thay appro~,ch l e a rn in g t as kS in a !lost apathetic 'm an~er . " There :
• , , , • ~ ' . " , .' , ', J
.' 8bs a~bed i n a "u sk ,t h a i nt e r ests theJi' they . are p re p a}~d ' t o ~on c:ent ~ate .
fa~ ' ;;or e l nt e i i ect ual ' eff~rt ; upon i t than f her w~ li8u:nmon ' u ~ ' fo r ~
" , "
"ta sk whic h 'has ' no in terest for' them. For i t s .successful c:omple t i On they
mU 'often end~re t he dr~d~ery d ;r~petl ~ive "m ec1;Lo.~lcal "work which , ·
othe~e woul d ·bore . the~ .
A.' few ' y~ars ag~, the writer ~as gl~:n the respona~biUty o(
devel~Pln~ 'an d 't e a~hing 'a maI

78
.,.
. .
8 t~tB h ad IlO t . eve~ he . rd the terl!lS bef cre .whll, others underuood"w .
. I t vai, beC ' II ' Il ·Of -t he ·_~te r ' ? · 'f !'U.~trat1Ol1 a~ , ~eaf:be r ' an d t bl
' s t udents ' b ~ r.d an d ' C lll~~ iH~ ·n ell. t i w . tti tude, the autrlng ill .bi.1~t~
of ~8~ Bt~ents 'to tlla d -even a l~Pl~ tIl4terial; .'~ n d , t,!, e ' 1~ l7~ ' ~ f ':P P t'oi~ ia t.. . ftI
mat eriais,to tuchth. -cc neeeee ~f latit ude ~ n d l Q~g:1 t ll d e · ·to- ·lcr.r ::'a chl e~iri.B
Ne~f'~ und l~nli"~unio t 'hi gh a e~oo ~ atllde~ t " th~~ t he v r:t:t er fe~t that. th ~ :
de ve l ClpZent o ~ a n, ill d lV~d~l ~l'.:ed· me ~ f Inllt~ t1onal ·lIGd.ul e to _te~h
SOIlll! bas ic up r ea ding skills was IIOrel f nea d ed 111
tbe I ch oo ll•
.1Ds.trllctl Oa&lpacka!:.:
",1
1. " to h e lp th e ~ tll den t ~ul~. lU ll .111us b, lat l tllde and
I -. ,- '.
_ l ongi tu de ;.' '. ".
2 ~ ," to ·fa e~11 .a t. the useOf '. ~~ ~ . ~~ ~Vit r;.~ ay U re; .
·3. " t o: f4.cU ltat~ Inst rU ~ ~~l on i n ' ~eo ~ n.phY an~/ o r' 90cld 1EI '~Ud lell ;
4. t o
.
Pt~lde ~~re
.
- P'i c t Ol" 1..l ' O~ ~~bo~~C· fot'll.of pi"lIsent.t1on '
· for,th e 1 ~ &I ve rb.ll eu.d~Il~ . '
' -. '.'

"' . .
8.
, ":
". .
",~
1A d e"tail i n',. ~~ ' ~eal tlC e ff o ~ t ~ o dee :lde ~" edu~t~ l oa ;l.;- I
~~ugh th e ' ,,:~ 'of a. ll/e·d~·c~tiona{:-d. ..~~~~t .t_~a.te~ ;
.;: ::':;:. :~ ' "~ ' ~ O l """0' ;b'~ :OCh" P" ~"~ ,~~non ' / ':
-2. Ded1de~ port i o,:, 'o~ }~ rne ra till t ea chtr; tea U1 "ant. · ':- .
t o ui t e ~. '~ se DW .t _·p r ef er r~d behavio r s u~n..t f. ii~4, -~
iltep one• . ~ . ' : ," . :'~
. 3. , ! l nd out what the le arner'. r;:urn nt at a t "l is through
":; th~ ·u. a of ·;r' 1terion ~re f•.r. nced' t e ~t·~ .
" . 4. SGl,eet 8:0&11 by ecin tr as tlnlJ,d e.tred .eat ua wi t h I:.llrt'tnt
"',I : . : ", r ' a ta. tUB. 163.: , . . I'"
'""---"1'
'BU ild :' t~e foUr' s teP. outlin e d bi ~r and "POPham: 1t:',,_
. ~~ . ' ~hTOU~: t~ s t ' r: ~ u ~u .- that ~ . ~ la c re pancy e~~ ~ed~iG t he' l~rnerl
' 1n : q~~ t l ~ ri be tv~ t~~ c: rlt:t do~_"~ _. ~hdr .c t~ p~f ~~ ae .
", . nie ·~e. ~ i th~& ' ~er e~~ ~ " ~ l~~)' bee'~ 1Jl d.i~-t.a . I t
:::::'::::::~: ~: :Z~: -:::~ ::~~':(:: '~~:.:: ~
an d .~la 1D. t he . e~_t~rr an d p~~ry gu de. an d

---.----'--"-...::::"--- ~ - '---- -
----------:---- ~-
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-r. ~l"".,~;_:...:'.m',.;. ., ., '
, .. : ' ~ :::=fend thatthe.nad l:n~. luel o~ ~ th.tnt:.."'.f•.~ .. & ~ .,d.e ~ i &ht :
: c'i · 1t~ Il! 't e Obv~ OUS' fr wi th ~~'" ~ l~~ i ni. th at the lOw~ach l ~Vln g .
. -~ ~ ~detl; t wh'a ]. '11 r e ~~-.c....- ie vel t wo t o foo r tean belOll hi~ g~.ade_ .
··uve ~· ~..1l 1 ·hB ve · d ~ff J. eu l t ~ ' 111. r ~·a·d:i.n ll \ he ~nth.d":'dn8 · Eatt h ' ~ ;'l et1 .
I' The< & on mao, 'n",,",,;on'" ";

~ -.......- ,

~.
social flt ud1.~s thr~ ;', ghou ~ t he Ilrov in~~ of :Neufoun e - 2~.

,.
. ' .' .. ' . ' i '
CC ~ ~ .Qf 1:.n&tructional planning hi ng e /l upon the accurate identification
" . ' 166 •
of-leat"ner charac.teriaticB."
r,l . , ; ', :
edge 1l~~ -oe- ind ~e :- !~Oll\ the'incl:eascd know l of how s ~g r~ s . .
vel?P has come ·the.rea_li~~t1.on of onevery ,l~portant t Ilf t h: tliat t eacher s
eanllot effeet lve~y he l.p young pecp Le develop skills , or any othe~ 'h am ";
l~ g ~ i n the aoe!al studies, unless ,they ~on a id~ r t h e. na t u r ~- of t h ~
le a'~er" It i s n ~" apparent that s~"';dent ~ bring with , t~ e'llI to th~ ' ciese - .
rQQm 'i1: wi de z:an ge (If perll,mal1t1c;s and patterns of behavl?l:, as well as.
. ,'v';'t yi ng ' ra tes o f growth and; int' ell l ~enc.e. All these f lictOl:'8. plus Nny
, ' . , ' . ' . " .- '
omeee , wi ll .infliience haw and what ' a eeeeher nae t o teach.
Overview of Relevan t Ch llrac~e rt&t tc6·. A teacher ' m¥t -make ' a '
i
I
ccn ectenet eoe effor t t o identify t he. critica l eharac t erts~ ic9 .of
. . - "
s tud en t s in ord er tD design i ns,t r uc t l ons l, 'materials appr o priat e l y.
lIere a r e some of the ch'eracter16tics r~levant to.11
. . .
d~t~t~edl'earne r
8.nlllys1s aJ\d t h e accomp anying as&umptions p e r t l 11en t t o the 'sllIIlpl e tuted:
"f. Subject ~tter Co:npet,;-nce . Th~ '~ ri t e nd e d le~rner'had II
w e ~k ba:"ckgfDund in map.skills. Th'e., entrybehavtor t.ha t w~~ 'r'equ1r;d"of
t hose who took the instru ctiond package waa s'hown .to be weak. I t.
WlI ~ 'as 9omed. hOll~ver . ' ~ h a t ' _ the ~e:st.'ud~nta had Ii,ad .~ o me contact with
-c---'--,--'-----~ lni!PS"lIfi

e~ f d id not 11ke che i:ex ~b~Dk-l e c t~ ~e, app~ o'ach . : ":he ' 1nv'est iga~ 0~ an- "
t 1 c :l. p a t ~d that t.hey \nJuld t"e a pond pos:l.t:l.ve ~yto ' _a s~lf~1nstruct ion;) 1
J'.' ~~guage , . Th."
.
langu age level of. th e i ntended l earnc r ~ was
' . . . .
v.ery.we ~k. It wa9 \1mport an t ' t~a t .th e :dev e loper as~ume ve:rY .l1 ttle and
0" ~", ; boch '"Ip,i" and 'n= , " ; ' . '0=, :" " woo, ; b, in "" w1

:
. : . ly e~ •. • P~d ~ i C .~ il.h " .~d ~...~n i:,,_~ " .~ ~ l e •.l:~.d" _d l~ ~ c t l Y to ,'t:he. : ..
,- sa l e c tion o f ,in.l1"i d ualbed objec.th'u . t ea chi ng atr at e g iU. .. ncl ln-
.' .
..
I.
I·
Il~ ever . ~efo re aDy.of tbt! ~bove pr oc~uz:: n u e bronght b t o ."
' . ' pl a y 1t ts vitd ! , aportAnt t o "d o ' . t.-.k· ana l y s is. " I t . 18," a :s .'
:n:ia g.;.j ,,~ ; ~ . pl. ~n a ~ , " t he~ MUnJi. ~; Vb:::'.. "t he. In . trve t:l~n.i. t .. ~~ 11 .
. '- " . ' 169 "
brok~ dovn i ntav.rio... c,o lllponel1t lIub t aB h , " Th b ga r a j . ri gou . on ·
t o- say ' th at : '
Task an a l ysis fo tln8 the basis for . b o t h the c onstruction
.:~; ~: i~~n~h ;n:;~II:it~n:~=u~~~ o::~l::a~ ~- , ~ : II~: ~~~~::~ "llG
by th i '!! and y.is, "alps t o ~e tU J:line th e medja t o b e us e d • . ' .
I n d ev d oping ~ ' t"a s k '. nIl1 y,, 11 for the c: on . t rue t. :lo~· o f lin i n-
6t ru c: t1o~al t oo'~ . f o ~ l~ t, i ~Ud e . and l ongi tude t he wr1t:r U Sedt~e .c ep e' ··f
out l i ned ~ ,. Tni a8ar.aJ an 'as ;I, .-.od e l. "th e s e I t epa . a r a : ' - . r
\1. SpecUy t he _ i~ u,k.
2. : I d ~ t1 f y BUl>ta s k. at' t bte preceding l ev el of.·COIIpl e:z:lt J , .'
", ' .". '..' ;.' . ' . ..J . "' ,;
u t aeh ~S ~ ...~ ~"k an d ·.: "'pea t he an al7t1c
3 . 'b . 1\I})t .... t
I'roc.ed ure.: • . ' '. : '. ,
• 4. T e~I;\ .U ....a1 y . lI vh~ 1l wb t&~ J'. ~ ea~he.• th e ..• • t r y ~evtl 'of '. . '.

.;

le a:cn how to spell 1 t ~,
,~i',
un d e~19t ~ d h t 1t~e ' ~ lO~ g1tu~ e . ,~e ,~~ter :fel. t th.1t :" u ac h the~e
~e e pt;s : ,to. l0w:-aeh 1evins, juni or h 1~h....eho Ol stu~e nts ~eqUire~ , ~ o u r - "?"
, ~ubtasks":. the ~erBt~ndi1\& ' of the ,hetOr s of

, \
b . Bemhphe r es. At' this point: hemisphere'~ -had to -be ex- ".
,- " . .
pla1ned before' . ~d e nts ' cOll.Id' be: e Xi' e e t ed_ t o. UDdlll :r:: ./I ,tQ~d t bat e4Gh hiimi- .:
llphere ha s ninety d e g ~ees lati tude. / . .
"'It';,.' .B e~;;~~ 8 tude~ts could llct u.II11Y ~lt e . an ~ ~a te i . t l t~d e. . it '~a 8
- · ~ iB O ~~i~~t for ~hB 1ll. to _under o't'and :~~~ t lat1 ~-ud~ 'lin e ~ are 1108 8 t h at .'
. ' g~ .. r o...nd, '. ,' g l obe . t hat they.-ars the s ams . distance' 8pa~t.' · and that they
.•...... '
• ", d ecZ"~:~ ~ .I .ln ' s b e going t owa;~8 t he .-n or 'th "a nd ~oui:h ,poles •
, . " " "
• . Stude n:" a l so ?eeded t o 'un~era tand ,t ha t t he r e 1 s II method , to
Wru tn gdOW'll,· t~e : loe~. t lo~. _ of a' place acCOrdl~g to\ i u l atftude . , Firat ,
' .
ther e is the abbrevi ation l at. for' b.ti t ud e, fo llowed by the numbe r o f .
deg~ee.l..- 'and 'finally a c ap"i tallet t~r ~. o r s . f o r' n9~ th or 1I~":'th ; ' ;
~ . , .d~pe~n~1n;i:': :::~4:::::~;n the student ' wAa re ady to , see how t
latltud/1ine..._;~~e ,actuall(u~ e d on .a llIap ~r . globe , f ~ l"\ocat ~ng ~a l' f:ou . '
-:L: Longitu de. Thi '.p'ro cedul'l' wa s Pl'&l:tl~aJ.iy the aame as . t ha t
~ . ~ . » " • , " . " , ~ : ".'.
, men ~ :I.,~ne~ . ~o r . lat :l.t ude . but a st e p -by~a t e p proce ~ ~ hlld .t.O,be, e xp l ained]
b eeaulI~ l on g:l.tu de , i s t he e xact o p p os1~~ of latitude ~d . t o alow -le,sming
s-tude nt .s· to ~a{:'t~ t l ongit ude 10 Ju st th e oppo site of l a t i tu de .... not
' · ~anO~gh~-' They had t'~ _~ e , m:. de awa re~ · t.hat 'longitu~ lin,e s ,'are ima gi na ry ,'.. •·
l:I.n~'II \ t ha t ' ru~ frC!~ ' no rth to south .rid :' t.ha t they, ~ r~ s'o~t-1me~ ' ~ail e d
. , " ., ",': '.(,.... ' " , ,' , . " ;
1II ~r14iall.s ... Theil"Uge fo~ location and 1I1s tanee , _r ,e t.he aame as ',t hat ~or
" l'a t i t ude ixc'f1pt that measu rements a r e eap,t_est instead of north';'south ;
~ . ' P l"~ma ,~ rid lan . Latitu'ds has i ts be~,itm.ing +:l.ne ~a l i ~d
t.he '- e~ua tor . , ~glt u de ai~ o .hll8 ,~ . b~~innin (l: ' tine called t he Pl"t,me
.-~e rt;di~,n ., si:~deni. 8 ' had , ~~ :' .md '~r ~ 'ta ~ d t ha t ,,t h'e ' p'i: lme ' ~c ~l d l~n , is the ' ~ero ,

.
. .
degree longitude 1ine and th ~t:L t pa s ses, th r oug1!'Greenw!ch . Engl8;n d ,
t h ~ B helpl~g dlVl~e t h~ gl obe into twO h ell. isphe~e& . ea~ t and v est .
Since Greenwi ch, England , lIeant little to th ose s t ude nts , ,i t
. wa ~ n ee eese r y t o explain that the Z"1;'O deg re e : ~ on g 1t ud~ U ne p0811es
~ h rOU8h Greenwich beca use of a general a gr eeme n t a!llOng 't he -na t i ons
o f i he ;rodd . NQ further eta'horation ,was given d nce i t WII;' not
re a l ly th e purpo se of "t he unit •
. As ~ ~t ~ _~a titude , the ' ~t uden t wa s led to un det"8 t~n d tha t"there
are 'a c e r t ain number of , l ongi t ude ;d egt eea 'pe r hel!lhpherJ:!;. Seca use 101'lg1­
t~de l ine a 'a t-.. "d'U f e'r e nt frolll la~~tude .there are on); hun dred, e igh ty
The next Iltep was t ,o explain that lon ~itud e 1 1~ e a a r e,' c i rc l e~
th at i nt eu ec t at t he ·pol e l!. They l!r,e not parallel.
. , . .
proper method for expreo!ling longitude. The method is 'e xact l y ene ' eee e
as t hat uaed fo r latitude . F i ra t is ' t_h ~ abbreviation for longitude,
t he n th e nUlllb er .o f d eg;ee ~ " a nd f1n~ lY E ' , ,~ r ~ . de~e~in g 0':' direct ion.
At t ha.t point t~~ . ~ tud e~t wll,B1ready t o eombine wha t he had
l earned . lIe f~ re he did that . t he ' con.c ep t of gr id was e"pla ined . , 'I t
.,, !
" j

"
'~ e the J: 'cari be u s ,~d "co ~i~'e the ",,,,act l ~ c.a tion of a place or fe a eaee ;
At t he e nd o f: t he unit , i t was exp ec r-ed th ~t , s t uden ts ~ou ld .
; , . ' .
be able to uee.xhe t e res I llt i tv de . e eee-se ee line , and parallel I nter-
-
' '
;
'
changeabiy and use th ~ renns longitude, ~'o r th-south i'~~~. and me r id i~~ .
· l ~ ~' e r c. hangeab ~ Y , This·re s e arc.he r a'l so an t icipated tha ~, the !l e pupils -~'
. . . - . ..~ . " , ,-.\ '. . ' , .
woul d. be ab l e to us e latitude and lo ng i t ud e linea for finding l ocation -.
~n an/ ma~ or gl Obe .
", .
' " '.
,"
' ':\
,, - '- ' ..... . :, -\. -. .
Beha vor i al Ob1ec.tives . ' One of t he mo&c Importlln~ step" hi
. .
the i nsctul:ti,onal development pro cess is t~e f (mu.t!on of lesTTling
. .
objectives . ~ger stresse s - ~hll t "wheri ~l e a rl ~ defined goals are lacking,
.: . .
i t , 1s il'lpos sibl e t o .evaluate a. t ourse or program .~ ff:l c1e~ tly, snd the ~e '
h no so und b asis fo~ selecting a pprop~iat lllat eria:1s , ccn t~nt or i n- '
s tructionlll l!'ethods . i ,171 . .
Thi ag arajan expl ains t hat the 'specificati on...of objectives , 1&
t~e:tran sfo~ti~ ~ f task an d ,concep t, n al ya 1& 'i n t o ~tatemen t s of
' goals for in8 tru~ti~nallUterials .",p2
also points 'o ut · that ," t he
nature.~ .QJ t h e objectives is also 'o?e, of ' ~h •1l1011t ~portant faeto rs ~~n
t he sele ct i~n Of, instructional lIed! a and ' fonnat,' ,,173
171 - " , ' , .. ' - _ .
R.o.bert F. Mager, eparing Instructional tives,
. Pr Ob1ec
2nd ed , (Belmont , Ca l ifornia: ,Fear on. Publishe:s. 1975) , p • . 3.
172 . - .
Siva,!!ailam t hi agaraj an, Dorothy S. Semmel', and . l!,lvyn I.
Semmel , Instruct ional Deve l opment f or _Training teac hers of f.xceptiona l
Children : A Sourcebook (Bl oomin gt on, Indian a : Cen ter f or I nnovations
in Teaching t he HandiCApped , .1974) , p , ,49 :

, ' ,
teacher',s r ':l~e in ln structlo~; e nd 'to est. abli ~ h tbe: s'tu de n i: ' ~ , role i ~
learnlng .. "and i n .defini ng r eln f oreing s.it'\latl~ n B f or ' t he l e a r ne r .
Lehmann s t at~8 t hat the forilia tion of behllvorial ob j ec t! v,,'S
, ( . . . ". ' , "
"is t he most iJIIportant , ~tepof t he 'sy stelDs approach, becaus e all
,s ubsequen t -B tep ~ a,r e , d;'signed t o -eau s e "th e l earn i ng ' sy stelll ' I O flee t
. t~~ se ' Obj eC t1Ve~ . ,, 17 6 . .
A se t o f obj ec.t i ve $ ; then, b~ i: o:n ~ s ~he lIOst c r1t i~a l e o :npo n e ~ t
of elie i n s t r ~ c t io~a ~ pa' ek8 g e . Cat" lllUst be tBken lnc~nstruc t ing dru e.
i~arn1n S objectiv'es. ' I n order t o be effec tive, th ~y should be st ,;,'t ~d ' i n
:'. , ', . ' . '.
beh avor1al -tenlls . Much has b een written ' on the sp ecifieatlo n of ob jec- '
• ff ' 177 '100 •••.178 119
tives Jl. ~er .
i n behavo~~al terms. arts by :ry " M lI ~..r,
~ 74 R . ", : TYler , " "S ome Pe rsistent ~ues t io n s on t he . Defining o ~ . :
. Obj ect i vc s , " _De f i n i ng Educational Oblectives, ed , C. M. Lindvall
- ( P i~~~u r:~ h , pe nn ' : "p~.ive r sit):' of Pi ttsbur gh press ~ . 19&4 ) .
\:11. 5~ber t ' M : Gagne , The Conditions of Learning (Ne"wYOrk.:
Holt, R.!n1!hart ~ Winston, ' I ne . , 19 ~5) .
176Rcnr y Lehll.ann ,' "The Syat ems Appr oach t o ' Ed u,,'at i on : Pr oj ec t
ARIStoTLE," Audiovisual Instruction, Xl . (February , ',196 6) ,145 .
. .
-"t7S " " . :
II. S . BloOlll, et al. , Taxo nomy of EduC:ational ,Ob1ect i ve s'_-
Th'e Clsssif1cat io n of Educational Goals . Handb ook 1: Cognitive DorMi n
(New Yor k : Da"i'lg, McKay ce., I nc . , 1 9 5 ~ ) .
H?R.o .':be,rt ,F. ,Mager '. ' PreP a r ing ' l n s t ruc t iona l ~'j ..ct 1ves . 2nd
. e d .""'(lIelmont ,Ca Ufo rn1a : Fear o ~ Publisher s, 19f5) , .
_l

. )
' in this 'ar ea .
Kemp' 8U~ge9 ta t h;!.t t he;~ - ~re four ' t Y~~ 8 o f -Obj ec t i ves ,r el a t i ng .
t o beha v,l or: fact' learni ng . ~ o n c ep ~ form ation, -prinCipl e l ear n,i !,8 , and.
pro blelD ~oi~1~~ .1 8 4 .Jlecause ,of ihe na t ur e of the lear ners _f or 'whom th~
", -' . ' . !', . - ',,' .,
, uni t o,n Map Reading Skills - Latitud" snd Longitud e was 'des igned, IrlOst
18% . ,R . Krathvohl, .B. S•. Bloom;and ,B. B. Has1&, Taxon ollly of
Educat i ona l Ob1ectlves - The Classification o f Educ a t ional Goals,
Har.dbo ok ,II: Af f ec tive, Ikmain (Nev York: Davld~\kKay Co • • - Inc.~. 19 64) .
l ~ l Robe J; t M. -Gagne , " Educa t i ona l ' Obj e c t ive s a nd Human ,Perfo
rmance . ~· Learn ing an d the Educati onal Process , ell.. J . D. Kr ulDboltz
(Ch i cag o.: Rand 'M;-Nal1y c «., 1965 ).
I
18 2Robe r t Glaser , «a.i 'Tr ain i ng Re!loe a r ch ,a nd Educ ation
(Pittsburgh, pEmn .: Univ ersity Qf Pittsburg h Presll , 1962) .
IS\.. 'J . POph SlIl, ( ed.) In str uc'tlonal Objectives .(Chicat\o:
bnd McNall y Co . , . 1969) .
184Jerrold E. Kemp , _ In st~ ucUona1 Deshn : A Plsn fo r Unit snd
' Course Dev el opment . (Belmont . , Cslif or nia: Lear S iegler , In c ., 1971) .
185Robert r , Mager , ' Prepsri ":s InB~ tuc t)1o n a l Ob1ec tives, 2nd
ed . ,(Bellllont , Cslif ornis: .F es to n Publishers , I nc . , 1975~, p , 71 .
f

In o~her word s " .a ee a t ~ lII~ri t o'f ' ~~j e c t. iv e ~ in behavcrLak- t eeese llC~'
a 's tandar d by 'whic h ' p e~ f orma.Iic~ I II eV~lua te.i ; " t hat i s' a s ' S lIIeanll for
Ba"ed on ' the analysis .of t he l e arrier',:!~d th e. t a sk ;;":Iysi ~ , it
~ Jled t ha t the. · s t udlimt , upon 'c~~plet ion of th'% ~ ~l t o~ lat ~ t\ld'e and
.': '• . ' ' .' " ' , 'I " - .. ... , '-.' . . , ': . ", .' ,
. tude, ' WQuld :b e able t o .u ee latitude and longitude. with a hig h , deg ree of
..effidency t o l oca t .e places .on a Dlap or gl obe ; Specific~lly j>' a t t h ~ en~
of th 'e unit the n Ode nt WOul d be s ble t o perform ,tlili;se .f unctlo ns ,
' . " ' " . " ' .
1'. l>lt1t e t he ...jrd degr e einre8po~s ~ to ,a de finiti on as ki ng
f or t he wor d degr ee .
f or
. '
. ' .
2. 'Write the wor d, l at1 ~Ud e i n "r epl y , t o a d efinit i on .a sU nK
the. wo1."d btitude,
3 . r~it 'e. without ~he. e1d ,,~ f Tefer.enC~ !l , ';~ h~ wor d' ~ ,ar~ ~ 1el ,
~ith' o!;e h,:,ndr ed :erce n t accurac y , " .
. ,' . . , '- , ., " . . '
4 ; : ~ c s t e places marked : on a map ~n d expres s. their l o ca tions..
in t erms of l atitude .
i< .
e ••r e , 5..S''''. tho n.'b"• • , k ll'~":: th..... d"T ·" "U.d'
6. Disting uish be t we..eee eeem and.....e stern h elTl~sphcres on.,s
". a'imp le pic t o ~ial repreaent ~ tio~ .of a globe .
. .
eo •.':.,,::::' t he ~.", n.,b" cf d""".:' i .."",.,th, noT
8 . . Labe l which one of two d ia gr ll~S show s t he correct 8Pl",
. of } a t l tu de lines. ,
!

1'7. Wri t th e c orrec t metb t o be lI t he lang!,,:,
,'.
.
e od
-
lIsedto
,
-expres
, ' -
ud", co-ord i nate o f a' poin t shown on 5 en 't a . pict or i al repre t ~ tion ,of ,8
. ~lob.e or a ~ imp le map.
16. " Write, gi ven "8 S,!mPle'ma'p or p,i ctorial, r e pr e Elent at i on 'of .; '
a globe wI th "longi tu de - ~ lnes , t he l ong itllde c o- o.rd i n a tes ,o f t wo" places .
~ . , .. -, ' " _ : . . ' .
• 19," Name the t e rm use d t o descdb'" ,8. somb 1n s t lon o~ l atitllde
• and - l ~n g l t ~ d e U n"es on - a -!lis p ?t ', gl obe ,
~' 2 0 . Recall and labd. l!,i ven a s iInpl e grid
l. t .. -

i~ .fl,uen~es ,on i.n stT\l e. tio~ a i ' de s i gn inthe pss t -.t wo de ~';de" . ha s' been '
t he influx of educ a tiona l te chnology of all kinds i nto t he'lelJrning
~ :l t~~i{on~·H 1 8 6 .. . , ' .'
:'/ Gl1le t t , 18 ~ Kind er l 88 .and llIany o th~rs ' elllPhs s ize" t he ro l e of
_·/ i- ,:, )..:.. ....... .. ,.C :·,, _.. ," . ,_- .': .
I , 186J onn"'w•. W~\ !' !l: .! ,. I ;:-itepo rt .oo the prep !'- ~ a.tion ~f A Teaching
Unit on Mot i on: M '"'Xn tegrated Approach t o Xnstruetional' Developll'.ent. "
(unpublished Master' s t hesia; ~ lc ":lO r 1al Univ en i ty , St . J ohn ' a ., :-:"e", ';';'
foun dland , 1971) , p , 57 . .
187Margaret Gi lle t t, Educa·tiOn~l'Teehil.Ology : Towar ds ;e m y s '~~f i ~ '
cation (S ca~borough{ ontar i o.: Pre ntice..Hall. of ~an.a da , 1973) , p , 2. . '
, 188J; 5; Kind er, Udn " Instruc t ional lfedin (Tor ont o : I) ; \'3'1
~ost rand ' ro • • .l 973} .
J

', ' ', ' '.' ' ,-
i~ 8 U ~ges t in g th.at ,·th~ 8~lection ?< 1nst,r~l:t 1onal mate.~ia1s be appropl::iate
t.;(the ma,~ urAtY .o f , ~he : ~hil d r en wh.oai ~ going r'o ~S ~>h~~ : 190
~~ le ,8:'..Y8 th~ t , audiovisu:al materialS can , " ,eLllY h e l~f~l
~~~ :::::::. ::;:::,:.~~.~ .
ShOWi:g I:~~:\~'i e:~~:~:~ ~: "~e: ~·~~~ ;e f:~v;~~i~fD~~:'~~;~~ ,; ~t~i.es ', / ' ,
l::ommunicatio na Revi ew, ~II , 4 ('Unter , 1974), 390.
' . ,',: ' ' , ' " ' .' , '.
1 9 0 J oh~lf;" Hi chae 1i ~" Social S tu die ~ ' f or Ch~lcrre n inA Denici~­
U I::Y: ' Rece nt 'rr en ds and Devel opl'lents , , ~ t h e d; ,(~glelO'ood Cli ffs. NelO'.
Jetsey :, p r !! ~~ie l!-Ha l,l... Inc. , 1976), p , 339: ' .

./..• •. " ., ' " . . . .. ,
.
. c · ' , • ' . " . . . ,
. , . " 191 I
f~r 7 et l ng.t he. ne.ed:S. ,of- je arnere at, .vary_ ~n g - l.e:e ~~ ,of _, ab.il i t 1 ~ S ' : t.
i . Though th~~ , prOvi ~ e no cuee- ef.L, th.~ evidence .is Cle~t; :th.a t 1.
lIudlo-vlaull1- mate rials c an lIlB.ke mean i ng ful eontdbutiona to t,he learn ing
,/ ' ' , . , " ", I
exp eriences and pre s e qua ll;l of both fast slow Iee 'r ner s , "The direct, ci ea
" .\ . Of ~ f~~m.or , ~eco ;~tn~ . o~. :a sca le mOde~ " ~· ;aSDale.e;q;i~ln~I" "~onve~J •
s ignificant tnfOf'll\1,ltio~. t? ee~taln pupil ~ who: MY be l ess. proflc1e~ t ;t~an
', " \' .:~.th er8 in rea~lng , ·~kllis~'.:ln . : : : " . .: .: -:;r.
,
. - The prlnt~d word .18 o~~~~a t abs t ract ' (~~8.0f ~~U~ l ~ ,a t ~ on :
! , ,' " - . . . " "
. \' , ' " ,." fo< ,"0,

. .
ndr~vas sen t -to, fifty- t wo s~ho ol s . chosen '~ t , .random.. throLi g~ou t
N~~oundla tld . neee elements were !lOrital~ed in ,the Ins'trument: Ii .
concept' th~ ' experimen ter w1llhed . t ~ evaluate', t wen}:y s e ts of ' blPd.ia r
adj 'ectlvl! 8 de.llcriblnl!:' how the sub ·j ec.,t felt about ~he cOncep t, and ' ~
. ,, ' .
's even poIn t. r anki ng By'st.em t o show .t!ta, intendt¥ ~ ~f th~ 8ubjeci:1 8
"f ed i ng! toward a epeclfic content. The reecree of t he qi.te a t1onna~re
. -. . .. .
shoi.ed that 't he a ttitu de of ' ecctet s tudl~a t each e!s' i n Newfound land .is
. .
. Selection of Media. : The .problem Is not j us t . one of ,seiect"-
. ' .
Ingapproprlate, mate rials, but-als o ene of sel ec t i ng t~ e type. of media
. whi ch ' will ~st ef,fec.tivBJ.y meet the need s of th e st udent , keeping I n
;dn ~' the :natur 'e - -~f the topic ~nd ehc objectives of ,the pr ogr alll. '
Briggs stresses t.he 1II1portance. of r elating lIledia a'election t o .
l earning e:onditions When h~ ,s ays :
~~le on: canno t d1rectly r el at e classes 'of m~'dia wi th ccn ­
di t i ons of l earn i n g in such a way as t o make medi a choices
91mP~e by' comparing ' t wo tablea, i t 18 believed t ha t the " . .'
exami n at i on ,of t he re quired cond itions of le ,anting fo r each
:~u~:~~::~i~:~e~~~v:~~~~~~n~\::;:e~P:~;i~,a~~~ ~:::n-' , ~
iug th s media to "be used for a set of object ives . 194 .'
19 3Ros s Ul1ey, "A Report on the DeV ~lopment of An I ~st.rUc.­
t ionel unit. Entitled , ' Shipbullcling at t he }larystown Shipyard' . " ( un-
. : published Mas't er ' s ,thes:l, s ; l',eIllQrial ,University. St . John ~s, Ne1ol'- .
found land, 1977) . pp, 36-37 .
, ', 194Les l1 e J .' Br ~gg8 . e t 'a i . , Inst ru ':t~ on~l Media (Pittsburgh,
.Penn syl van i a : ~er1can I1!a tit.utes.' f or Re.sea~ch .. 1967) , p . 3~

...' . ' : : ," : " . " ' . ' . '
wiU ,he l~ ' the. Learnec pra~tice. what is nee ded to ac.compl1sh the obje~:~~~s
~ : In thi~w~; ; 't h e ~e~~~~ is'~~sur~d"of :p~rf~nni~'g wel~ "~~
t he cr1t~don ' t e.st" ~d _t l:u! ' te~cher is ~s9ured' of being suc :i:.essf";'i:
Dick a nd Carey have ,suggested ,a number offllc~o ,rs
to be cons
i dered fn sele'cting media .fp r inetruction.nley are':
1 : . type o} learning involVed ,i n,' t he 0~ jeCtive8 : '
2 ; ' " ava ilab i ~i t Y of va rl~us media'in t he ~nvhonme n f i n -.
': ~ ':Ih i ch ihe J,~s truc ti~n al p~i:.k~ge':lill be us ed; ,
pa r t i cular .media foniat ;
4 • . f·le~~b ili tY . dur abili t ; ~ ' and .convenience';
" S; cost . effectiveness . ~ 9S.
In designi ng the 'i ns't r ucU onal, pa ckage on lati t ude and ,10ngi ­
t~de, ; t he writer r e f e r r e cl.\0 t he factors outlin~d by :Dick 'and Carey .
, To aid in t he actual selection of ' the media formac the proced~res
",,- , , .. ,' , .
developed by ' Cdrpenter "'ere ' us ed ,(s ee 'Fi gur e s 9 and 10 ) .
. ' " .
Rased on the' charact eristics of t he. s t~den ts ,for whc:m ' t he
, . ,' , ' .
instructional, pa ~kag e was des igned , 'a eb c t i on o.f ,media. fdl within
- 'ca b s two of ,t he "simpll!'!l ~ appropriate :",edi a class for c'oncrete illib.~
j ee ce" (lI~e,F1:gure 9). It w~s assumed t ha t the l ear ners w~uid , require
. .' . , . . . : " ' .
.suUl t a.tJeous 'visua.l ~n d audia. l stiinulat io n as well ' aa conc rllte ex"
~ p.erienc e s " ~n o~~er 'f or i"earning : ~o 'be'"e ~f~c t1;e; .Due 't o th e na t ur e
t:

x Re"orded s t lll, TV ' .
X Sound. fibnatri
X SQund . s Ude:-se t
X . SQund-on- slid
X
X X X Taldn boo k,
CLASS, Ill:: 'AUDi o - SEMIMOTJON'
:I ~I I.*I~I
Saund..' a
. /
Rec:or d ed t e1e"'l:1ti ng ·
Rilen t
fill,,·
Printed a e
Fil1l!su:i
Plcturese t
Microfilm
Videof:n",
. ~ :

106
, 0,£ t he ',ubjed 'l18 tter; bo~ever, mo;i'~n wa~ ~t ~e(:essll.ry..
."i' " '. . _ '." " " .
At cording t o Figure 10, c l ass two dneIude s so und . filmstrips ,
sound slide-set!:, so und "';n -sl id e , Bound pag e or t alk1n~ book using ·
Bound. plctu're . line graphics and print. '~e ;cs e arc:h s t udi es on s oun d ,
. . . . .. . ~ , ~
and/ o < s l1des ~n d f llll.9 t rtps quoted .i n cha p t er two of this ,r epo r t 'coniirm
tfJ:at the ~ e audiovisua l ,t echn i quee do ha ve a .d i n·i H can t ~ffect
. on ' l e a rn i~ g . A gre at ' deal of s t at i s tica l eviden ce is 'a l s o ac cumulatins:
. to s haw that ins t ru ctional IIledi ~ can increa se the ' ef f i ci ency and' ~ffe c-
tiveneBs 'o f ins t i"uc t ioo,
. Cons1derlog ,.th~ learner cha ract eris t ics; n atur~ of the t opic,
and a r,evi ew. of relevant research , materials for the i n s t ruct i ona l
package on1il.t:it~e an d longitude coos l s t , of so audi0v.:i sual pre ee ~tation l . '
wi th irUl1vi~ua l ~tudent~~kle'i:s •.•The aU~iovis ~al presen,t atfon . t~ e's ' t h e
fo'nn of ' a., 6Ude": tap~ pr oduction . 'rh er e . wee e s everal ressons f or choo~ing
this. particul ar p;.,di um.
_ . '. i . ,
. 1. I t could be pro duced with' r elativel y aimple equipment .
2. , . I t coul d :be essily sltered during the'va~~ou 8 ' ~ tage8of '
: de; eI OPlllen.t. '. , . ' , . - 'I
3 • . I t co ul d eventually be deve l op ed into a fil lll$trip/tape
pro duc t,iO~ allowing it to be used i!l any school 'wi t h t he available
.equi pment .
/ : The Vho l e ' ~lt1tlled1 aldt :is : se 1f-eon/t a1~ ~ d aDd t:h~ r ~ (~r e : 'it . .
ca n b'lI e a s i l y stored of fe.r1 ng., fu t ure .st udents the opportunity to use
ii repeated~r ove r ' ~he ~:ears . It is individualized i~ th~ t a student

. .' . . . " ' .
own pace. 1'I_l1dg~t-m1nde/ 'adlUi~istrat ors ' will f1nd ~th;"t ' i t eo s es ve~
:.J.i pt l e t o deve l op ,tbe ki t '. The t I me. requited en d- .pr oduc t i on hei l,i~ ie il ,
. . . .
eee aee to', deveiop the ,Idt ar e 'mi nimal . Even the ' ~ma ll es t education ' l
·i n s't ,itut.i on" t oday can affo~ d ' t h e ,equ: Pment.' to 'pr oduce 't;he ;n ec e s s ~ rY ' .
. kit materials.
. ' .
Because o f i t s por tabil ity, the pa ckage does riot.re'lw.re , a
ap e. cial ·1~ 'il~~1ng , eent~i w,~ ,th :i.ndepe n d"' ~ t stud'y carrels . r e c.'.an ' ~ e 'use

" -..:..
"" ." - 108
;
i,. :
I
an d a s oe.al ·, t ud1ee .de p...rt~ ~ bu.d a t Beothu'k. to1.legl ate. Bah, ven ~,...:·'
~ . - , ;~ ' . . - '. . - ':, . , ' .
.' Newfoun dland. n... itul t ruc Uoo.a l developae nt ,proee dures and the q ua l1ty ot .
. '.. - " , ' ,: ":.'., . ," , . '
. 1:I.das , t ape.. a nc! graphic. vere ilio' e'v ~lua led by • pr oh, l,lso r i n th e
DiV~ icin_ '. ~'~ ~ .'ndng ~.o~rce.s , of the ' ~.a~~ l~Y · i~ . ~u~'~ti~"Of ~~ l~l :
, Un 1v~r8i ty ; Fi~ a 1l1 ' befou ~dlIIin:il.lt~rl~; th e package . t o the i n t ende d'
. " ; ; . '- '
t.t'gl!t group , six s t ud"1lu were .chos e n 1Iho we re not i eTObera' of ·t he
. I " ,,' .... ,
t . r ge.t 'gr oup , bu 't who. vere at..the ·s eme 'eb ll1ty level, to try ou't t h e '
' p a c ka ge ~ ~F18ure 1 ~ i llus t ra t e s h'ow'the in~' t, rucuona1 PllC'k; 8e Wll ~
systematically ilvdua
7 ec!;
The net e ffec t , of 's uch an evaluation,lyltem , "'hen ,huilt into
~ ..
196J ohn W. W.lsh, ' "A Repor t ' ontlle Prepara t l on of 'A.'Teaching '
Uni t on Motion: An Integu t a d Appr oach to In s t t uctiond Devel0plllent",
(u npubl i s hed KRater's ,t hesie , Memorial- Uriverait y , se. J Ohll ' a . Nevf
o~ndlan d. :977) ; pp. 51- 52. ", ' .

jececee the ·railglil of .abilities wit;hin a clus ' of , s tu de nts' i a
, ' some t ill)es varied. t h'e lecture method 'o f instruc t i on 'may not ' b e appro..
priate . The 'vas t
r a nge of. indivi dual di f fe rences makes it 11:1pe ra t i ve
t ha t illllt r !1ctionai plamdng be f o r t he indi vid ual ra ther th an f or the'"
class as a "hole .
Sy ste~ tic al1y designed inst t ucti on ca n gre ~ i: lY aff ec t indivi
dual ·devel op!!'-en t . As
a cons equenc e the 'developlllent of i ns t ru ct i ona l
mat eriab mus t ccns ader : t he nat ure of Learrdng and how it r,e} ates ',t o
a .theory o~ i n s tr ~ ct i cn . A gre a t deal has been written abl)ut tb ecr f es
of , lns tI"1,lctlon an ,4 ,i ns t ruc t i ona l development 'a s a p r oc edure f o r ' de-
" signi ng ,' specHying, or p r.oducing par t i c ul ar, situations based on human
, , " ,
, .
co ~n i tive g r ?"'th t o ~d:tf y i~d ivJ. d u a l b ehavior t hr ough l earning.
' '
" . Learnin g entails a comnun ic at l on among th e ~ omp(llIen t~ of;
.
• yst em,1.e., .'pr ognDl of i ns truct i on , instr uctor, snd s tude nts, and
" ther ~f~re le~d~ i t se lf to the ~~s telts approach t o i ns t ru ct i ona l d~-,
velopmeni:. Baa~d on th is sp~ roa~h, t her e an. sever al s t ages in deve
lop~ an instr uctional · unit. 'Fi rs t t h e r e is t he .needs 'sssee sment
~ ' . ,
of , t he s tud ents and an an al yds of th e 'l e ar ner charact eristic s . This
is fo llowed by a ,s t at emen t of the cbj ec t ives.
b ot h s pec1 fic s nd gene r al,
in behavor i~ l terms • .The n~e c ticn of a media fQr1Iat i s next. xeeeereu
s t u di 8ll 1nd i cat ~ th a ~ JDos 't pdp,ils hol d a ' POsit..1Vll a t t i tude. tow ~r d the
use of Donpr1nt: ma kilr1jlls as te\ ch in g aid's fll r so ~ia1 s ti"dies : :;
On~e deve ioped , the instructional ps~kag6 unde r gces , an inte ns i~e :

t.he geographic 10tll.t .10 0 snd study a rea all a ~ 111lit10 g f ac t or.11l lor
-. , 'REVIE" .'li..,
, Th~ pr ev~oi(Js chapterouhin ed '~l'Id d 's ~'r bed ' th~ , steps in" t ~ ~ .
i ,ns" UO"."d . d " , g~ ..""". s • •• ph~dd,g , .. " q ,. ev.,., ,~ a ti~ , ~ ~...'
lI1"ter1;1.la. HO'W'eV,er , £ oI 1IIllt ive evaluation is . 0 u ff t ci' e nt 'I n a nd of :
itself . A dec d s Ion hall t o b e aade as to whetli:er t h e Instructional
u t er i a h
are 'e ff ect 1v e . ,ro order t.o reach t. ha t dechion a 'lNlUiIla ti've
eVaiua t lon '~a s ' conducte~. S utllllativ~ 'eval ua t i on, as- ,Dick and ' C ar e ~ :, " /1'
", - ". ..... .' . .. :.,' .•, \ -..
explain , lIIlly be defined' as " t he design , co l lection. and Interpr~'t a·t"?n : :
of data and ' i n~o r lll3 ~ ~on , ~ o r a s.i~e~ set O f lns t r ~~t l~·nal - ' lDate~ i;i~ · · i~ _;:\~
t he purp·o.se of d eierm,i? i~g t he vs.iue or \(or t h: o~ the:" · lIl a·t ~ ~ ia1 8 . \ti ~h ;-,·.· ~ .
This chapter ' p i e ~ ent ll the. h y pot heses t o be t este.d in the study .
. . : - - , ;
~ B G. , lilli til t ionB , G f .t he ~ t U d~ '" outlin~~. ~,b r i e f de5crtpti(l.9, " o~
1
I
· 1
el uded., The ch apter also eKplalns (a) t.ow t he expeJ::.1l1ental.,dedgn for
( t he s t udy was cho sen in ~be light o f ' '~ ~ e na ture of t he sample , (b )' the
s llIIIpl e selec'tion, an d (e) the varia b le s man i pulated .
Following'" descr l pti on "Gf ' the a~al Y s is o f t he va r i abl es , t lle
. . ' , . .
u pl a nation o f -t he -s u m>r.at i v e. eval uation continues
..,fth ,a n expl ana t i on
.'. ~f the n8t~~e of. th~r;retes t _~~d po sttest, h Owt he y were CO~$ tt~~t\e dJ
Sy eteuti c Des i gn Gr" I n ':'
\~ructio .n (Glenview, IlHnois: .5cott , For.esT'l1l.n and ~o., ,1 97,8) , p . , 202 •
1.97wlll ter Did. and. Lou CRrey, · .Th ~
. .."-~'- !J

'

~'.
.~~/ ~~,d1~~C: , betwe~ , ·r~ ~U.lt s o~ tbe . ~~_e .t e s.t . n d: , P O . t t ~ ~ t
f o i ' th~ , e l

SE~EC:nON 6F . ·~LE
It, is ~~tre~el'y dH fie"ult ' t ,~ ·~ .~ t ~p .exp e r ~"7.n t ~ '~ t ~d, f es' :' l ~"
,. :" ,~ !~nn e r w!l l C~, ' aa tfSf.ac t~~~y ,llll!et,s, all :~ h e , :cond l ~ ,10~ a ; .jl,f a . ~de~ t l f ­
l cal1y ' conuoUed study . Oft e n compr ollliaea mus t be. made in te,rma. o f
, ' , .
r andoDlassignment of s tiidMts ' t O VB. t::lOUJ in s ,truttional ac t ivities • Thill
'is.' P .i: t:~c,ubr~o ,for th~ ;'S_t~d y " in ,q·u e s t i~ . , ~es~pie" , ~~'i,thh 7 ~ t u ~y
c onsis t e d ,of on'elow'-achieving grade seven clasa ( tw enty students ) ,from
" " ' " . ' " . '
Beo ~b~ ' Colle gla~e. ,Wl thin t h e dass.:, hm.·i!ver, .s t ud e nt s ,we r e dlv :lded
e q ~ al1Y ' i nt o a co ntr01 and eXp erl lDental group: . S ~ud'ent~ ! nalles were
.'" ' .
l ~ ste d ' :ln ord~r ~s they o~curred in t he cl ass reglstet and nUilber ed:
The students were randomly assigned t o, cwo'gr oups by 'using ,a ta b l e 'of
,,, ' , . I 199
f O\lr t ho usand random n wnbers . Ran dOll asa:lgmlent' t o gr o up ' in this
way, ;ns i;r~dth~Or et iC ,8,llY 't ha t ' the e~er~me:~ ~ al gl'~ UP and ' th e contr'ol
g roup were equal to ea"h ot hel'.
i

''111981 of ,i.~ e_ t " o~ ·d.. _ e~ a ; ! .rl th1~ the ..c~l ; lIlf~rtDel ~ou ;c~, ' " • '. '
" 8\lCh .'~,'Obae.~et~~ '~ · ~ t , ~ 8U1ts ~ '~t he r ';" j I!! C tl . , .O ~.h e r" t e a. ch lt ~ ·,
U ;t, ~. ~ ult ~.- \ d ~.h '" r"ult~ - ~ the ~d 1~n Te ~ t. o! b~ :l. C . slllh : " .: .
. ,k fo Tll , t~ g roup s ,we.n randOll1r _electe d or u !l ~ gne d " t o ' U..t;:-
' . " '. .. : .... " ," .
. eeeee , ,th, pl' etut ' wa , ' edd nbt llr e d to t he tnt i r e t ude s even e l e51 a t
" " , ' , . " "
the. '~a~ t i me and ' p l ;D ce :' S t-"d~n t s: \fflQ Db tain't ~ ' ~ evtntY ' p e r e~, t 'or
.'.. - , . ,"" .' ', " .

.' '" It.' ~.~ ~;~~ent ~ t~ · .o t."th1s_ du1an .11 ' . ~ . f o i l C1V ~ :
" :,• • Y b . X '. ~• • ( u per~.e n t ~ . a ~ OIIJl ) . . ;'r..'
-.l:B,:.:Y b
: ';:'" x y. ( c ~ n t ro 1 ' g~ oup ; ' , .~ I .
._L~~~~e::~~~~ c
' 4 • •
. ': ;.ra '. adi catu t h e , ~ t t e 6 t.~ · 1 1Y e n to ~ch I ro"W."
. Obnl'vat·lOn ,Of.the·usul i .: ot" t.he ;I'~ t'e-.t ~ P."..~ re s t. , fo r .
bot h t he experb.en t al . nd : 01lt r o 1 I ro u p": d~t~mined , ~ L ·t he r \!l .-.:e r ~ :
'.d gn 1J 1 c ~n t d 1f f_~.r_~Il,c.~ b .. t ~ l!£n t t\e t~o Iroups,"
TE STS
:: ' ~ r i. ~ . r lon-r du,,",nc ecl u . a u,r _ I: , I I o ppo~ " to'-" pO"nn... r d ere,~ ~~
'.' \lremen • ~ : ~he ..jo t"' d 1.1t i.n ~ ti oa b~.tv ", o. !I .Cf l t . r 1~ . _ .
\!I e r nce d seuur_t and . Don-refe r .DCad. _ u urem .in.:.t 'I!&
' . ~ : ' t1P ~ of- i. nlO~ ti. O Il" p roV i. d.ed ;, ; tio~r af': ~ Cll« d ' . t ~~ t . r: ai~:i. n i...t e r ~ ~
i n ol'll ar , 1:0 prov 1.d. bforwutlo'(l. .. boat . I:he perfol"llB nci! o f • IIt udl!1lt.'" .
"" , . ! , ." .
comp.rte! wi t h t h.at or ot hen. If. c r1 teri o ll ·rere n~ rd m e l5 ~ re llJ", n t,
, however ;"" & i~ e ~ .lIlo r . , ~ al U Ob.l e · ' 1 nf ~ r~ ~,~on &In~e e. c~ .s t.~~. n t· a P.~ .:
~o~~ c e i_" ,COIIIpa rad ' t o 80lQ ~ i~ e~ ln.c . ,undlrd ~t; '~rh ~ ~ 1ori ' : ' Popham
.nd·Hu••k. ·deac:ri b ", c r1te r i~ ~re fe ~ IiJ\C,ed ,,;y8 u r e8~ ~ ' l:h o""'·"'h :1.e h ~ r e-':
, ' t .
' .. ; .
->j
" :~
_L~ _ , - . j

li _ .:- ,
' .; -' ~" -"
" - . "
. ~ ' 120 •
..;
.-
1 . e .., .;"; t:onaance atand ard.,,20 J . •.
-' . \: ., ' .
ty pe s or criterion-referenced ~e su ve re uee4 y Two i n this i M •
.~ey .w~re a p~e tee t a.n.d 'a . PO ll ~t es t : ~e p r ~ te st v.. cr iU rlon-refeTe!let~ ·
t o ~h e objective s the. ";' ~i ter i nt end ed t o t e ach in . t he instnil';tiao.a l
~u l e . · i: ~ de t enninad i f t he l ear b er h a d mastered a c r iteri on s ki l l
co nsider e.d a prerequi l1te "0h b c~lr.I!l';nc:1ng t he instl"\lctional packll g~ .
The POlt'teat vas paraUel and in l'Iome ",ayl'l 'l dent l ci l to t he
" " "
pre t e llt : Li ke t he , pre tell t , it 'al s o mea su r ed t he obj ect ivd ' ta ugh t 1n
th e i~ll ~rue t1ona l pr o,gram and p.rovided an 1 n~e:Il. of d U c.c.y of t h...
.--.,
Becaus e of t he na t ur e of t he l ow-a chi ev i ng llt uden t , both the pre-
. . . . . ~ '. . . . ..
t e s t and . t he pC:"!It t ea~ .v e re aub jfll~, ted t o t he Thorndike-Lo rg e list o f
~hirt ,. 't hous and wo,rd e, 204 t o ensure t hat' t he re~ding I':'Yel of t.he
.. .i:
~._~·e t:~ wa, appr::op r late t o the l~vd of t:h~ s tuden t .
S1 l'lc.e "teetl _y be use d again' and ala1n , -t h e 'lYitlr t ook 8 01M
..- . ." '.-
. t 1-. ·to detl~a t he Jre U ..bi i l ty of ~h a pn tut and ponteat. Re1:1- ·
.:·.~ llliY:'r~ ~ etl t o .~. ch. r. • t.a ~ and ·e ach i t.. in t he t u t ·c~ l..e tently
, ;as?~es lt h. 'behavior for 'lh~ch ,'tt vas ·i nce nded . pop hA-·'.nd ~ek p oi nt
" ."
out t~·t : ~ a1 th~ugh l ~ _y( b~ obvi o\l$ , _c~ t • c ~ i te r i o n- ~ef e r enced t e at
shou l d !>e in t s~~lY. cons;au n t , it 'is no t obv i ous hew t o as ses a t h e
. . .
. ..2,0 3w• .James Pop ham and 'T ~ R. Hua~k . " Im~l1c a t l ona o.f Critet i on-
Referen c ed ~Me aau re me 'nt , " ,Cr i t er i on- Re f e re nce d. Meuur ement: An l nc-roduction,
e d. ,w. Jame8 \ opham (Engl evood Cl iffe, New J e ue y ~ Edu ~ati o n .i.l
Te chnology 'Publica t io ns , 1911) } : p • .20. . •
:,' . . . ~ ~4Edv~ rd L ~ ih O ~d '~ k ~ and I~ i~ t ' Lo~ ~• • ~e 'rU~h e r ' s tlo ~d
' . • Book ,of ] 0 , 000 \lord s (New ":ork ~ But ea u 'of Pub .:bi c ~ t lons , 're achers
Colleg e , .-ColU1!!bia Univ ersit Y, ,1 95') , I'P. 1- 20B.
. . . .
;.....c._
-'-----'_ .__.

121
For th~ purpose of t his study, ~e8t i t ems
were. rl!.vie~ed . a~d ~~:iseiif, they: 'w e;~ ' C~~19 is t ~ n ~ l Y 1Il1.~ .g ed ~y"a -gr~up
of ,siX 9tu.den~s ft(lllla:~ ,~::~ &e~Il~Ph~_':;! laU (gr;d" tl!o), .yfu:", ac~ord1ng
to .resuree o n. school-tes tBand t he -s dvi ce" qf ot her ,sociat s t ud ie s, teachers, .
air~~~y · :~~-:.w the 8k11~S ' the i tems' s~ p p o ~e ~~'y ~a p ~ ', '
'To decide' on the content. validity or ~eb~ancy of the testll to
,I _ " . "_ . •. .. _ : " .
the behsvi,ors del1..1ted by..,t he critedonthe wr;ter Bsked a social
s't"udles teacher ~t - lle o th~k Colle RiIlt ~ aods t esting; eltpert with the
. . . ' - , -' " ',
creee Bay In tegrated School .Soard · t o, check the tests and
make- ~ol'!ll e n t s
and sugge ~t teVislo~s.~th t.~e : pret est ~nd th ~ pos;test unde~l!nt
f~rmative evaluation' befo~ they wf! ~e ' actually use d.. to ,, ~~ess student
perf!,rinance. After des ig ning the test G, t he writ er " ~ d l

, " \ , "
all t seventh was ' administered 't o he graders i n t he IlK/-achieving e l a s5
at" t he s~"'e pl ace· an d t i me. The res~ts on the pretes t .de t ermi n ed
whe t her the students had th e neces s ary prrreqUi site: sk i l ls ~nd . · in t h.3.t
s en s"e'. 'act e d as a s cr een i n g device.
Be f~;~ s e~aratin~' the two grou;~~ f or . ~he act u a:~ ' t re atment's ,
the clas'sr oo~ teacher ex piained t ha't ' th~ next, topic i n 'ge ography' would',be '
. . .
~p a.kills, ' s pe~ific~llY latit ude and io~gi.t ~d'e . She .al~o eX~lairi~d th a ~
a,not,he r teacher would be ' giving t~e lesson..r .e. wa s also elllphasized th:a t
. bece uee, of the na tUl:" of the top ic , i t ' woul? be · .nec e s s a~· ' to vOl:k in tWo
groups.
The experimental group ,was s ent'to the'library , un de r the au pe l:­
vision o( a , co~pe'ratlng t eacber. The expe rilUent~ r t h en "proceeded t q ,t e ach
t he control gr?~p bY ~Sing th~ l eetu,;e meth~~ o f inst ;uct~o~.The ' lll8terial
use d was ex a ctly as presented In the t ex t . Later ea c.h member of t he ' exp~rimental
group re ceived t he instructional package individually. I n
order t o prevent , d~scusslon araong. the ' studen ts, all llIeb\b~rs 'of the expet1ment
al , gr oup rec~ived the 'i ns t r uct i onal pa ck age dudng one "day o f ; "
, clas s e s ., I t was also ag ~eed by the C::onsentin~ homeroom teacher that as, .
soo n 88 8 s tuden t returned to his .caeee the next experimental su bject
,).'. , would be sent to the re ee ce ceceneer,
" "
. Af t e r t he trea t ments , both expe r imen tal and control gr o ups l"ec'e1ve.d
:t he p ilsttest . The melllbers of ,t he ,'con t r ol group wl"ote t h e pos t.­
t e s t as a group, ",hel"ea~ , becaus e ~h e 1~~ tructional p ac~~ge ' i s individualize.d,
, e ach ' m9lbe~ of t he exper imen t.al glfoup wrote the ~osttesf '
i ndividua lly.: iWdiately .a f t er cOlllpl eti nl: t he module.- , CopieS, of th e _
pretest, and pos t t es 't .al"e i nc luded i n 'Appendi x E.
'\

)\
DATA' AND STAtISTICAL"ANALYSIS
" : Si nce ' ~his t~~ s is ~~ojec't :" as mainl~ · ~ e ~ e i.~~~nta l ,i n na t ;' r e
Ba ila BU~h s t re ~ s e d t he - f O~B t1v ~ 'eva iull t io~ o ~ mater'ia ls an d ~ t u d en t
in1;.e ~ Bct 1on.."1th t!",m, _, summative evalua tion dnvc Ivfng ,:igorous .stat1lti,cal '.
ana lyds was co nsidered secondary. , In or del" to ,de,terminethe effective-
. ne S!l ~ f t l\ ~ instruc tion~l ' package, deBer~Ptive s"tatistics ~~d s i~i>le
. - . . , . , .
a t-t~'st" ~as .also us ~ d t o an ~ly ~ e ga~n ~r change s co res, (Table .4) .

, ' ..:.. ----::-- - - - . ~ '.. ,
124 :.
0 ,
'i.
' ~
j
.:, g
I
~
k
:;: :;:
~ , ~ ~ ~ s s
i
~ ~ ~ ~ ' 0 ~ ~ :

'"
Tes ts of 'Si gnifi can t Diff~rences !letwee n I'.eans of th ~
E'xp~rlmen i: a l an d' Cont"rol ' Gr oups On' t h.e Pre t~ s t·
( Su~ rY of Releva n t Data)
Expe r imen tal Group
Grou p
Pl'"etes t s core
"..in 34 .3 31 .6
Median " 35 . 0 32 .0
Vadanc a 70 ;o i 30;04
~ ,48
St andard DeVia tion 8 .37
2 . 65 1. 73
Table 3
Tea t s of Significant Di f f ennees seevecn Means" of t he
Experi lllent~l an d Cont l'"~ l G~ Ch"P '" ~n the Pos t t~ s t
(SulIlnlaryof Relevant ' Dat a)
Expel' i ment a'l Gl'OUP Control Group
. Pos t t es t Sea n>
' 53
37
55
35
190 . 0
45. 6
Standard Daviation 13 .78
6. 75
Standal'd £l'l'0l' of
t he Mean
2 . 13
t va l ue · 3. 299

Test80fSignificanr Differ ences Between Mea n r e ~ :
(SulIUllary of -R e l ~vant Datal"
Exp erime nt al 'Group
Control Group
, Gai n Sco re Ga in Score
Mean ~8 .7 5.4
Va r i an !,,, 149.8 33 . 8
Standard Dev'1ation 12 ,24 S.8 2
St otldatd Erro r of
. the Me an 3 .87
1. 84 '
'tvalue '-3.100
• T~ "'t-ra tio' ,pr o;"ed ,t o b ~ r"lgn1fi c~nt ly ~a rge r t han the leV~l ':o~
c_~~U~ence (' Ol ) ~~d .the r e f ~r e. Bub:"'hypothes:Ls }I02 w i ~ a l so re j e~ted .
the r ea ult a of t his s tud y i nd,ieate t hat ·the r e t s a highly
s i gnifica nt differe nc e between t he control group, whi ch was t augh t by the
ChaPt~r ' fou'~ - outlines th ~ , ~~at :i.ve , eva luation p roc e~uu a

.12 7
fective .
· ' , .by',a lI p e c:.1 f1~ation o't"the maj or . hypo t he sis fo r th~ s t u d y ~~~ ! ~h e a~ ~~m-
. : ' ,' ,' ,' , ' I
Piyip g s ub- hypot hesell. outlin':'d ,U lIlit aU ons ee . t~e s tudy, wer e a lS o .
Sele ct i on of t he sa mple for t he ' study ', con sisted o f , a c lass o f
t wenty l~ach i ev i n g gr a de seven 9tuden t s 'fr olll Be o th~k Coi.legi ~te , Bale
In th e ' U gh t of ,t he natur e ,!,f, t he study, which ' \fas 'deve l op1llental
opp olled to pur e research, ri ~oro us statistical analyse s wer e no t . elll-
pl OyI' d. Never.the1 e s s , scree s t a ti s t ~ea l anal,Ys is wa s ' .n

" . -. -~._ -. -..,.-- ,.----- "- '1
129 '
,
'
. - -.
basic map reading .s ki l l s ' of latitude ,and longitude to ,l ow- 'achievin g
5tudent~ ente ring j un i or 'h i gh seho~l ; ehapte1," .five.exi'mines"the find1ng'~
r ev eBled by th~ ,8nalyais o~ daUin :elatlon ~o si~Uar ,r a por 'ced findings
,of ,ot her In:''es_tigator ~ . It a lso 'exaiti ne s ge neralizations t hat. c:a~
\ be der1~_~l! from the' 8tUd! ' .'j F~ na.ll!. rec O tume~-d.at10~ B. and , su gge~ t l ~~'I' ~O ~ .;
furt~er study >;re ou t lined " 'J
The findings o f t his s tud y s upport : the hyp othesis t hat t he 1~- ' t..
\ .
scruet:l(mal package i s II; be tter method of teaching low-achieving students
th ,an the conv entional textbook-lecture lIIethod . nU~,f1ndlngs
aSj "'''' wJth
t hose of· R1C:hason 207 which concl uded that -the 'a udi ovi s ual t u t '; ~i41
. . . '. " .
program p f instr uction was ,supe rior t o ,t he trad.iUonal exp caf cor-y
s.pproa"h. 'The eon'teritions of - Rarre1l 208 snd ' St u ck ' and ~!anatt2~9 ' t~.. t
. 20~Jlurt Har r e-II, "A\ldiovis:~a.l Pr ogr ams end Science Instruction , ';.
Audiovisual I ns t r uc t i on , xv, 2 (Fe bruary, 1970), 25-26.
. . '. .
209U. 'L; St ~c1c and R. P . }oI~nat t, ~ ', "A Comp'arison of AUd :~O :"tutO ria l
and Lec ture Methods of ,Te ac h i ng." J ou r nal of Edu ca t i onal Research,
LXIII"9 (Hay-June, 1970) , 4 14- 418 . . .

f ·
.' . .
the audlov:Lsual method 'of instruction is ,superior t o the eonventional.
. ' ..
.1e c tu r~ Ple t h od . is ~ l.~ O. s upported, bY.-the . f:lnding S ~ , 210
I t woul d ,also, appea'r t ha t":t he f ind ~~ g ll , of Jore,a ' . a"nd'Ru shdo~ny~2
i ~ \iWh~Ch B'tated -~h'a t & Y8 t e~a t i ~ l~Btr~c'i:ion 'is pr eferable t o
casual . And l nc:1dent a l - t reatu:~nt '. _ could be supported 'by this s tu dy .
nU! Hnd,Lilga ,o f the 's t udy also' r ai se; so me q ue atd ons abo ut .t be
reading level of social s t udi e s mate rials. The s ee eee ene of CoveU 21 2
. I;hai: w e B~n e B B e s ' in " ~eading' are a pr1rne factor o~ lallut,a 1n sodal
st,udle ll app ears -ee be very valid . However, th e . Te 8~l ts ~f t his st~dy
i ndica t e that l ow-aeh i evi ng s t udent s who were expo .sed to' an
. .. - . , ' , ' - -
'requhed to rea d t he pr e &cribedte~tbook lIlat e r ial.
CRITICAL
A:'ALYSIS OF S11IDY
Caut io n sho uld be 'exe r cised i ,n ioterpr eting th e results of
aural-visual
s tu d'y ',lIitil the crit er~o n , tes~ s (pr e t e s t' and posttest) h~ve be~efined
arid t~5 ted fur the~ ' 'an~ ~ntil t he eJqlerbent h~s b.een~eiJ ' n ' a t er
k ress,,' of t he prO'~dnce and with larger sa llples.
. . ..
" Al t hough t he research design uu d fo r th is s t udy has beeo
frequently ~~p loy ed i n ,' t he 'fie l d of edu cat i onal r.eseareh " t here c e r-e
i ,' 210" . ' " , I
\ Wi.1lia.1Il W. ' .reyee , "The lleve l opllent and G r a ~ e Placement of
~lap and ' Globe , Ski lls. -i n th e Elementary 'Social Studies Pr ogr am" (un ­
pUbl1ti he.d Dce toJ:"~ disser tation, . ~~or thwest e rnUnivers i ty, 1964).
2 11a~ii: A. :~u Shdoony ; ",A Child" Abili ty ' t o Read "laps: Summary
.of ·t he Reaellre h," J o urnaI of Geograph)', L~ I CApd l, 19M!) , 2.13- 223.
t hi s

certai;'proc edural deficiencies which may h ave de~re a s ed t he e,,;ternal
. : ""':' ",: , ,- ..,-
validity of t he expe r!lIlent. The ",41... a r ea ,of ,di f ficu l t y i s th.,;-pre:tes t .
',,:' , " ', - "> , " , ; "'''''''',:, " "-, , -',".. _. ', , ' ,
Ker l inger jlcints ,-out , "the pr etest can have , a se ns eff ec t
" As i t i zing
,~ '.... '., :, ,- 2i3 " : - " ,' " , - " ,'- - '-"' " " ,
on s,u b) e~ t8 . " " Subj ec t s i n bot~ the e)l;perill\ent a l an d, co n t rol gr oups
'w o w~re :re quired ee t ak e ,a pret es t 'pr i or
" " ,
t 'o treatment may ' have ' be come
. se n91tized t o t he exP~ri .,en tai , man i~~ia t{o ri ' and as ';" c ~nseque:nce -,r es ults
~TI: th~;o8 t te s '~ may not b ~ent~~ ei.{valid . }Iow ev~~" b e~aus e te s~ing is"
, " - ' " , - , , " ,
a norinal--function of ' the:scho ol-in which' the s t udy was ' c ondu~ te d; ' it is
, " , ' - ' .
'
" ,
t he W:rtte 'r ' s '-cont ent i,on tha ~ ,aens i t i d ng to t he ' pr e t e st' was mi ni ma ;i.
- ,--.. Thr oughtt th e ~u ra t lo~ 0; th;' experiment~l phaae of :' t~e ~ t~ dy
; " - , .
the experl"'ental an d con trol gr oups were p1lyll1ca 11y ,s eparate d, However ,
, ,' ~ ome leakage ,of information did cd cur . The a~ an t g ~rde situat ~on of , t h e
elqlerimental gr oup may h ave i nh i bited t h e control gro up since ' s ome
. ' " ' , "
s tu dent s 1n th e _cont ro l gro up expr ess ed dissat isfact ion with t heir,
,j' "
e d u c at1ve &'~tivity wh,en they lell:rn~d of ,t he relative f re e,dolll,'snd student
i:"vo~ :::~ent
enjoyed by t he gr oup', ':Ising the i nstructional un'l,t ,•
. ' CONCLUsi ONS
" " ', I ,j " r-
F~om tie fifu:lings . ons,;can ,~ - . ~ ~ this study t he following conclus i -
b e drawn r~~a ~ding th e deve lo~ nt of ,~lt ~~e dr ins ~ ~u c t,ionalpackag.ea
to ,t each ba sic map read ~~g sk ill,~, t o low-achievtng j u ni ~r bi gh sc h oo l
"'",,,,.. . . I
213Fr e d N. Kedinge r' . Foun

"
~ ~ _ I
1
, -"• • s earch . _"_•• _'",'"'", ;
, " . • . . ' " " ' I ' " . "
tb b study. i n , part i cul~ r , ; :~ g~est ..t ~at !,,~ltl.;.~.~a . 1n s t, ~ur l~?al U~lU ' .
sre -better than .the tra ditional 't ext boQk--l ec.t ur e approach for . t eaching
. _ . " ,, ' , -'r" i )" . .
geO$rSp,b" " 0"'" to low., "b'''j" '''',Or:lii8h 9 Ch ~ :~/' ~ud e n .t . _ '.
• .2 • . T~e ;eview of l ~u~a.~ l1 ~.e · and:~p~~ iC al ~ e Srt:~ h , 1n~ ica.te~
': ' I " , , ',' - , " " " ,'
',b, ', e ~ lt,
' ,-,', ' dia ' i nst r ,uc t i o, 1UI1.Udi t ,S .ere .cpnsi at ent "'l.b ,~, ' ,ern t,b, ',', ,ll;8
:of. leal:nlng and co uducive to achieving goa ls acc ept ed or ' he ' BOC~.l
" ,"" i

" _t,~ e , ~~nt.1~ ~ (~~ ,o c~rrect 'M n~ ' ,~ f f~e~ .a~o~:tco~l.n.~li Ji .~.~ ~ ' narrow~y
-c ,?n~~d.ve d ' t ex t book-l ecture teac her ,( l!nt er ed ,metho?olO"llY-O
. RECOMMENDATIONS
'..

134
. 6. Th& instructiono.l unit "des i gned for this s tudy wa s develo ped
',, ' .- ;: . . ', . - ,;;. . - ' . ' : : " ' .
s pe c.1nca~lY ~or 1.~w-a~h1evin g ! Bt..u.dent8 :ente ring ,junior , hi gh sehool who
lack map re adin g concepts and ,skills.
Thu e 88l11e s t uden tll are often
poor'r~ aders :and 'as a re\~ui t ~he pr a gr ,am ;li: a h o g~ a r~d· to t~16 .prOb' le ll. : ' :
A s t udy ' s houl d be carried '~t to ~~certa~n if .t her e 1& ~ ,relat i ons hi p
be ca ee n r el' din g achievelIlent and the deve~opmen t of map redding . conc ep ti
and skill; .'
Be ddas r e comnendlng othe r telat ed ares s where re search cou ld
be condu c t e d , .there .ares" nUlllber 'of ,8 u g g e a tionl~ not Involving ' r es ea r ch
that originate ,f r oin this proj ect:
.. , - , ,
L The.social at udi ell cur riculum _should be edjusted t o meet ·
. ' . - ", ..
the div~l:s1ty of nee ds which" s tem fr ~m i:hs clIi1d~n ' s va r i ous bac.k-
, .
grounds . Ch.11dren, from cultural l y . diffe r ent
bs ckgr oun ds sr e oft en '
. no t ' r ~ adY t o tit into ,t h8 s oeial s t udi e s ~ rogrAm as .:It now n u ts .
. '2 . 11.ere ill' . need fo r In ':'~e rvl.ce edu cati6n 1n which teache~~
I re expo s ed 'ee.n ee id eas~ ' The initiative ree.ecee '1n':'sel:'Vi ce ' e ducatl~1\
~an come.' f~om th e , t ea ei.ler, t~~ ' -ad ll in is' tn t ~ 1:' ; "'01:'_;~_~ . socia! studies
....progrs:m co.::aJ:'dinat ~J:' .
--1---''-
~1S . '. , " ,: . . ;, \ . - • ~ , '
." Division of CurrlculUlll, Map and Glob e Ski lls : K-1 (st . ,John",
Newfoundland : ~par t 1l\l!nt o f:E~~ea ~ion. n .d . )" " . '

' ....
, . . '
3,\,; ~.e ,unt ve r S H y " pr OVi nc1 n l. boards of ,education ._ d~stric~
\ . , .. .. ,
: . supervisors (o r pjPSramco-ordinators). llt\d othe.ushoulrl cll1bs,rk up- .,
on -~ -~o~c sit~~u~s program . ; ' t ra1 n .~ C d u c a t o~s i n . , " t h ~ o re- t i'c al ' '~n'd
.practical. aspects as w~l1 as t h e i illllt'atiO~ 'of media. How t o i nrerPt:et
- , : ". -" . ', - ' .
t he message.of media and sakect; ecre approprlate .lMterlalll should ' a lso
4': ,S·OC.l al . tUd,i~~ : ·t~aChel:l) - 'ln ~ a r_~ l cular '$hould become IlIO re
. awa re of _,t he c har acter i stic ' qual i t i e s of med':I.a i n social 'studies.
5','. Special a t tention needs to be pa id t o" t he r es earch ~ri. maps ,
t oot s ,w:h 1Ch are, :t-ri.d1s~ e nsible, 1~ t he ~earning of , the aodal Bru dies.;
ncre "and ef fec t ive uac Inust b e made n f. th",m. "

136 7J
1
The pu.q,ose Of 'thb project was. to ~eve lop ~nd ' test,snin- '
, B t' rucU ~nal pack~geto .t e ach t he. b.a~·l c 'lRap ~eadin ll concept ~ o f -la t:ltu~e
an d longitud~ to ,l ow: achl evi ng studen ~s en te ring junior high school• .
According t o the wa~ -t he present ' social
stul;iies. currlcul\UII in : Newfoundland
18- set up , ,t h es e ,s t uden t s are s upp osed to ,' ha ve been t a.ught
t hese ba sic _con c ep t 6 ~ r io:r t o ente ring j uni or h i gh 8,,-hool. Howeve r ,
b e ca us l! i n di v i dual growth and ~ognHlve.development do not alway";
p ro c e e d ....smoo th ly ~h rough t he gl:ade' ~. " ail studenu' en~ e r~ng 'j un i~r
~~gh 8':.h~Ol -8,re ·n~ce.s8~:d.lyat a g .~ad~ ' seven 1!~~1r .~ teac.he r m ~8t
b e pJ:"epare d to r eshape and make adjustments in the ' cur r i cul WII and.to
. , " " .,.' .
d.eve1op I ns truetione.l materlals to ,t each' .s uch basic i~e8s~
The deve l ol'lIIent of Bny instructional un i t t o teach any -'s k'ill
, ._, , . ' "
or " con.;.ep t i n -aocia1 studies ne eds "t o b~ arranged so t ha t it wi ll "
b~ing -~bou t a ~ ~nd of eh',mge -in a -' -st~dent "i.m:i ch :i s called l e a rni~ g ~
This,;requi;eS aeon~ ider8t1on of ' l e·a ;~in g t~ory as i t relate!!" to i n­
" 's t r~e t ional deve l~~lII!!nt .
Most ~f t h e · l earn ini expert s and "psyeho l~gists agree that l earn,..
i ng theories and i nstructional theories ax:~ interdepende nt and that any
attelllpts t o de,velop instr ucti onal' procedures shou~d make us e o f what r.e
kno wn abo ,ut learning. An und~~ ~ t a~d ~ n g ~ f ' 'leam ing the~~y wi i l i nv ar i a b l y
i ~ ad- to\ he ",development of inst~~ c"tional~te r :i.a1s th~t a~e I!Iat ~h'e"~ ' to'
. th~ COgri ~~~ve dev elopment of -a::.child. I,'hen a -ch l1~ · . cognitive - ,B t r~c tu.-~ e ,
li nd s'ubject ma t,t e r ar t! misr.1ate hed . learninf!: is im~~e(L Eaeh fu t~re ,s t e p

. 137
in th e '~o gn it ;lve development. 6equ"en ~e will di pend . upon t he . ~ u.c C:~ S S'fUi.
COllfleti on of pas t s tages . The re appears to be general agreement that
i~ s true t l on a l s eq'uQIlCing of ,s ubj ect mat t er ' cont ent ought to.be '~8 t c h e'd
t o a thild' s ~o gn i t ive ' deve'lo pnent l eva i an d not ' ri g id l ~ t i ~ d t 'o
. . I' ,
. a p ~d f1c . g rade 8 . r
A r evi ew of t h e rela.tei .U tera't ure MId I!Jllpi ~i c'alrcs ~arch reve~ls
, . " . : ' . " , . '
, t hat t he r e isa defin i te ni-ad for sk 1:1 l developmen t ,be'cause skills ar e
. , . '
sUUs. However.

'38
. , ' ..
l'i p·p~opr.iI'Itl'!1Y ee e , nevever•. t he' d~veloplnentof any instructional
ma te~ial must be performed in a 'very systematic llBt:i~er . In the lItudy
. I
co nduc ted by this wri te!" the i dentification of _t he specific learning
pr obl e", i n th ~ light of the"lea:ner and h18 s pecific ne eds 'W~8 ' t he first
order -of priori tY "The ne xt ~tep. the foneation of i n6t.r~c. t1ona l Dbj
e c t l vcs , depended upon the spedfiJ: t a s k and r el a t ed su btaaks , Once
' . . . ' .
t he objectives h a d been clearly i dent i f1 ed , t h e wri ter proceeded wi t h '
" t h e job of,urch i ng the-mat e d~i to t he s t uden t 's ,pre'ferred lI\od~ ~ f
preSl!ntatiQn . bearlllg in: !l\ind. his reading l evel.
"Once deve lope d , .the 'i n s t r uct i ona l packa ge und erwent an In-
'. ". \',' . i
tens1ve fornat ~ve evaluation eontent and . i nvolving t he USIl of procedu! f11
. specialists, clas s room t eacher s , 'and .e small s ampl e o f ,s t uden t s . Base'd
on t he r esults ' of t he fo~t1ve evaiu~tion revisi ons wer e ~adeto th~ ' :\
• I -
iI'l st rU_e t ~o n~ pa ckage b efore ,i t. ~as su bj ected t ~ a slJIIlmat1ve t ype of
eva~ua t 1on .
The summative evalua~ 1ori of th e in structiona l unit fo r ~h1l
(
i
study was conduc t ed usdng one l ow-achie vi ng grade se ven class of twen ty
. ' . . ' .
_s tudents'. The s t.udentlil v ere r arnlocly assigne d to two gr oups . The co~t :roi'
, -
g~oup'received the l ec t.ure. plus eccompanymg t extbook material while
t he experim'ental Il;rouP r eceived t he ins truc t1~n al packa ge. The subj ects
we;~ t ehed by u sing a c,dterion ref~r~~~retest - posct.e.s t . con':'
( .. . . " .
/
structe d by th e experi1l:lenter. A p re t~s t 4lld pos t t est e xPer im~ntalcontr
Ol .group.desi gn. was empl~~ed .
A

',' ,; ", ' ( ' , ; ,'. ';,
and cOl\tfol gr oups ' 'paatte s t sco res. ~ .lIi gn i f1 cant difhrence ,was. foun d
to . ~ X 1s .t , betvee~" the t~o grO\lP ~ . a t the · . ~ ~ · i.evel of : i gn 1f i ~lInc. e . - ·Th e.{Il :": :
:£or 8 , i t was
conckuded that . the i ns truct ional ki t is a be t ter met hod
~ 'f teaching ba ai ~ map 'reading conc ep tI! lIu~h _ 8B l atit ud e and longi tu de
t ~.; l~aChleV.l ti.g '- ~tu d'e ~ ~ $ en~~r1ng j U ~ 1 0 t h ~gh s chool tha~ .is th~ : t,ra~
ditlan81 t ex t book- lectur e Illet hod ;
, ,
The r ead er was ad vised' t ~' exerc i se ca ut ion in ' ln te~ptetin g the
-~e9 ulU ~ f t his ' S ~U dY until ~h e cr ~;e r~o~' :t asu h~ve b'een fu'~th e r r eUn'ed
. ,- : .. .'
and ~tn tbe l!!xper b ient has bee n re peated with la r ge r arid mo,r e 1I1dely
. . ' , -'. '
,di s t r i b\lt e d samPles. AIlIong the sugg e~ t lon:$ of fe re d. fot furt~et s tu dy . va s.
one t o d ete~lIe wh et h~r or not ,t h'e i nstruction al lilIit cDuld be lin
ef~l!ct lve lllethod .ofteach1ng bas1 ~l:lap r ead1ng concepts to el~me n t a r y'

I
,( I
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