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Benfield, 1986; Griffiths et al., 2009) but their C:N ratios differ (red maple C:N = 53 [Ostrofsky, 1997], corn C:N = 24 to 28 [Griffiths et al., 2009]). Corn litter was also included in order to examine its potential as a litter source in a separate reach-scale detritus addition study (M. P. Venarsky, unpublished). Red maple litter was collected shortly after abscission from the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, North Carolina, and Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, U.S.A. Senesced corn litter from non-Bt plants (i.e. a variety that has not been genetically modified to contain Bacillus thuringiensis genes) was collected from an agricultural field near Salem, Illinois, U.S.A. Litter of both species was air-dried and ~4 g (±0.1 g) was placed into each of 14 × 12 cm fine- (500-µm) and coarse-mesh (10 × 8 mm) bags. The different mesh sizes controlled invertebrate access to the leaf litter. The fine-mesh bags allowed access by only small-bodied invertebrates (e.g. microcrustaceans, Chironomidae, and Oligochaeta), while coarse-mesh bags allowed access by both small- and large-bodied taxa (e.g. crayfish and late instar Ephemeroptera). Litter bags (n = 100) were deployed among five stations (fiver litter bags per litter species per mesh size per station) in each stream. Stations were separated by 5 to 10 m, except in Jess Elliot Cave where two stations were separated by 85 m. Litter bags were tethered to nylon string at 0.25-m intervals and anchored in the stream by a sandbag. To assess handling loss, three litter bags of each litter species and mesh size were retrieved on the day of deployment. On each of 10 sampling dates, one bag of each litter species and mesh size was retrieved from each station in each of the four caves (n = 5 of each combination). Litter bags were stored on ice from the time of collection to processing (c. 24 hrs). To assess temporal variation in litter breakdown rates, the litter-bag study was conducted twice, from January to July 2008 and from July to December 2008 (to January 2009 for Tony Sinks). Red maple litter from 11
the different source locations was not mixed between experimental periods; litter from Macon Co., North Carolina was used during the first experimental period and litter from Tuscaloosa Co., Alabama for the second period. No effects of different maple litter sources were detected (see Results). Water temperature and depth were recorded in each stream every 30 min using a Solinst Barologger model 3001 data logger (Solinst, Georgetown, Ontario, Canada). The coefficient of variation (CV) around average daily water levels was calculated in each cave to quantify flow variability; a higher CV indicates more variable hydrology. CV around water depths could not be calculated for the first deployment date because of instrument failure. Water samples were collected from each stream on each sampling date and analysed for NH + 4 -N, NO 3¯-N and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP). All water samples were filtered through glass-fibre filters (0.7-µm nominal pore size). Water samples were transported to the laboratory on ice and frozen until analysis. Temporal trends in organic matter abundance were examined by quantifying organic matter on eight dates (four per incubation period) using a 490- cm 2 corer placed at two random points within 4 m of each litter-bag station. The corer was inserted into the stream bottom, large organic matter was removed, and the substratum disturbed to a maximum depth of 4 cm. Remaining suspended organic matter was removed from the water column of the corer via 10 sweeps of the water column with a 250-µm mesh net. Sample processing Contents of litter bags were placed into a 3.8-L bucket containing c. 2 L of water. The contents were agitated to dislodge macroinvertebrates from litter, which was removed by hand. The water was then sieved (250-µm), additional leaf material was removed and invertebrates retained on the sieve preserved in 5% formalin. Organic matter from both the litter bags and 12
Page 1 and 2: THE INFLUENCE OF ENERGY AVAILABILIT
Page 3 and 4: ABSTRACT Detritus from surface envi
Page 5 and 6: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS m
Page 7 and 8: NC IL ON U.K. VIAT VIE Fig. North C
Page 9 and 10: AIC K-S Akaike information criterio
Page 11 and 12: laboratory work and was an excellen
Page 13 and 14: LIST OF TABLES TABLE 2.1 TABLE 2.2
Page 15 and 16: LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 2.1 (a) Box
Page 17 and 18: FIGURE 4.3 Growth models for Orcone
Page 19 and 20: chemolithoautotrophy-based systems;
Page 21 and 22: ecology, 51, 31-53. Gibert J. & Cul
Page 23 and 24: CHAPTER 2 EFFECTS OF ORGANIC MATTER
Page 25 and 26: community structure in cave “pits
Page 27: communities and how variation in co
Page 31 and 32: of natural-log transformed data (%
Page 33 and 34: peak in organic matter in Big Mouth
Page 35 and 36: Figs. 5a, b). The breakdown rate of
Page 37 and 38: per litter bag. Similarly, Huntsman
Page 39 and 40: ags was the greater retention of li
Page 41 and 42: Historically, limited resource inpu
Page 43 and 44: Culver, D.C. & Pipan, T. (2009) The
Page 45 and 46: Merritt, R.W., Cummins, K.W. & Berg
Page 47 and 48: Table 1. Mean (1 S.D.) macroinverte
Page 49 and 50: Table 2. Mean (±1 S.D.) daily temp
Page 51 and 52: Figure 1. (a) Box and whisker plot
Page 53 and 54: Figure 3. Non-metric multidimension
Page 55 and 56: Figure 5. Box and whisker plot of l
Page 57 and 58: streams, while the obligate-cave sp
Page 59 and 60: More recent observational and exper
Page 61 and 62: of netting (mesh size 2.5×1.5-cm)
Page 63 and 64: the two end-members. This conservat
Page 65 and 66: crop organic matter significantly i
Page 67 and 68: macroinvertebrate biomass to levels
Page 69 and 70: and surface streams (20-35,000 g m
Page 71 and 72: these factors, the stable isotope a
Page 73 and 74: surface streams. Thus, it is likely
Page 75 and 76: subsides to ecosystem dynamics have
Page 77 and 78: populations. Journal of Applied Eco
Page 79 and 80:
Poulson T.L. & Lavoie K.H. (2001) T
Page 81 and 82:
Wood P., Gunn J. & Perkins J. (2002
Page 83 and 84:
Table 2. Mean (±1 standard deviati
Page 85 and 86:
Table 2. Continued Chironomini Para
Page 87 and 88:
Figure 1. Mean (bars are standard e
Page 89 and 90:
Figure 3. Non-metric multidimension
Page 91 and 92:
CHAPTER 4 REXAMINING EXTREME LONGEI
Page 93 and 94:
individuals, he predicted that it w
Page 95 and 96:
A phylogeographic study by Buhay &
Page 97 and 98:
differences in size structure among
Page 99 and 100:
and females in Tony Sinks Cave were
Page 101 and 102:
Estimates of life span for O. austr
Page 103 and 104:
available size-classes were well re
Page 105 and 106:
References Anonymous (1999) Cave Sc
Page 107 and 108:
Huryn A.D. & Wallace J.B. (1987) Pr
Page 109 and 110:
Whitmore N. & Huryn A.D. (1999) Lif
Page 111 and 112:
Table 2. Estimated life span (years
Page 113 and 114:
Figure 1. Annual growth increment (
Page 115 and 116:
Figure 3. Growth models for Orconec
Page 117 and 118:
CHAPTER 5 CONSUMER-RESOURCE DYNAMIC
Page 119 and 120:
following incidental inputs of orga
Page 121 and 122:
Temperature data were not available
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minimum (Venarsky et al., 2012b). A
Page 125 and 126:
100% organic matter (i.e., maximum
Page 127 and 128:
Macroinvertebrate biomass varied si
Page 129 and 130:
Discussion The energy-limitation hy
Page 131 and 132:
crayfish captured in most months we
Page 133 and 134:
systems is likely high, especially
Page 135 and 136:
function of microbial films in grou
Page 137 and 138:
Crustacean Biology, 4, 35-54. Momot
Page 139 and 140:
Whitmore N. & Huryn A. (1999) Life
Page 141 and 142:
Table 2. Assimilation efficiencies
Page 143 and 144:
Table 3. Continued Tanypodinae 0.03
Page 145 and 146:
Table 5. Estimates of mean wood and
Page 147 and 148:
Figure 1. (A) Box and whisker plot
Page 149 and 150:
CHAPTER 6 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS Due t
Page 151 and 152:
characteristics (e.g., higher growt
Page 153 and 154:
characteristics, highly efficient p
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