Sow Lactation: Colostrum and Milk Yield: a Review

Journal of Animal Science Advances
Sow Lactation: Colostrum and Milk Yield: a Review
King’ori A. M.
J Anim Sci Adv 2012, 2(6): 525-533
Online version is available on: www.grjournals.com

KING’ORI
ISSN: 2251-7219
A Review
Sow Lactation: Colostrum And Milk Yield:
a Review
Abstract
King’ori, A. M.
Department of Animal Sciences, Egerton University, Egerton, Kenya
This article is a review of the factors that influence the sow’s colostrums and milk yield. Colostrum is
secreted from the udder immediately after farrowing and is a rich source of highly digestible nutrients, which
are critical to the survival of the newly born piglet. Colostrum contains natural growth factors for the normal
development of vital life-sustaining organs. The litter performance before weaning is mainly influenced by the
sow’s colostrum, milk yield and intake. The major roles of colostrum are, to provide the piglet with energy,
passive immunity before their immune system is developed and in the development of the gastrointestinal tract
of the piglet. Litter size, birth weight, number of parity, genotype, endocrine status, stress before, during and
after farrowing and nutrition seem to influence colostrum and milk yield. The piglet in the first two weeks after
farrowing is mainly dependent on the sow’s milk for nutrition because it is taking little or no creep feed. 20-
30% of early piglet mortality is due to lack of adequate nutrition that could be due to inadequate milk
production by the sow. Therefore, an early and high intake of colostrum is a major determinant of piglet
survival during the early suckling period.
Keywords: Sow, litter, colostrum, milk, piglet
Corresponding author: Department of Animal Sciences, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536-20115, Egerton, Kenya
Received on: 25 May 2012
Revised on: 04 Jun 2012
Accepted on: 16 Jun 2012
Online Published on: 30 Jun 2012
525 J. Anim. Sci. Adv., 2012, 2(6):525-533

SOW LACTATION: COLOSTRUM AND MILK YIELD …
Introduction
The profitability of a pig enterprise is mainly
influenced by the sow and litter performance. The
sow performance assessed by litter size and weight
at farrowing, litter size and weight at weaning and
number of farrowings per year. The litter
performance before weaning is mainly influenced
by the sow’s colostrum and milk yield. There are
several factors that influence sow colostrum and
milk production. The post-weaning growth rate is
influenced by the weaning weight. The pre- and
weaning weight are highly influenced by the sow’s
milk yield. The sow’s milk production influences
the piglet’s post-farrowing mortality rate, growth
rate and weaning weight. On the other hand, litter
growth rate after weaning determines the time taken
to attain market or breeding weight. 20-30% piglet
mortality is due to lack of adequate nutrition while
20-50% is due to crushing by the sow (Fahmy and
Benard, 1971). Some of the piglets crushed are
because of inactivity due to starvation. The piglet in
the first two weeks after farrowing is dependent on
the sow’s milk for nutrition. Therefore, to increase
the piglet’s nutrient intake, the sow should produce
enough milk. Due to the importance of the sow’s
colostrum and milk intake for the survival, immune
resistance and pre-weaning growth rate of piglets, it
is important that the factors that influence the yield
and composition are well understood. This will
enable the development of management systems
that enhance milk yield and composition that will in
turn maximize survival and growth rate of piglets.
Sow Colostrum
Colostrum is a form of milk produced by the
mammary glands of mammals in late pregnancy and
the few days after giving birth (Complete guide to
colostrums, 2012). Colostrum is secreted from the
udder immediately after farrowing and is a rich
source of highly digestible nutrients, which are
critical to the survival of the newly born piglet
(Pigsite, 2008).Within several hours, the
composition of colostrum changes rapidly to that
representing sow milk. Studies indicate that
colostrum contains natural growth factors for the
normal development of vital life-sustaining organs,
e.g. brain, heart, pancreas, liver and kidneys, and
the immature gut. The Gastro-Intestinal Tract (GIT)
of the piglet grows and matures quickly during two
weeks after farrowing, especially 24 hours after
birth. These accelerated changes are stimulated by
growth factors (Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF),
Insulin Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1), and Transforming
Growth Factor- β (TGF-β) and hormones (insulin,
leptin) present in colostrums (Xu et al, 2002). The
piglet is born with very few of the protecting
antibodies necessary to thrive and relies strictly on
the sow’s colostrum to obtain them in the defense
against bacteria and viruses. An intensive
absorption of immunoglobulins in piglets was
demonstrated in the jejunum and the proximal twothird
of the ileum. Absorption was the most
intensive, though variable by area, in the jejunum. It
was demonstrable 4 hours after birth and reached
the highest intensity between 8 and 12 hours, then
tended to decline (Szeky, et al., 1979). Therefore,
the piglet should suckle colostrum immediately
after birth to benefit from the passive immunity
imparted by the colostrum before absorption
declines. The piglet is also born with low energy
reserves (Mellor and Cockburn, 1986) and without
immune protection (Gaskins, 1998). The major
roles of colostrum are, to provide the piglet with
energy and passive immunity (Le Dividich et al.,
2005). Colostrum also plays an important role in the
development of the gastrointestinal tract of the
piglet (Xu et al., 2002).The most critical period for
the survival of piglets is during the first two days of
life. The causes of early piglet mortality include
reduced vitality due to hypoxia during farrowing,
hypothermia and lack of adequate colostrums intake
(Malmkvist et al., 2006). Therefore, an early and
high intake of colostrum is a major determinant of
piglet survival during the early suckling period.
Factors That Influence Sow’s Colostrum Yield
and Composition
The production of colostrum is very variable
among sows and the factors affecting this variability
are not well known. High colostrums yield can be
achieved by reducing stress before, during and after
farrowing as well as ensuring that sows have
unrestricted access to fresh drinking water. Parity
has a slight influence on milk yield with, a tendency
for a greater production in second- and third-parity
sows than in first parity or older sows (Devillers et
al., 2007). Sows with differences in litter size at
526 J. Anim. Sci. Adv., 2012, 2(6):525-533

KING’ORI
birth, litter birth weight or variation in litter birth
weight have similar colostrums yield (Quensel,
2011). However, sows that take longer to farrow
their 3 rd -5 th piglets have lower colostrums yield than
sows that took less time. Sows that had more
stillborn piglets also had less colostrums yield than
sows that had fewer stillborn piglets (Quensel,
2011). This suggests that sows might have been
distressed during farrowing, may produce less
colostrums and subsequently their piglets may
consume less colostrums as well. Nutrition could
affect colostrum production by mammary gland
development and through mechanisms controlling
colostrum secretion in late gestation. It is accepted
that overfeeding in gestation has a negative impact
on mammary development due to excessive fat
deposition in sows (Farmer and Sorensen, 2001).
Sows fed pectin residue during gestation had higher
colostrums yields as compared to sows fed potato
pulp (Theil et al., 2010). A 20% increase in
colostrums production was reported when the sow
diet was supplemented with a fermented potato
product during the last week of gestation (Quensel,
2011). A drastic reduction in sow feed allowance
(1.0 vs. 3.4 kg/d) during the last 14 days of
gestation increases the fat content of colostrums
(7.3 vs. 6.0%; Goransson, 1990), whereas a less
drastic difference throughout gestation has no effect
(Mahan, 1998). Supplementing the diet of sows
with fat during late pregnancy increases total lipids
in colostrum (Boyd et al., 1981; Coffey et al., 1982;
Jackson et al., 1995; Christon et al., 1999; Heo et
al., 2008) and was also reported to increase
colostrum lactose content (Heo et al., 2008) and
IGF-I concentrations (Averette et al., 1999). Milk
yield of sows can vary substantially depending on
the dietary supply of proteins and energy (King,
2000). Exposing lactating sows to high ambient
temperature reduces their voluntary feed intake
(O’Grady et al., 1985; Schoenherr et al., 1989)
which is associated with a decline in milk yield
(Schoenherr et al., 1989; Black et al., 1993).
Reduction in feed intake is the response to regulate
heat production in the lactating sows at high
ambient temperature.
Colostrum composition differs among breeds;
Duroc pigs were found to have more protein and
IGF-I than Landrace pigs (Simmen et al., 1990),
and Meishan sows to have more lipid (Le Dividich
et al., 1991) and less lactose (Zou et al., 1992) than
sows from European White breeds. Inoue (1981)
reported that There is a linear decrease in colostral
fat content as parity advances with the largest
decline occurring from parity 1 to parity 2 (Mahan,
1998). The fatty acid composition of colostrum is
affected by dietary fat level, and this effect on fatty
acid profile seems to be more beneficial under high
ambient temperatures (Christon et al., 1999). The
source of fat used in the gestating sow diet also
alters colostrum composition. Generally, the fatty
acid composition of sow colostrum broadly reflects
the amount and type of fat provided in the diet.
Colostrum of sows given dietary Conjugated
Linoleic Acid (CLA) contained more lactose and
CLA whereas both the colostrum and milk had
lower content of unsaturated fatty acids and higher
content of monounsaturated fatty acids (Barowic et
al., 2002). Dietary CLA also affects the fatty acid
composition of colostrum fat and it has a positive
effect on immunologic variables in colostrum, as
seen by an increase in IgG concentrations
(Bontempo et al., 2004). Reducing the protein
concentrations of gestating sow diets from 16 to
13% did not alter colostrum fat content (Mahan,
1998). King et al., (1996) reported no changes in the
chemical composition of colostrum from sows that
were fed a protein-restricted diet (8 vs. 18% CP)
throughout pregnancy. Dietary protein content has
no effect on the amino acid (AA) composition of
milk proteins (King et al., 1993); it would therefore
be unlikely that changes in dietary protein would
alter AA composition of colostrum. It was shown
that increasing dietary lysine intake above NRC
recommendations (8.0 g/kg instead of 6.0 g/kg) in
late gestation increased total solid and protein
contents of colostrum in sows, and there was no
interaction with energy intake (Heo, et al., 2008;
Yang et al., 2008). Concentrations of IgA were
greater in colostrum from Hampshire and Landrace
× Yorkshire sows, whereas they were less in
colostrum from Landrace and Yorkshire purebreds.
Concentrations of IgG were also less in colostrum
from Hampshire, Yorkshire, and Landrace ×
Yorkshire and were less in colostrum from
Landrace sows (Inoue et al., 1980).
Supplementation of the sow diet with Mannan
oligosaccharides (MOS) during late gestation led to
favorable changes in the immunoglobulin
composition of colostrum (Newman and Newman,
2001; O’Quinn et al., 2001). Newman and Newman
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SOW LACTATION: COLOSTRUM AND MILK YIELD …
(2001) reported significant increase in IgM
concentrations, but not in IgG or IgA
concentrations, in the colostrum of sows offered
MOS. O’Quinn et al., (2001) reported increased
concentrations of IgG, IgA, and IgM in pre-nursing
colostrum of treated sows, with IgG showing the
greatest response to treatment. Further investigation
showed that feeding fermented liquid feed during
late pregnancy increased concentrations of IgG and
IgA, but not IgM, in colostrum of sows, whereas
total protein content was not affected (Demeckova
et al., 2003).
Newborn piglets depend on the transfer of
various vitamins and minerals via colostrums.
Vitamin E storage in the adipose tissue of the sow
has a great influence on its concentration in
colostrum (Hakansson et al., 2001), and it is
possible to increase vitamin E concentrations in sow
colostrum by increasing dietary concentration of
vitamin E during gestation (Bland et al., 2001;
Pinelli-Saavedra et al., 2008) or by giving 2
injections of vitamin E on d 100 and 107 of
pregnancy (Chung and Mahan, 1995). Similarly,
supplementing the sow diet with vitamin A in late
gestation increased colostral vitamin A content
(Bland et al., 2001). With regard to vitamin C,
maternal dietary supplementation in late gestation
had no effect on its concentration in porcine
colostrum (Mahan and Vallet, 1997).
Concentrations of phosphorus and calcium in milk,
and therefore presumably in colostrum, also appear
to be independent of the dietary supply of these
minerals to the sow (Maxson and Mahan, 1986), as
is the case for iron and copper (Hartmann and
Holmes, 1989). A reduction in dietary zinc during
late pregnancy and early lactation does not alter
zinc concentrations in colostrum (Kalinowski and
Chavez, 1984). Replacing inorganic selenium with
organic selenium in the diet during late gestation
increases selenium content of colostrum but has no
influence on IgG concentrations (Quesnel et al.,
2008). Increases in vitamins A, C, or E contents of
the gestating sow diet were shown to improve the
IgG status of piglets in several studies (Rooke and
Bland, 2002), although this was not achieved via
alterations in colostrum composition but via
increased efficiency of IgG absorption by the
piglets. Concentrations of IgA and IgG in colostrum
are influenced by season. Concentrations of IgA
decrease in spring, summer, and fall but increase in
winter (Inoue, 1981). IgG increase in the spring and
decrease in the summer and fall (Inoue et al., 1980).
Concentrations of IgG also tended to be less when
late-pregnant sows were exposed to high ambient
temperatures (Machado-Neto et al., 1987).
Exposing sows to cold stress during the last 10 days
before parturition may also increase IgG absorption
by piglets (Bate and Hacker, 1985).
Factors that influence sow’s milk yield
Little information on the effect of breed on
performance of lactating sows is available (Sinclair
et al., 1999). Genetic differences in sow lactation
performance will, to some extent, reflect differences
in body weight and body composition at farrowing
and in litter size and milk production (Eissen et al.,
2000). The reduced milk production in Creole sows
is partly related to their lower prolificacy, which
decreases the nursing demand. From these results, it
appears that the reduced milk yield in Creole sows
seems to be also the result of their lighter piglets.
Using a cross-fostering technique, Kanis et
al.(1990) found that reduced milk intake in lighter
Meishan than in heavier Dutch piglets was mainly
caused by differences in birth weight. Nursing
demand is also related to piglet birth weight;
heavier piglets are more efficient for obtaining milk
during suckling than lighter piglets (King et al.,
1989)). According to Gourdine et al. (2006), body
weight loss was not affected by breed, but backfat
thickness loss was twice as great in Creole as in
Large White sows, suggesting a higher mobilization
of body fat reserves in Creole sows. These results
suggest that the effect of breed on piglet weight
gain is mainly related to a decrease of milk yield
and small changes in milk composition. Gourdine et
al. (2006) reported that unlike Large White sows,
Creole sows were able to feed even during the
hottest hours of the day, which confirms their
greater heat tolerance. This better heat tolerance in
Creole sows could be related to their lower
production level. Pigs from high lean growth
potential lines are more sensitive to heat stress than
those from moderate lines (Nienaber et al., 1997).
Age, parity and stage of lactation are factors that
influence milk yield. Amongst these factors, parity
is the most important in determining the amount of
milk secreted in successive lactations. The average
milk yield of first-litter sows is 75-78% of older
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KING’ORI
sows (Elsley, 1971; Speer and Cox, 1984; Black et
al., 1986). The average birth weight of piglets
farrowed in the first litter is usually lower than that
of piglets in later-litters (Smits et al., 1997), and the
lower birth weight could contribute to the lower
milk yield of first-litter sows. The milk yield of
first- and later-parity sows will be similar if piglet
number and size is standardized (Boyce et al.,
1997).
The removal of milk from the mammary gland
is very important for the maintenance of milk
secretion. Larger piglets may massage the teat more
vigorously before milk ejection, thus achieving a
greater blood flow to the teat thereby bringing more
oxytocin to the mammary gland (Fraser, 1984). The
secretion of other hormones like prolactin may also
be influenced by increased massage of the udder
(Algers et al., 1991).Secretion of milk that is
available to the piglets is almost complete within 35
minutes after the preceding nursing ((Spinka et al.,
1997). The typical inter-suckle interval for sows
varies from 30-70 minutes during the first week of
lactation (Boe, 1991; Jensen et al., 1991). Extending
nursing frequency results in more milk intake per
nursing but a decreased overall daily milk yield of
the sow (Spinka et al., 1997). Milk yield is not
determined by the rate of milk secretion from the
secretory cells, but by the volume of alveoli and the
frequency and completeness of their emptying.
More frequent nursing, in addition to raising output,
also has a positive feedback on the development of
alveoli. Increased nursing frequency results in a
proportionately greater development of mammary
tissue weight (Auldist et al., 1995). The duration
and intensity of teat stimulation influences the
productivity of the teat during the first days of
lactation in sows not exposed to noise. Suckling
piglets subjected to continuous loud noise perform
less teat stimulation and milk production of the
sows exposed to noise is decreased (Algers and
Jensen, 1991). Playback of recorded feeding
sounds could be used to increase nursing frequency
particularly in early lactation (Stone, et al., 1974).
In tropical climates the pigs are exposed to
ambient temperatures above their thermo-neutral
zone during the day (McGlone et al., 1988;
Christon, 1988; Serres, 1992; Knap, 1999). The
exposure to high ambient temperatures has negative
effects on pig performance, especially in lactating
sows (McGlone et al., 1988; Black et al., 1993;
Prunier et al., 1994; Azain et al., 1996). Reduction
in feed intake, losses in live weight, decreases in
backfat depth and changes in behaviour have been
reported in pigs exposed to high ambient
temperatures in comparison to pigs kept at lower
temperatures (Schoenherr et al., 1989; Prunier et al.,
1997; Knap 1999). The consequence of elevated
ambient temperature is a marked decrease in the
voluntary feed intake and consequently losses in
live weight and backfat depth during lactation
(Prunier et al., 1994). Black et al. (1993) reported
that sows exposed to hot conditions mobilized their
body reserves to support milk production. It has
been reported that pigs kept in hot environments
had a reduced thyroid activity (Christon, 1988;
Cabell and Ebenshade, 1990). The reduction in
concentration of thyroid hormone in plasma of
lactating sows is associated with a decrease in rate
of metabolism and in milk production (Wung et al.,
1977; Cabell and Ebenshade, 1990). Also, it has
been reported that lactating sows kept in hot
ambient temperature (30 °C) had a reduced
concentration of free fatty acids in plasma in
comparison to lactating sows kept at 20 °C (Prunier
et al., 1997). Based on this information it can be
proposed that a reduction in thyroid activity
represents an efficient strategy used by sows
exposed to hot environments to reduce heat
production. The reduction in thyroid hormone could
reduce free fatty acids circulating in plasma and
decrease the metabolic rate in the mammary gland.
It could explain the reduction in milk fat
concentration in the lactating sows in treatment H.
The evidence reported in the literature suggests a
reduction in milk synthesis in lactating sows as a
result of increase in ambient temperature
(Schoenherr et al., 1989; Black et al., 1993; Prunier
et al., 1997). Sows kept at high ambient
temperatures (27 o C-40 o C) had increased live weight
and backfat losses, reduced feed intake and changes
in milk composition during lactation compared
with sows kept at lower (19 o C-33 o C) temperature (
Ricalde and Jean, 2000).
Lactational production has been associated with
level of prolactin (Anderson, 1974; Tucker, 1974).
Increased light period has been shown to increase
prolactin concentrations in sheep, goats and cattle
(Forbes et al., 1975; Hart, 1975; Bourne and
Tucker, 1975). An increase in photoperiod from 8 to
16 hours light increased milk yield in sows (Marbry
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SOW LACTATION: COLOSTRUM AND MILK YIELD …
et al., 1982). This could be due to increase in
prolactin levels or an increased suckling frequency
with the increased photoperiod. Attempts have been
made to increase sow milk production by hormonal
manipulation (Kveragas et al., 1986; Harkins,
1989). Porcine growth hormone affects the sow’s
plasma insulin and glucose concentrations (Spence
et al., 1984; Kveragas et al., 1986). Sows receiving
porcine growth hormone did not show a decline in
milk production by day 20 of lactation as the
control (Spence et al., 1984). Also sows injected
with recombinant porcine growth hormone from 12-
28 days of lactation had an increase in milk yield
(Boyd et al., 1985; Harkins et al., 1989). Dubreuil
et al. (1990) reported that injection of Growth
hormone-releasing factor increased the release of
Growth hormone while injection of Thyrotropinreleasing
factor stimulated Thyroxine and Prolactin
release during lactation. However, the increased
release of Growth hormone, Thyroxine and
Prolactin did not influence sow milk production and
composition.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be made:
Sow colostrum and milk yield is influenced
by litter size, birth weight, number of parity,
genotype, endocrine status, stress before, during and
after farrowing and nutrition.
Colostrum composition differs among
breeds.
20-30% early piglet mortality that is due to
lack of adequate nutrition can be prevented by
ensuring that the piglets are kept warm and suckle
adequate colostrum and milk immediately after
farrowing.
Implications
A profitable pig production enterprise will
depend on the choice of the right breed for the
location and system of production. The
management of the sow during gestation and
farrowing is important. Attending to the sow during
farrowing will ensure that the piglets suckle
colostrum within the shortest time possible from
farrowing, increasing their chances of survival
(reducing mortality). Sow nutrition during gestation
and lactation will influence the litter size and weight
at farrowing and weaning. The sow body condition
at weaning influences the duration to post-weaning
service, number of services per conception and
subsequent litter size. Poor nutrition during
lactation prolongs the post-weaning service
duration, increases the number of services per
conception and Production of small litters in
subsequent farrowing. Sows fed poorly during
lactation produce less milk and wean small litters of
low weight. This leads to early culling of breeding
sows.
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