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Supercapacitors in stand-alone PV systems with ... During initial tests, the authors fitted the circuit in Fig. 4 with special operational amplifiers of their own design, furnished with high power output transistors. The results were satisfactory except for excessive power consumption of the Op-Amp supplementary components. The circuit shown in Fig. 5 is mounted on the pair of electrodes of each SC in the bank and controls excessive voltage across it. In Fig. 6, a transformer system of a flyback converter with sectional secondary windings is shown. It privileges these SC units across which the lowest voltage appears. Fig. 5. Exemplary circuit for reduction of excessive SC voltage [1]. Rys. 5. Przykładowy układ elektroniczny do redukcji nadmiernego napięcia na superkondensatorze [1]. Fig. 6. Equalisation by means of a flyback converter with sectional secondary winding [3]. Rys. 6. Symetryzacja za pomocą przetwornicy transformatorowej o dzielonych uzwojeniach wtórnych [3]. 112
W. Grzesiak, T. Maj, E. Radziemska The circuit presented in Fig.7 needs no transformer. It is designed for the voltage equalisation on two consecutive SCs by means of the current control. Fig. 7. Equalisation by means of buck-boost DC/DC converters [3]. Rys. 7. Symetryzacja napięć za pomocą przetwornic obniżająco-podnoszących [3]. Main advantages of the two previous versions are demonstrated in Fig. 8. Here, a power converter is connected to each supercapacitor. The energy stored by an SC with the highest voltage is transferred to the units with the lowest voltage. No energy is stored in the transformer as it is directly transferred. In practice, the circuits similar to those in Figs. 2, 5, 7 and 8 were initially tested by the authors with satisfactory results. Finally, the idea of Fig. 8 offering the best result has been adopted. As no practical data except for general idea can be found in technical literature [3], all circuit details had to be designed, calculated and tested to fit in with each particular set of supplementary components of the 6 - unit 3000 F series SC bank with an overall voltage of 16.2 V. Except for the multi-winding transformer, the optimum MOSFETs as electronic keys had to be chosen. The SC bank made in this manner fulfilled all technical requirements in final tests. On the occasion of the tests of Fig. 2, the effect of a small SC capacitance voltage dependence, not exceeding 2% per volt was investigated. It was considered, though unexpectedly, to have little practical influence. An important, but almost forgotten problem is the realisation of high current switches, especially threatened to be damaged during the discharging and charging processes in the SC circuits. Here, the MOS-FETs, as most convenient, though not fully satisfactory, were analysed and underwent testing, on a parallel with mechanical systems. 113
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INSTYTUT TECHNOLOGII MATERIAŁÓW E
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SPIS TREŚCI ARTYKUŁY WPŁYW PROMI
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6 Wpływ promieniowania jonizujące
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2. STRUKTURA I DEFEKTY W YAP I LN W
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Wpływ promieniowania jonizującego
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16 Wpływ promieniowania jonizując
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2. MICROVIA FORMING PROCESS Analysi
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