Use of Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Family Poultry Health ...

Journal of Veterinary Advances
Use of Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Family Poultry Health
Management in Botswana: a Review
Moreki J. C.
J Vet Adv 2012, 2(6): 254-260
Online version is available on: www.grjournals.com

ISSN: 2251-7685
MOREKI
Use of Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Family Poultry Health
Management in Botswana: a Review
A Review
Moreki J. C.
Department of Animal Science and Production, Botswana College of Agriculture,Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana
Abstract
A review of the utilization of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) for health management of family poultry in
Botswana was undertaken. The use of ethnoveterinary medicine in the management of animal healthcare is as
old as the domestication of various livestock species. Compared to Western modern medicine, EVM is widely
utilized by the family poultry rearers across the country. In Botswana, the common traditional remedies used to
control and treat diseases were Aloe spp., potassium permanganate and Nicotiana tabacum. Aloe spp. and N.
tabacum were also used against internal parasites while wood ashes, especially those from Peltophorum
africanum and Combretum imberbe were used against external parasites. Because of its unpleasant and strong
smell, Thamnosma rhodesica leaves were placed in chicken shelters in order to repel external parasites. This
review suggests the need to conduct field surveys in order to document ethnoveterinary practices in Botswana.
Keywords: Diseases, family poultry, herbal plants, parasites, traditional remedies
Corresponding author: Department of Animal Science and Production, Botswana College of Agriculture,Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana
Received on: 15 May 2012
Revised on: 07 June 2012
Accepted on: 16 June 2012
Online Published on: 30 June 2012
254 J. Vet. Adv., 2012, 2(6):254-260

USE OF ETHNOVETERINARY MEDICINE IN FAMILY POULTRY …
Introduction
Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM), which is
also known as traditional animal health care
practices, is defined as local or indigenous
knowledge and methods for caring, healing, and
managing livestock (Guéye, 1999). It is the study of
indigenous knowledge system of animal health care.
The EVM drugs are used in the management of
bacterial, viral, protozoan, fungal, parasitic and noninfectious
causes of diseases. According to Sri
Balaji and Vikrama Chakravarthi (2010),
ethnoveterinary practices concern to animal health
care is as old as the domestication of various
livestock species. They comprise beliefs,
knowledge, practices and skills pertaining to health
care and management of livestock. Worldwide the
people have traditionally relied on a whole range of
indigenous practices to keep their flock health and
to treat them when they are sick (Anon, 1996).
Medicinal plants have for several centuries been
widely used as a primary source of prevention and
control of livestock diseases (Hoareau and DaSilva,
1999). In the opinion of Guèye (1997), EVM is
usually the only alternative for most of the resourcepoor
family poultry farmers, particularly in rural
and hilly areas because there are almost no
veterinarians working in such areas.
According to Wanzala et al. (2005), the
discovery of all the medicinal uses of plants must
have occurred in a number of ways, not only by the
principle of trial and error mechanism. Some of
these ways include watching animals treat
themselves by eating and rubbing themselves with
special plants when ill (zoopharmacognosy) and
subsequent adoption of the same remedies,
communicating and interacting with the visiting
traditional medical specialists from other
communities and borrowing their traditional
remedial ideas, inheriting the healing powers and
magic from parents, buying the healing and magic
powers from experienced traditional medical
specialists and deliberate experimentation to help
select those remedies that work. Guèye (2002) and
Masimba et al. (2011) pointed out that
ethnoveterinary knowledge was mostly in the
custody of older men and women who passed it
orally to younger gerenations by word of mouth.
Interest in EVM has resulted primarily from the
increasing cost of livestock maintenance and the
introduction of new technology in the production of
veterinary medicines and vaccines (Hoareau and
DaSilva, 1999). In Kenya, Lagu and Kayanja(2010)
reported that traditional healers play limited roles in
treating local chickens as many farmers collect,
concoct and administer the local herbs themselves.
Many of the plants used to prepare indigenous
medicine contain valuable active ingredients.
Previous study by Moreki et al. (2010) showed that
86.7% of family poultry rearers used EVM, whereas
the remainder used modern medicines (vaccines and
drugs).
Resource-poor farmers in rural and peri-urban
areas have limited access to veterinary care in terms
of support services (from state and private
veterinarians and animal health technicians),
information about the prevention and treatment of
livestock diseases, and preventative and therapeutic
veterinary medicines (Dold and Cocks, 2001). Also,
the resource-poor family poultry farmers do not
have money for, or access to cost-intensive
management systems including chemical medicine
(Guèye, 2002).
The indigenous traditional knowledge of
medicinal plants of various ethnic communities,
which has been transmitted orally for centuries is
fast disappearing from the face of the earth due to
the advent of modern technology and
transformation of traditional culture (Sandhya et al.,
2006). Therefore, the paper reviews published
researches on the use of EVM in family poultry
with particular reference to Botswana.
Merits and demerits for the use of
ethnoveterinary medicine
Guèye (1997) stated that the use of EVM is
sustainable and ecologically sound, as plant
products with recognised medicinal properties are
far more accessible to the villagers than Western
medicine. The merits and demerits for the use of
EVM are presented in Table 1.
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Table 1: Merits and demerits for the use of ethnoveterinary medicine
Merits
Demerits
Cost effective
Difficulty of getting plants at certain times of the year.
Local medicines are effective
Delays in the recovery of the birds post herbal drug
administration.
Readily accessible
Difficulty in preservation of the herbal concoctions.
There is no eminent resistance
Ineffective concoctions, unknown dosages and therefore not
standardized.
No transport costs are incurred
May be harmful to persons preparing them
It is easy to administer
The tedious process of preparing herbal concoctions for many
birds.
There is minimal risk of drug overdose
There are no known dosages.
When prompt treatment is administered, the birds Not sure of the diseases being treated because of poor
get healed and the birds benefit from
diagnosis, which only identifies symptoms and not the
supplementation from vitamins.
underlying cause.
Source: Matekaire and Bwakura (2004); Lagu and Kayanja (2010).
Medicinal plant parts used
The distribution of medicinal plants in poultry
health management by parts utilized for EVM is
shown in Figure 1. The most used part is the root
and the least used part is the wood. In their study,
Bodeker et al. (2005) reported that the destructive
harvesting methods (roots, whole plants, bark, stem,
rhizomes and wood) and non-destructive methods
(fruits, seeds, leaves and flowers) accounted for
72% and 28%, respectively of plants parts used in
EVM.Sri Balaji and Vikrama Chakravarthi (2010)
stated that all plant parts including leaves, bark,
fruits, flowers and seeds are used in medicinal
preparations.
Fig. 1: Distribution of medicinal plants by parts used. Source: Bodeker et al. (2005)
Preparation and application of herbal
medicines
Plants are the most commonly utilized
ingredients in the preparation of EVM. Masika et al.
(2000) noted that medicinal plants have various
methods of preparation and application such as
concoction, decoction, powder, and crushed and
homogenized in water for different types of
ailments. Preparation can be made from single plant
or from a range of plants depending on the disease
treated. The preparation and application methods
vary based on the type of disease treated and the
256 J. Vet. Adv., 2012, 2(6):254-260

USE OF ETHNOVETERINARY MEDICINE IN FAMILY POULTRY …
actual site of the ailment. The medicinal plant
preparations are applied through different routes of
administration such as oral, topical or dermal, and
nasal routes.
The most common forms of EVM preparations
are powders, poultice, ointment, decoction,
infusion, cold ware extract, tincture and fumigation
(Toyang et al., 2007; Sri Balaji and Vikrama
Chakravarthi, 2010). A study by Masika et al.
(2000) in South Africa, reported that a concoction
constituted 26.1% of preparation form, followed by
crushed and homogenized in water (20%) and
powder form (16.1%). The authors observed that
oral application was the most (50.43%) commonly
used route followed by topical or dermal application
(23.48%).
Ethnoveterinary medicines can be administered
in many different ways including drenching, bath,
fumigation, spray, injection and topical application
(Toyang et al., 2007). Drenching is applying
medicine in liquid form through the mouth using a
spoon, dropper or sorghum straw; on skin
application a poultice, soft heated preparation
(applied to a sore or abscess using wet cloth), warm
stone or direct application; fumigation (the use of
smoke to kill insects); steam (applied to affected
part); hanging bouquet (when plants parts are bound
in to a bouquet and hanged inside poultry house); in
the eye application (medicine is dropped into the
eye of the bird) and lastly medicine can be applied
through feeds or water by mixing them with
medicine.
Diseases control and t treatment through
ethnoveterinary medicine
Diseases seriously affect family poultry and
constitute one of its major threats. Moreki et al.
(2010) ascribed losses in family poultry to diseases
(36.7%); diseases and parasites (11.1%); predation
(8.89%); a combination of diseases, parasites and
predation (8.89%). In order of prevalence, the
common diseases of poultry in Botswana are
coccidiosis, infectious coryza, fowl pox, infectious
bursal disease (IBD) and Newcastle disease (NCD)
(Moreki et al., 2011). According to Guéye (1999),
NCD is the most widespread infectious disease in
Africa. Similarly, Moreki (1997, 2010)
identifiedNCD to be a major constraint in family
poultry, causing up to 100% mortality in unprotected
flocks. The study of Badubi et al. (2006) in
Botswana estimated deaths due to NCD, predation,
other causes and unknown causes to be 40.45%,
53.8%, 3.3% and 2.55%, respectively. Herbal plants
used to treat and/or control diseases and parasites are
presented in Table 2.
As shown in Table 2, various herbal plants are
used to treat, prevent and control diseases in family
chickens. The study of Moreki (2003) showed that
87% of respondents used traditional remedies to
control diseases compared to 15% that used modern
medicines (2% vaccines and 13% drugs). Both
human and veterinary medications were used in the
treatment of diseases. The three common traditional
remedies used by rearers were potassium
permanganate, aloes (Aloe spp.) and leaf tobacco
(Nicotiana tabacum). The medicinal uses of tobacco
have been reported in humans by Charlton (2004).
In agreement with Moreki (1997), Deeba (2009) in
Pakistan reported the use of N. tabacum in
treatment of NCD. Other remedies included
Hypagophytum procumbens (tuber), salty water,
exudates from eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.) leaves,
roots from Senna italica, and a decoction of tea
leaves (Five Roses Tea brand being preferred) for
the treatment of various diseases. Similarly,
Ranwedzi (2002) in South Africa reported that
family poultry rearers used traditional remedies
including Aloe vossii Reynolds and tobacco leaves
to treat chickens against NCD. Moreki (1997)
attributed the wide use of traditional remedies to lack
of knowledge in the use of vaccines, lack of cooling
facilities, unavailability of vaccines, and possible
effectiveness of the remedies in curing some
diseases. In Nigeria, Musa et al. (2008) noted that
these remedies that are used by rural farmers may or
may not have direct effect on NCD virus but could
affect protozoan and helminths parasites of rural
poultry by reducing the parasites burden, and
boosting the immunity of birds against infection.
In Botswana, Aloe vera and N. tabacum are the
most common utilized remedies used against both
diseases and parasites. Mwale et al. (2005) reported
that A.vera and Aloe spicata were the predominantly
used plant species for chicken health management in
Zimbabwe. The authors attributed the wide use of
A.vera and A. spicata their ease of use and
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availability all year round. In agreement with
Moreki et al. (2010), Mwale et al. (2005) mentioned
that A.vera acts like a broadspectrum antibiotic
remedy.
Table 2: Herbal plants used to treat family poultry diseases in Botswana
Tswana name English name Scientific name Family Parts used
Kwii Onion Allium cepa Liliaceae Bulb
* Garlic Allium sativum Liliaceae Bulb
Mokgwapha Burn plant Aloe spp. Aloaceae Leaf
Sengaparile Grapple plant Hypagophytum Pedaliaceae Tuber
procumbens
Sebete * Senna italica Fabaceae Roots
Mmurubere Mulberry Morus alba Moraceae Leafs
Moralala * Thamnosma rhodesica Rutaceae Roots
Mosetlha African wattle Peltophorum africanum Caesalpinioideae Root/bark
Pepere Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp. Myrtaceae Leaf
Mabolara Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum Solanaceae Leaf
Monepenepe Long-tail Cassia abbreviata Fabaceae Bark/roots
cassia
* Moringa Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Leaf
Motswere Leadwood Combretum imberbe Combretaceae Whole
plant
Pherehere Pepper/chilli Capsicum annum Solanaceae Fruits
*Name could not be found
Moreeng (2008) reported that feeding chickens
a concoction of Moringa (Moringa oleifera) tree
leaves is an effective de-worming practice. The use
of Moringa oleifera by the rearers is consistent with
Yang et al. (2006) who investigated the effects of
feeding four levels (0.5%, 1%, 2% and 3% dried
leaves) of dehydrated leaves of M. oleifera in the
diets of broilers and found that Moringa diets
significantly (1) enhanced duodenum traits; (2)
increased concentrations of total globulin, γ-
globulin and IgA, lymphocyte ratio, antibody titer
to sheep erythrocytes, and delayed type
hypersensitivity (3) reduced E. coli and increased
Lactobacillus counts in the ileum. The authors
concluded that M. oleifera leaves are potential plant
material to enhance immune responses and improve
intestinal health of broilers. The study of Ogbe and
Affiku (2011) in Nigeria showed that M. oleifera
leaves contained appreciable amounts of
carbohydrate, protein and minerals, which are
nutritional requirements for poultry. The authors
also mentioned that M. oleifera could be useful as
feed supplement and as medicine in poultry to
improve health and growth performance.
In Botswana, the bursa of fabricius of birds
infected with IBD is usually cut and dressed with
salt or a mixture of salt and snuff (powdered
tobacco) in order to stop bleeding. The practice of
trimming bursa of fabricius is common across
Botswana as it is said to be effective against IBD
(Moreki et al 2010). The study of Simainga et al.
(2010) in the Western Province of Zambia reported
similar results.
Parasites control through ethnoveterinary
medicine
The common parasites of family poultry in
Botswana are tampans, mites, fowl lice and ticks,
whereas the three common remedies used against
external parasites control are paraffin, wood ash and
Blue Death (a chemical dust used to kill ants)
(Moreki, 2003). These remedies are applied on the
birds by rubbing. Warm or cold ash is also applied
to the floor of the shelters. Moreki (1997)
mentioned that although ashes from any tree species
could be used, Peltophorum africanum (African
wattle) and Combretum imberbe (lead wood) are
preferred. Other traditional remedies used to kill
parasites are Aloe spp., Jeyes fluid, potassium
permanganate and burning (smoking) in the chicken
shelters. It is claimed (Moreki, 1997) that placing
the leaves of Thamnosma rhodesica in the chicken
258 J. Vet. Adv., 2012, 2(6):254-260

USE OF ETHNOVETERINARY MEDICINE IN FAMILY POULTRY …
shelter repels parasites. Similarly, Lagu and
Kayanja (2010) in Uganda reported the use of
paraffin against mites and fleas. The authors stated
that A.vera was mixed with ash and red pepper
(Capsicum annum) before administration while in
Botswana an infusion of A. vera is given.
Conclusion
Most family poultry are threatened by disease
outbreak, especially NCD. Family poultry is usually
owned and managed by resource-poor farmers who
are unable to buy expensive vaccines for their
flocks. These vaccines require cold chain that is
lacking in the village environment. As a result,
EVM is crucial in preserving the health of family
poultry because it is cheap, readily available and
cost effective. The EVM preparation and
administration varies from place to place and also
differs depending on the diseases treated.Medicinal
plants should be conserved, cultivated and
harvested strategically to preserve them for future
use. Further studies are required in order to
document ethnoveterinary practices used for health
management of family poultry.
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude to Ms.
Kenaleone Gabanakgosi, MSc. (Animal Science)
student at Botswana College of Agriculture for
assistance with some literature.
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