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LEGAL ONtOLOGIES In informatics, ontologies (Gruber, 1993) constitute an explicit formal speciication of a common conceptualisation with term hierarchies, relations and attributes that make it possible to reuse this knowledge for automated applications. the formalisation must be on the one hand suficiently powerful with regard to knowledge representation, and on the other hand must offer functionalities for automation as well as tools to be produced automatically (for lexically based ontologies, see hirst, 2004). thus, a legal ontology is a data model of the legal order. Ontologies in law have some particularities due to the legal domain and its language. this legal text corpus is not inherently structured and a formal taxonomy does not exist. Legal structuring as such is done by lawyers, in their minds, and presented and made explicit in their argumentations and writings. As a product of this process, a legal commentary is considered as the highest level of this endeavour. the understanding of logic remains also quite different from the formal logic of computer science: its open legal concepts, inherent dynamics of law, system models and syntactic ambiguities provide strong impediments to formalisation. the motivation for the creation of legal ontologies is evident: common use of knowledge, examination of a knowledge base, knowledge acquisition, representation and reuse of knowledge up to the needs of software engineering (Bench-Capon and Visser, 1997). wAyS tO LEGAL ONtOLOGIES As legal concepts constitute the basis for legal ontologies, all endeavours for semantic representations or the development of thesauri can be seen as preliminary works. the Semantic web, word nets and conceptual indexing provide some insights into the proper strategy to achieve a suficiently developed legal ontology. As today’s web is mostly text-based, additional semantic data might bring methods that could be used for the similar task in law. the Semantic web can be considered as an extension to the current web in providing a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused ( 5 ). According to tim Berners-Lee, the Semantic web is ‘not a separate web but an exten- ( 5 ) website: http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/. 01_2007_5222_txt_ML.indd 140 6-12-2007 15:14:02
WORKSHOP sion of the current one, in which information is given well-deined meaning, better enabling computers and people to work in cooperation’ (Berners-Lee et al., 2001). Information available on the web is semantically tagged and linked using the technologies of Resource Description framework (RDf), XmL and URIs. this layer model (Koivunen and miller, 2002) is based on XmL (schema, name spaces) that offers a structuring of documents and data at the syntactic level. the next level forms RDf (schema) using the syntax of XmL and providing clear rules for the production of metadata. RDf describes resources by attributes. the RDf attributes are deined as a valid vocabulary by the RDf schema, forming also classes and class hierarchies. the next layer may be a logical one, an inference machine. In 2004, the w3C published, besides RDf, the web Ontology Language (OwL) for the development of sets of terms called ontologies that can be used for supporting advanced web search, software agents and knowledge management. Besides establishing the framework, the web has so far not been changed to a semantic representation and offered a broad high-level structuring of knowledge. In law, the Semantic web constitutes a tool for representation of domain knowledge but has so far also not been implemented. Computer-useable dictionaries may provide information on the world as such. facts could be checked much more easily. therefore, these projects would deliver a world description that could be used for identifying factual situations in law with legal consequences. wordNet is an online lexical reference system that is an initiative of the linguist George miller. It has been developed and is being maintained by the Cognitive Science Laboratory at Princeton University (miller et al., 1990) ( 6 ). Its design is inspired by current psycholinguistic theories of human lexical memory. It encodes conceptual relationships between terms by arranging them in a hierarchical structure. words (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs) and their short deinitions are grouped into synonym sets (synsets), each representing a speciic lexical concept. the synsets are linked by a set of different semantic relations (mainly synonymy/antonymy, hyponymy/hyperonymy, meronymy and morphological relations to reduce word forms). wordNet aims at supporting automatic text analysis and AI applications and at providing an intuitively useable enhanced dictionary. the database of the current version 2.0 contains ( 6 ) website: http://wordnet.princeton.edu/. 140 | 141 01_2007_5222_txt_ML.indd 141 6-12-2007 15:14:02
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Speeches and proceedings 25th anniv
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25 YEARS OF ONLINE THE EVENT 25 ANN
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INTRODUCTION APRèS LA PUBLICAtION
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wORKShOP Legal XmL — Use of XmL f
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Cette énumération des participant
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sion a fait de l’initiative «mie
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II. «mIEUX LéGIféRER» Et L’AC
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01_2007_5222_txt_ML.indd 22 6-12-20
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• et L. E. Allen, spécialiste de
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La création d’un réseau de coop
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Stele so weit nähern, dass er den
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nicht autorisierte Abschrift der of
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„Die Anforderungen und Bedingunge
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hat, „Zugänglichkeit und Verstä
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Old testament. this passage is set
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this checkpoint is given a Priority
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knowledge of the law. Adults, child
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It is a dificult task to predict th
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MEETING OF THE COUNCIL WORKING PART
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SOUVENIRS D’UNE DÉLÉGUÉE NATIO
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EUR-LEX TODAY AND TOMORROW After mo
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DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AND LEGAL INFORMA
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LIFE AS A CELEX HOST INtRODUCtION I
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CONCLUSIONS first, I would like to
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En tant que déléguée de la Grèc
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LEGAL XML — USE OF XML FOR THE PR
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WORKSHOP • publishing technologie
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WORKSHOP • NiR and the NiR editor
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WORKSHOP tors, thus providing the o
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WORKSHOP 3. SCOPE the expected resu
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WORKSHOP gestützt auf die Verordnu
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