Global Civil Society in the Global Political Arena - Centre for Global ...
Global Civil Society in the Global Political Arena - Centre for Global ...
Global Civil Society in the Global Political Arena - Centre for Global ...
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<strong>Global</strong> <strong>Civil</strong> <strong>Society</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Political</strong> <strong>Arena</strong><br />
BY LISA JORDAN<br />
<strong>Global</strong>civilsocietyisarelativelynewlayerofnetworksand<br />
organizations that operate beyond national borders. Over 20,000<br />
of <strong>the</strong>se networks are already active on <strong>the</strong> world stage, 90 % of<br />
whichhavebeen<strong>for</strong>medwith<strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong>lastthirtyyears. Many—<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Jubilee 2000, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Global</strong> Campaign to Ban Landm<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
AmnestyInternational–havebecomehouseholdnames.The<br />
emergenceofglobalcivilsocietycanbe<strong>in</strong>terpretedasaresponse<br />
bycitizenstorapidlychang<strong>in</strong>gconditionsofgovernanceand<br />
community <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>terconnected world, or —<strong>in</strong>a<br />
word —toglobalization.<strong>Global</strong>izationhasspreadwealth,<br />
opportunity and new possibilities across <strong>the</strong> globe. However, it<br />
hasalsounraveledmanyof<strong>the</strong>socialandculturalcontractsthat<br />
statesandcitizenshavepa<strong>in</strong>stak<strong>in</strong>glybuiltover<strong>the</strong>pastcenturies<br />
to advance social goals and protect groups from <strong>the</strong> abuse of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
rights — through rules, standards and regulations that decide<br />
how<strong>the</strong>costsandbenefitsofchangearedistributedwith<strong>in</strong>and<br />
betweensocieties.With<strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong>contextofglobalization,globalcivil<br />
societyplaystwoimportantrolesthatwhentakentoge<strong>the</strong>rmay<br />
adduptoglobalcivilsocietybe<strong>in</strong>ganagent<strong>for</strong>democracy.<br />
a) Thefirstof<strong>the</strong>serolesistoimproveglobalgovernance,atatime<br />
when <strong>the</strong> balance between representative and direct democracy<br />
ischang<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>favorofnon-stateactors,bothcivilsocietyand<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess.Thesechangescreateaseriesofdifficultquestionsand<br />
dilemmas about <strong>the</strong> legitimacy and effectiveness of different <strong>for</strong>ms<br />
of politics, but <strong>the</strong> central challenge rema<strong>in</strong>s clear: to create new<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutionsandprocessesofgovernanceat<strong>the</strong>globallevelthat<br />
aretransparent,accountabletocitizens,andopento<strong>the</strong>voices<br />
of those who are affected by decisions. Many issues that used to<br />
be resolved at <strong>the</strong> national level have become global <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir causes<br />
andeffectswithout<strong>the</strong>concomitantdemocratic<strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
tha<strong>the</strong>lpsbalance<strong>the</strong>needsofmarket,stateandsociety<strong>in</strong>decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Today, trade and environmental policies, <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
standards, patent rights, and o<strong>the</strong>r agreements are negotiated<br />
among governments and bus<strong>in</strong>ess representatives <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
arena, <strong>in</strong> effect creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> emerg<strong>in</strong>g structures of global<br />
governance.Whilecivilsocietycannotandshouldnotreplace<br />
governments<strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong>senegotiations,civilsociety<strong>in</strong>volvementcan<br />
enhance<strong>the</strong>effectivenessofglobalgovernance<strong>in</strong>threeways:<br />
• Bylegitimiz<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong>outcomesofdecisionsnowtakenglobally<br />
— <strong>for</strong> example, <strong>in</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Montreal Protocal on<br />
Substances that Deplete <strong>the</strong> Zone Layer. Act<strong>in</strong>g alone, governments<br />
can confer authority but not legitimacy on decisions<br />
made <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> global arena.<br />
• By promot<strong>in</strong>g transparency and accountability <strong>in</strong> global <strong>in</strong>stitutions<br />
— <strong>for</strong> example, <strong>in</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g pressure <strong>for</strong> World Bank<br />
Inspection Panel. Of all <strong>the</strong> stakeholders <strong>in</strong> global governance,<br />
civil society has <strong>the</strong> largest stake <strong>in</strong> extend<strong>in</strong>g democracy and<br />
democratic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples to <strong>the</strong> global political arena.<br />
• Byprovid<strong>in</strong>gamorecompetitivepoolofpolicyideasand<br />
<strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation, <strong>the</strong>reby improv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> quality of debates and decision<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g — <strong>for</strong> example, <strong>the</strong> Intergovernmental Panel on<br />
ClimateChange,abodyof1900scientists,hasvastly<strong>in</strong>creased<br />
<strong>the</strong>qualityandpoolofpolicyoptionsavailabletonegotiators<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g on a global climate change protocol.<br />
Although civil society is already exercis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se functions <strong>in</strong><br />
someareasof<strong>the</strong>UnitedNationsand<strong>the</strong>BrettonWoods<br />
Institutions, global governance extends to bodies that have much<br />
lesspublicoversightsuchas<strong>the</strong>‘CodexAlementarius,’which<br />
establishesglobalhealthstandards<strong>for</strong>foodandpesticideuse;<strong>the</strong><br />
Bank <strong>for</strong> International Settlements, which develops standards<br />
<strong>for</strong> bank <strong>in</strong>spectors; <strong>the</strong> International Organization of Securities<br />
Commissions, which oversees regulations <strong>for</strong> stock markets<br />
around <strong>the</strong> world. There are also myriad transnational networks<br />
of expert officials connected to national m<strong>in</strong>istries of environment,f<strong>in</strong>anceandtradewhoagreeon‘memorandaofunderstand<strong>in</strong>g’<strong>in</strong>placeof<strong>in</strong>ternationaltreaties;andglobalmeet<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
of private-sector actors that shape regulatory frameworks — like<br />
<strong>the</strong>BilderbergGroup,<strong>the</strong>TrilateralCommission,and<strong>the</strong><br />
WorldEconomicForum.<br />
Those engaged <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>for</strong>ums are mostly mid-level government<br />
officials from <strong>the</strong> executive branches of national governments,<br />
whoworkalongside<strong>in</strong>dividualsfromprivatesectorassociations<br />
or <strong>in</strong>dividual companies, and employees from <strong>in</strong>ter-governmental<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions. Strik<strong>in</strong>gly, <strong>the</strong>re are few elected officials anywhere<br />
<strong>in</strong>our<strong>in</strong>stitutionsofglobalgovernance.Asaresult,problems<br />
and solutions are often narrowly def<strong>in</strong>ed and <strong>the</strong> broader public<br />
impactofdecisionsisoftenoverlooked—as<strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong>debateon<br />
trade related <strong>in</strong>tellectual property rights (TRIPs) which ignored<br />
<strong>the</strong> impact of a global patent system on access to basic medic<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
It took civil society coalitions to highlight <strong>the</strong>se problems, eventuallysecur<strong>in</strong>gapartialexemption<strong>for</strong>develop<strong>in</strong>gcountriesfrom<br />
TRIPs<strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong>WorldTradeOrganization.<br />
b) Asecondrole<strong>for</strong>globalcivilsocietyistoidentifyneedsand<br />
problems that tend to be ignored by states and markets, and give<br />
voicetoissuesthatrequireaglobalpublicpolicy.<strong>Civil</strong>society<br />
hashistoricallydef<strong>in</strong>ed<strong>the</strong>need<strong>for</strong>globalpublicpoliciesand<br />
GLOBAL STUDIES REVIEW | 5
<strong>the</strong>n persuaded government and bus<strong>in</strong>ess to address <strong>the</strong>m — debt<br />
relief <strong>for</strong> example, or holes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ozone layer, <strong>the</strong> proliferation<br />
of land m<strong>in</strong>es, and <strong>the</strong> protection of human rights across borders.<br />
Most recently, civil society has demanded a global public policy<br />
<strong>for</strong> access to life sav<strong>in</strong>g medic<strong>in</strong>es <strong>for</strong> people with HIV/AIDS, <strong>in</strong><br />
place of restrictive policies crafted by state and market <strong>for</strong>ces that<br />
prioritized <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual property rights of pharmaceutical<br />
companies. <strong>Civil</strong> society has not only def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> need <strong>for</strong> global<br />
public policies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se areas, but has also expanded <strong>the</strong> range<br />
of policy solutions available.<br />
c) Underly<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se first two roles is ahypo<strong>the</strong>sisthat leads on to<br />
a third potential contribution. <strong>Global</strong> civil society may help create<br />
a shared set of global norms and values. The density and richness<br />
of civil society has been shown to be a key factor <strong>in</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
shared culture <strong>in</strong> nation states, a set of common values, or more<br />
simply a sense that despite <strong>the</strong>ir differences, people feel that<br />
<strong>the</strong>y belong toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong> a community. <strong>Global</strong> civil society may be<br />
able to foster a similar sense of community at <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
level, transferr<strong>in</strong>g values, norms and knowledge across geographic<br />
space to create <strong>the</strong> moral foundations on which new social contracts<br />
can be constructed. How?<br />
At present, <strong>the</strong>re is no clear answer to this question, but <strong>the</strong> way<br />
<strong>in</strong> which civic activists enter global debates may be an impediment<br />
to creat<strong>in</strong>g a shared sense of community. Activists tend to<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k of <strong>the</strong>mselves as specialists on a specific issue; <strong>for</strong> example,<br />
an environmentalist or human rights supporter, a development<br />
specialist or advocate <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> poor, or a fem<strong>in</strong>ist. In <strong>the</strong> global<br />
arena,<strong>the</strong>seissue-basedidentitiesoverlap with national identities<br />
or <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly, an identity def<strong>in</strong>ed by membership of <strong>the</strong> ‘global<br />
South’ or ‘global North.’ However, few activists present <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />
as global citizens act<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> relation to global governance.<br />
Instead, <strong>the</strong> two prevail<strong>in</strong>g sources of identity — issue-based and<br />
geographic — tend to isolate progressive components of global<br />
civil society from one ano<strong>the</strong>r, just as religious or ethnic identities<br />
can isolate people <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> national context. There are isolated<br />
<strong>in</strong>stances when global civil society has come toge<strong>the</strong>r around an<br />
issue that cuts across <strong>the</strong>se narrow identities, but a sense of a<br />
strong, united movement is rare.<br />
Faced by <strong>the</strong>se problems, one way <strong>for</strong>ward is to enhance an<br />
explicit emphasis on global citizenship, or membership <strong>in</strong> an<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>terconnected polity, by support<strong>in</strong>g nascent ef<strong>for</strong>ts to<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d common ground among a diverse and pluralistic set of actors.<br />
Such experiments may promote a genu<strong>in</strong>e sense of overlapp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
identity and lay <strong>the</strong> foundations <strong>for</strong> a global civic culture based<br />
on broader public deliberation and tolerance <strong>for</strong> diverse views.<br />
GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY: AN IMPERFECT INSTRUMENT<br />
<strong>Global</strong> civil society is plagued by two ma<strong>in</strong> problems that weaken<br />
its potential to act as an agent <strong>for</strong> progressivedemocratic change <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> global political arena: elitism and a failure to address power and<br />
process with<strong>in</strong> its own structures.<br />
The elite nature of global civil society — mean<strong>in</strong>g a lack of genu<strong>in</strong>e<br />
grassroots participation <strong>in</strong> transnational networks, especially from<br />
<strong>the</strong> global South — leads to a limited poolofleaders,decreases<br />
accountability to mass-based constituencies, and encourages fragmentation<br />
along geographic or issue-based l<strong>in</strong>es. International environmental<br />
NGOs, <strong>for</strong> example, are often depicted as elitist, with<br />
no grassroots constituency <strong>in</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn countries. Elitism makes it<br />
difficult <strong>for</strong> global civil society to defend itself aga<strong>in</strong>st criticism from<br />
governments who question <strong>the</strong> legitimacy of groups active <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
global arena. It also allows governments or governmental bodies to<br />
create quasi-NGOs and <strong>the</strong>n send <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>in</strong>ternational negotiations<br />
as civil society representatives, as Cameroon and Chad did when<br />
promot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Chad-Cameroon Pipel<strong>in</strong>e project at <strong>the</strong> World Bank.<br />
Intergovernmental agencies can also bypass global civil society and<br />
build co-optive relationships with leaders of major movements at<br />
<strong>the</strong> national level who, while legitimate, may not be deeply <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational debates.<br />
In part, elitism results from <strong>the</strong> high barriers to entry that<br />
exist <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> global political arena, where <strong>the</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g language is<br />
almost always English and <strong>the</strong> sett<strong>in</strong>gs are expensive and “Western”<br />
(e.g., Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, New York, Geneva and Brussels). Successful<br />
participation <strong>in</strong> global <strong>for</strong>ums requires mastery over complex bodies<br />
of knowledge, all articulated <strong>in</strong> English. Operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> global<br />
political arena can also encourage elitist attitudes and stra<strong>in</strong>or<br />
sever ties to national and local politics. IUCN, World Wildlife Fund<br />
and Conservation International, <strong>for</strong> example, have all signed<br />
exclusive partnership deals with <strong>the</strong> World Bank and with major<br />
mult<strong>in</strong>ational corporations even though local environmental activists<br />
are target<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir destructive environmental<br />
practices. Leaders from <strong>the</strong> grassroots may lose <strong>the</strong>ir l<strong>in</strong>ks to<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir orig<strong>in</strong>al constituents. NGO representatives on <strong>the</strong> global conference<br />
circuit may have no local l<strong>in</strong>ks <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> first place. Weak ties<br />
to national and local organizations, and <strong>the</strong> specialized knowledge<br />
required <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>global arena, can give some groups a feel<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
privilege once <strong>the</strong>y have ga<strong>in</strong>ed a seat at <strong>the</strong> negotiat<strong>in</strong>g table. After<br />
awhile, <strong>the</strong>se groups may f<strong>in</strong>d that <strong>the</strong>y have more <strong>in</strong>common<br />
with <strong>the</strong>ir adversaries than with those who work <strong>for</strong> social change<br />
at home. The ability to keep a seat at <strong>the</strong> table may become more<br />
important to an organization than its will<strong>in</strong>gness to respond to <strong>the</strong><br />
needs of a constituency.<br />
6 | CGS.GMU.EDU
Lastly,elitismcanleadtoalackofrespect<strong>for</strong>geographicand<br />
politicalboundaries.InternationalNGOshavebeenknowntotake<br />
action<strong>in</strong>responsetoaglobalproblemsuchaspovertyorenvironmentalprotection<strong>in</strong>anationalcontextthatisnot<strong>the</strong>irown.For<br />
example, lobby<strong>in</strong>g by Greenpeace International aga<strong>in</strong>st ra<strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>est<br />
destruction<strong>in</strong>Brazilpromptedagovernment<strong>in</strong>quiryandnew<br />
restrictionson<strong>the</strong>behaviorofcivilsociety.While<strong>the</strong><strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
NGOcansailaway,localorganizationshavetolivewithconsequencesthatmay<strong>in</strong>cluderestrictionsonfreedomofspeech,assemblyando<strong>the</strong>rcivilrights.Examplesofsuchdisconnectsabound<br />
and constitute a major factor <strong>in</strong> underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> strength, <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
andlegitimacyofglobalcivilsociety.<br />
Thesecondmajorproblemfac<strong>in</strong>gglobalcivilsocietyisthatnetworks<br />
rarely address <strong>the</strong>ir own <strong>in</strong>ternal power relations or reflect<br />
on<strong>the</strong>processo<strong>for</strong>ganiz<strong>in</strong>g.Onecannotassumethatglobalcivil<br />
society is entirely democratic. The roles it has played are premised<br />
on well-developed privileges of citizenship as def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a national<br />
political context, and while civil society has been adamant <strong>in</strong><br />
extend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> rights of citizenship <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> global political arena,<br />
ithasbeenless<strong>for</strong>thcom<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong>responsibilitiesthatgo<br />
with <strong>the</strong>m. Extend<strong>in</strong>g democratic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>in</strong> global governance<br />
requiresthatallactors<strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong>globalpoliticalarenaacknowledgea<br />
balance between <strong>the</strong> rights and responsibilities of participation.<br />
Whenpeopleorganizeacrossbordersonas<strong>in</strong>gleissuecampaign<br />
likelargedamsordevelop<strong>in</strong>gcountrydebt,<strong>the</strong>reareoftenno<br />
agreedwaystoaddress<strong>the</strong>differentlevelsofpowerthatexistwith<strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong>coalition.Powerarisesthroughdifferentialproximityto<br />
decision-makers, superior <strong>for</strong>ms of knowledge, access to resources,<br />
experience<strong>in</strong>organiz<strong>in</strong>g,andahostofo<strong>the</strong>rissues.Largergroups<br />
oftenhavemorepowerthansmallergroupsandorganizationsfrom<br />
<strong>the</strong> global North often have better access to powerful figures or<br />
<strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation from official sources, but groups <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> global South<br />
may have greater moral authority, access to specific details on<br />
<strong>the</strong> impacts of decisions, and sometimes better access to f<strong>in</strong>ancial<br />
resources than <strong>the</strong>ir smaller counterparts from <strong>the</strong> global North.<br />
Address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>equalities requires networks, coalitions and<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual civil society organizations to acknowledge and deal<br />
explicitlywith<strong>the</strong>difficultissuesofaccountability,transparency<br />
andrepresentationwith<strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong>irownstructures.Weak<strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
democracycanunderm<strong>in</strong>e<strong>the</strong>legitimacyofcivilsocietyorganizationsandglobalcivilsocietyasawhole.Forexample,NGOsfrom<br />
<strong>the</strong>globalNorththatimplementprojects<strong>in</strong>develop<strong>in</strong>gcountries<br />
mayhaveonlyamonetaryl<strong>in</strong>kto<strong>the</strong>irsupportersandnoaccountabilityatallto<strong>the</strong>ir<strong>in</strong>tendedbeneficiaries.Thestaffofanorganizationmayfeelresponsibleto<strong>the</strong>irBoardandimmediatesuperiors<br />
with little or no <strong>for</strong>mal accountability to members or to those<br />
who receive its services. Questions of power and process <strong>in</strong>variably<br />
arisewhendef<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong>issuestobeaddressed<strong>in</strong>an<strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
campaign, <strong>in</strong> manag<strong>in</strong>g tensions between common values and<br />
particular circumstances, and <strong>in</strong> appo<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g spokespersons,<br />
claim<strong>in</strong>g success, circulat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation and resources, sett<strong>in</strong>g<br />
agendas and decid<strong>in</strong>g on strategy. A failure to address power and<br />
process can lead to spl<strong>in</strong>tered coalitions, solutions that actually<br />
exacerbate problems <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> local arena, <strong>the</strong> death or disappearance<br />
ofactivistswork<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>countriesthatdonotrespecthumanrights,<br />
and ru<strong>in</strong>ed reputations (as has happened <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> emergency relief<br />
field, <strong>for</strong> example, at considerable cost to fundrais<strong>in</strong>g and public<br />
trust).Theseproblemscanunderm<strong>in</strong>e<strong>the</strong>legitimacyofcivil<br />
society organizations and hence <strong>the</strong> potential of global civil society<br />
tobea<strong>for</strong>ce<strong>for</strong>progressivesocialchange.<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> greatest fears associated with <strong>the</strong> rise of global civil<br />
societyisaperceivedpropensitytowardsalacko<strong>for</strong>der,<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>glyimportant<strong>in</strong>aneraofterroristorganizationsthat<br />
operategloballyandarguablyarepartofglobalcivilsociety.<br />
While<strong>the</strong><strong>for</strong>cesofglobalizationhaveprovided<strong>the</strong>opportunity<br />
<strong>for</strong> shared norms to develop, <strong>the</strong>y have also thrown <strong>in</strong>to stark<br />
relief worldwide differences <strong>in</strong> wealth, privilege and cultures.<br />
Thereisnoguaranteethat<strong>the</strong>riseofglobalcivilsocietywillresult<br />
<strong>in</strong> positive social change. <strong>Civil</strong> society is not a benign sphere of<br />
like-m<strong>in</strong>dedorganizationscommittedtoliberalvaluesandconsensusbuild<strong>in</strong>g.Itisimportanttoemphasize,<strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e,thatwe<br />
streng<strong>the</strong>n those global networks and associations that share values<br />
of democracy, peace and social justice. The political landscape<br />
haschanged.<strong>Global</strong>izationisrearrang<strong>in</strong>gsocialspace.Wecanonly<br />
anticipate <strong>the</strong> extension of social and political battles <strong>in</strong>to this<br />
newglobalarena.As<strong>in</strong>allpoliticalarenas,rightsandjusticewill<br />
have to be won, and global civil society is central to this challenge.<br />
1<br />
RichardLongworth,“GovernmentwithoutDemocracy,”TheAmericanProspect12(2001):20.<br />
2<br />
LisaJordanandPeterVanTuijl,“<strong>Political</strong>Responsibility<strong>in</strong>TransnationalNGOAdvocacy,”World<br />
Development 28 (2000): 2051-2065.<br />
Lisa Jordan (L.Jordan@<strong>for</strong>dfound.org) is program officer <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
governance and civil society unit of <strong>the</strong> Ford Foundation (http://www.<br />
<strong>for</strong>dfound.org).<br />
GLOBAL STUDIES REVIEW | 7