Holocene vegetational history of the Apuseni ... - geo.edu.ro

Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002) 1465–1488 

<strong>Holocene</strong> <strong>vegetational</strong> <strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, 

central Romania 

A. Bodnariuc a,b , A. Bouchette a , J.J. Dedoubat a , T. Otto a , M. Fontugne c , G. Jalut a, * 

a Laboratoire d’Ecologie Terrestre, Universit!e Paul Sabatier, UMR 5552, 39, All!ees. Jules Guesde, 31062 Toulouse Cedex 4, France 

b Faculty <strong>of</strong> Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, 1Kogalniceanu str., Cluj Napoca 3400, Romania 

c Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environment, Laboratoire mixte CNRS - CEA, Avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France 

Received 17 October 2000; accepted 30 September 2001 

Abstract 

From palynological investigations in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains (Transylvania, Romania), a chronology <strong>of</strong> forest development is 

proposed. The data are compared with o<strong>the</strong>rs from <strong>the</strong> Romanian Carpathians and <strong>the</strong> surrounding countries. After <strong>the</strong>ir 

appearance between 11,200 and 10,190 cal BP, Picea and Corylus were dominant up to 6450 cal BP. The extension phases <strong>of</strong> 

Carpinus, Fagus and Abies, respectively, began at ca 6450 BP, 4500 BP and 4100 cal BP. Occurrences <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir pollen are recorded 

from about 7800 cal BP. First evidence <strong>of</strong> human impact appeared during <strong>the</strong> 7800–7425 cal BP period and first cultivations at 

ca 6820 cal BP. Between 4500 and 2750 cal BP deforestation and agriculture were limited, but increased around 1935 and 

695–660 cal BP. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. 

1. Introduction 

In Eastern Europe, in <strong>the</strong> region <strong>of</strong> contact between 

<strong>the</strong> subcontinental, mediterranean and steppic regions, 

Romania represents a particularly interesting field <strong>of</strong> 

investigation for <strong>the</strong> Lateglacial and <strong>Holocene</strong> studies <strong>of</strong> 

vegetation and climate. Geomorphomogical studies 

show that despite <strong>the</strong>ir altitude (maximum 2500 m), 

<strong>the</strong> Carpathians and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains (Fig. 1) 

were not strongly affected by glaciers during <strong>the</strong> last 

glacial episode (Ficheux, 1996). Only traces <strong>of</strong> nivation 

niches oriented to <strong>the</strong> east, in <strong>the</strong> lee <strong>of</strong> dominant winds 

from <strong>the</strong> west, exist on <strong>the</strong> crests <strong>of</strong> Biharia or Vladeasa 

(Ficheux, 1996). 

In <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, during <strong>the</strong> last cold and 

dry periods, <strong>the</strong> complexity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> relief partly linked to 

<strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> karstic zones, probably favoured <strong>the</strong> 

persistence <strong>of</strong> sheltered areas favourable for <strong>the</strong> trees 

that form <strong>the</strong> present forests. 

This country was also occupied early by humans 

(communities <strong>of</strong> Carcea-Gura Baciuli-Ocna Sibiului 

type), moving into <strong>the</strong> Transylvanian highlands, from 

<strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Neolithic (ca 8000 cal BP) onwards 

(Lazarovici, 1993; Mantu, 1998). 

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +33-5-61-55-80-37; fax: +33-5-61-32- 

83-82. 

E-mail address: jalut@cict.fr (G. Jalut). 

Numerous palynological studies have been carried out 

in Romania starting with those <strong>of</strong> Pop (1929, 1934, 

1942, 1962) <strong>the</strong>n Ciobanu (1948, 1958, 1965). They were 

based on fundamental studies <strong>of</strong> plant distribution 

(Donita et al., 1960; Donita, 1964, 1965; Georgescu 

and Donita, 1965) and peat bogs and humid zones (Pop, 

1960). These studies were compared with numerous 

o<strong>the</strong>r works on Eastern and Western Europe, and a 

general schema for <strong>the</strong> Lateglacial and <strong>Holocene</strong> forest 

and climate <strong>history</strong> was proposed (Pop, 1929, 1932, 

1934, 1942). Unfortunately, until <strong>the</strong> recent works <strong>of</strong> 

Farcas et al. (1999) and R.osch and Fischer (2000), no 

14 C dates were available, and in most cases, <strong>the</strong> sampling 

intervals were too large to allow chronological problems 

to be solved. Except <strong>the</strong> study <strong>of</strong> R.osch and Fisher, 

<strong>the</strong>re are no references to human impact. 

The goal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> present palynological studies is to 

establish a chronology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest <strong>history</strong> in <strong>the</strong> 

western Romanian Carpathians. This is a key zone for 

fur<strong>the</strong>r comparison with <strong>the</strong> Carpathian mountains and 

Transylvania. 

2. The studied area 

Romania occupies a transitional position in <strong>the</strong> 

<strong>vegetational</strong> pattern <strong>of</strong> south-east <strong>of</strong> Europe. Except in 

0277-3791/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. 

PII: S 0277-3791(01)00117-2

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A. Bodnariuc et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002) 1465–1488 

Fig. 1. Location <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied area. Cited sites: Romania 1 Mluha, 2 Mohos, 3 Taul Zanogutii, 4 Rachitis, 5 Cica Mica 1, 6 Calimani Exploatare, 7 

Iezerul Calimani, 8 Poiana Boilor, 9 Poiana Stiol, 10 Dupa Lunca–Voslobeni, 11 Banat; Bulgaria: 12 Sucho Ezero, 13 Kupena, 14 Tschokljovo; 

Ukraina: 15 Dorjok, 16 Ogreev, 17 Kardashinski; Slovakia & Czech Republic; 18 Zlatnicka doline, 19 Tojrohe Pleso, 20 Vracov; Poland: 21 Tarnawa 

Wyzna, 22 Szymbark; Hungary: 23 Batorliget; Slovenia: 24 Kaznarice. 

<strong>the</strong> mountains, its forests are characterised by <strong>the</strong> 

presence and <strong>the</strong> dominance <strong>of</strong> deciduous and <strong>the</strong>rmophilous 

trees (Ozenda, 1994). To <strong>the</strong> east and north-east 

are steppes, mixed coniferousFdeciduous forests, deciduous 

forest and forestFsteppe which characterise <strong>the</strong> 

Eurasiatic Steppic Region (Lavrenko in Walter and 

Straka, 1970) also called Steppic and Sarmatic Domains 

(Ozenda, 1994). To <strong>the</strong> west is <strong>the</strong> Atlantic Domain 

dominated by deciduous broad leaved trees. To <strong>the</strong> south 

<strong>of</strong> Romania, <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean Domain is mainly 

characterised by sclerophylous evergreen trees and shrubs. 

To <strong>the</strong> north, <strong>the</strong> east and <strong>the</strong> south, <strong>the</strong> Carpathian 

mountains (Fig. 1) form a natural limit to <strong>the</strong> Hungarian 

plain from which emerge, in its eastern part, <strong>the</strong> 

<strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains. (Romanian Western Carpathians). 

Formerly called Bihor (Ozenda, 1994), <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> 

mountains form a massif about 100 km in diameter, <strong>of</strong> 

medium elevation (maximum 1848 m), and occupy a 

central position in Transylvania (Ficheux, 1996). Flat 

surfaces are rare in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains and <strong>the</strong> 

rivers are deeply incised. Four morphological units can 

be distinguished: <strong>the</strong> high Bihor, above 1000 m, which 

has a complex <strong>geo</strong>logical structure including <strong>the</strong> karstic 

region <strong>of</strong> Padis; <strong>the</strong> Metaliferi mountains; <strong>the</strong> massifs 

and gulfs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> western slopes, <strong>the</strong> depression <strong>of</strong> 

Huedin and <strong>the</strong> Hungarian plain to <strong>the</strong> west. 

Acold continental climate characterises <strong>the</strong> studied 

area. Rainfall is abundant from spring to autumn with a 

marked maximum in summer. Mean annual precipitation 

is about 1400 mm and mean annual temperature 

about 4.11C. Winters are cold with absolute minimum 

temperature p 301C and summers cool. Due to <strong>the</strong> 

complexity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> relief <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, 

important local climatic differences exist. To <strong>the</strong> west,

A. Bodnariuc et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (2002) 1465–1488 1467 

annual precipitation is about 300 mm higher than to <strong>the</strong> 

east. The maximum precipitation is concentrated in <strong>the</strong> 

centre-west part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mountains where <strong>the</strong> sites studied 

are located. The present climate conditions allow <strong>the</strong> 

development <strong>of</strong> mountain forests in which favourable 

topographic and <strong>geo</strong>logical conditions permit Sphagnum 

peat bogs to develop. 

3. The present vegetation 

In <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, forests are essentially 

composed by Fagus silvatica and Picea abies. The latter 

is concentrated in <strong>the</strong> central part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> massif while 

Fagus silvatica is mainly found around it. However, due 

to lumbering in <strong>the</strong> spruce forest, large areas are now 

colonised by beech which temporarily replaces spruce. 

Abies is rare. The strong human impact on <strong>the</strong> mountain 

forests has determined <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> meadows where 

Festuca rubra, Nardus stricta, Calluna and Calamagrostis 

arundinacea are represented (Donita et al., 1960). 

Meadows with some o<strong>the</strong>r species occur on certain high 

areas. Low altitudes, depressions and corridors are 

covered with oak-horbeam forest composed <strong>of</strong> Quercus 

petraea, Quercus robur, Carpinus betulus, Fagus sylvatica, 

Tilia cordata, Acer pseudoplatanus, A. platanoides, 

Corylus avellana and Fraxinus excelsior. The abundance 

<strong>of</strong> Quercus, Fagus and Carpinus depends on local 

ecological and historical factors. Distant from <strong>the</strong> 

massif, <strong>the</strong>rmophilous oak forests with Quercus petraea, 

Q. cerris, Q. pubescens, Q. fraineto, Fraxinus ornus, 

Prunus mahaleb occur on limestone. 

4. The selected sites 

In <strong>the</strong> NW <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, five cores were 

obtained using a Russian sampler (Fig. 2). The altitude 

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sites ranged between 1000 and 1300 m a.s.l. All are 

now ombrogenic Sphagnum peat bogs. 

The site <strong>of</strong> Ic Ponor (alt. 1020 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 2) lies on 

schists, at <strong>the</strong> foot <strong>of</strong> a slope. After a relatively short 

lacustrine phase during <strong>the</strong> early <strong>Holocene</strong>, peat began 

to develop. The site now corresponds to a Sphagnum 

peat bog which covers 7 ha on <strong>the</strong> right side <strong>of</strong> Somesul 

Cald river, near its confluence with <strong>the</strong> river Batrana. To 

<strong>the</strong> south, an inundated zone is colonised by Carex 

rostrata. The peat bog is surrounded by spruce, and 

scattered stands <strong>of</strong> birch (Betula pubescens and Betula 

pendula) are present in deforested zones. Picea and 

Betula are also abundant on <strong>the</strong> peat bog. At its surface, 

Vaccinium myrtillus and V. vitis ideae form dense 

communities and Eriophorum vaginatum is abundant. 

Sphagnum sp. covers <strong>the</strong> whole surface <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> peat bog 

but Polytrichum is also present as well as Empetrum 

nigrum, cited by Pop (1960). Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> large size <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>the</strong> peat bog, two cores were taken: Ic Ponor I (295 cm 

length) (Fig. 3) at <strong>the</strong> summit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> peat bog, in <strong>the</strong> 

deepest zone, and Ic Ponor II (165 cm length) (Fig. 4) in 

<strong>the</strong> NW margin. 

Fig. 2. Location <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local cited and studied sites: 1 Mlastina lui Neag, 2 Izbucu I, 3 Izbucu II, 4 La Lacuri, 5 Pietrele Onachii, 6 La Mlastina, 7 La 

Mol, 8 Molhasu de la Calatele, 9 Dealu Negru, 10 Dambu Negru, 11 Ciurtuci, 12 Baita, 13 Ic Ponor I & II, 14 Bergerie, 15 Cimeti"ere, 16 Padis.

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Fig. 3. Pollen diagram from Ic Ponor 1.


Fig. 4. Pollen diagram from Ic Ponor 2.

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The three o<strong>the</strong>r sites are situated to <strong>the</strong> west, in <strong>the</strong> 

karstic zone <strong>of</strong> Padis. 

Padis (alt. 1240 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 2) is a Sphagnum peat 

bog in one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> numerous sink holes present on <strong>the</strong> 

karstic plateau. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se sink holes are small ponds 

colonised by hydrophilous communities. O<strong>the</strong>rs, such as 

that <strong>of</strong> Padis, have been transformed into Sphagnum 

peat bogs colonised by stands <strong>of</strong> spruce. The dominant 

shrubs are Vaccinium myrtillus and V. vitis idae. 

Dechampsia fluxosa, Carex echinata and C. rostrata 

are also well represented. Sphagnum and Polytricum are 

<strong>the</strong> dominant mosses. Flat surfaces with meadows 

surround <strong>the</strong> site. Picea forest occupies <strong>the</strong> hills. In 

cleared areas, stands <strong>of</strong> Fagus frequently occupy <strong>the</strong> hill 

tops. The core was collected at <strong>the</strong> centre <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> peat 

bog. The bottom <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sequence is clay poor in organic 

matter (Fig. 5). 

The peat bog <strong>of</strong> Cimeti"ere (alt. 1280 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 2) 

is situated on a slope. It has a NW exposure and is 

located near a ridge in a zone strongly affected by 

forestry. It was surrounded by old spruce partly 

destroyed by a storm. The peat bog belongs to a large 

peaty complex where Sphagnum is dominant in most 

places. O<strong>the</strong>r species such as Eriophorum vaginatum, 

Deschampsia flexuosa and Vaccinum myrtillus are 

abundant or frequent while Vaccinium vitis ideae, 

Homogyne alpina and Carex echinata are present but 

rare. The base <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> core is formed <strong>of</strong> coarse gravel with 

a low pollen content and corroded grains <strong>of</strong> uncertain 

origin (Fig. 6). For <strong>the</strong>se reasons, only <strong>the</strong> Sphagnum 

peat deposit was taken into account for <strong>the</strong> interpretation 

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pollen data. 

The peat bog <strong>of</strong> Bergerie (alt. 1400 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 2) is 

a Sphagnum peat bog. Locally Sphagnum sp. dominates, 

in association with Carex rostrata, Eriophorum vaginatum, 

Carex echinata, Juncus effusus and J. conglomeratus. 

The bore was performed under 25 cm <strong>of</strong> water. The 

bottom <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sequence is argilous and poor in organic 

matter (Fig. 7). The site is situated above but near to <strong>the</strong> 

present upper limit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> spruce forest. The surrounding 

area is devoted to pasture. Juniper (Juniperus communis) 

and young Picea abies colonise <strong>the</strong> surrounding 

meadows. 

5. Description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cores 

5.1. Ic Ponor I and II (Figs. 3 and 4) 

Despite <strong>the</strong>ir different depths, <strong>the</strong> two cores show 

similar sedimentary facies. The bottom is composed <strong>of</strong> a 

sandy-clay deposit showing thin intercalated peat layers. 

This lacustrine phase corresponds to <strong>the</strong> period 10,190– 

9660 cal BP (levels 298–280, Ic Ponor I; 170–140, Ic 

Ponor 2). Then, <strong>the</strong> sediments are covered by a charcoal 

layer with some bark fragments, leaves and seeds. The 

abrupt transition corresponds to synchronous changes 

in pollen percentages: decrease in Betula, increase in 

Corylus, particularly at Ic Ponor I (Fig. 3). From <strong>the</strong> 

available radiocarbon dates and linear interpolations, 

<strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> this transition can be estimated at ca 9650– 

9550 cal BP. 

Above, up to ca 4500 cal BP (levels 280–36, Ic Ponor I; 

145–38, Ic Ponor II) a Sphagnum peat is observed. At Ic 

Ponor 1, at level 44, charcoal is present. In <strong>the</strong> two 

sequences, between levels 36–27 (Ic Ponor 1) and 38–20 

(Ic Ponor 2), mineral deposits with sand and clay 

indicate a flooded phase. At levels 22 (Ic Ponor 1) and 

15 (Ic Ponor 2), a poorly decomposed Sphagnum peat 

contains charcoals. Then a recent Sphagnum peat covers 

this charcoal layer. The comparison <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cores as well 

as <strong>the</strong> palynological data shows that deposits between 

levels 36–27 (Ic Ponor 1) and 38–20 (Ic Ponor 2) are 

contemporaneous. However, <strong>the</strong> radiocarbon dates <strong>of</strong> 

levels 34 (56807110 BP, Ic Ponor 1) and 35 

(64607110 BP, Ic Ponor 2) are different (Table 1). In 

<strong>the</strong> two cores, <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> this lacutrine deposit 

correspond to a synchronous increase in Fagus 

and Abies pollen percentages. At Bergerie (Fig. 7) and 

Padis (Fig. 5), such increases are not synchronous and 

dated 4050780 BP (4500 cal BP) and 37507100 BP 

(4100 cal BP), respectively (Table 1). Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area, 

in <strong>the</strong> southwestern Carpathians (Banat mountains), <strong>the</strong> 

two events seem synchronous and are dated 

3880760 BP (R.osch and Fischer, 2000). In all cases, 

<strong>the</strong>se events occurred around 4500–4370 cal BP. Consequently, 

it can be assumed that <strong>the</strong> ages <strong>of</strong> levels 34 and 

35 <strong>of</strong> Ic Ponor 1 and 2 are too old. These dates, ageing 

as well as <strong>the</strong> sedimentary facies, suggests that <strong>the</strong> dated 

plant remains contained in <strong>the</strong> sediments were reworked 

and that around levels 35–30 <strong>the</strong>re is a hiatus which 

might be <strong>of</strong> about 2000yr. At Ic Ponor 1, <strong>the</strong> estimated 

age <strong>of</strong> level 40 obtained by linear interpolation (6000 BP: 

6820 cal BP) reinforces this hypo<strong>the</strong>sis as does palynological 

data. By comparison with pollen data from 

Bergerie and Padis, <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> layer 35–12 can be 

estimated. In <strong>the</strong>se sites, between 4200 cal BP and 

680 cal BP, <strong>the</strong> Carpinus percentages are frequently 

>10%. At Ic Ponor, above level 35, <strong>the</strong>y do not exceed 

5–6%. For this reason, it can be assumed that in <strong>the</strong> two 

cores, <strong>the</strong> deposits between 35 and 12 cm are younger 

than 680 cal BP. Above, <strong>the</strong> pollen content <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

Sphagnum corresponds to <strong>the</strong> present and recent 

periods. 

5.2. Padis (Fig. 5) 

Between levels 95 and 80, we observe a clay deposit 

with gravel and sand. It is covered, up to level 27, by a 

Sphagnum peat, poorly decomposed between levels 27 

and 9. Sphagnum covers <strong>the</strong> site.


Fig. 5. Pollen diagram from Padis.

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Fig. 6. Pollen diagram from Cimeti"ere.


Fig. 7. Pollen diagram from Bergerie.

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Table 1 

Radicarbon dates used in pollen diagrams a 

Depth (cm) 

Material 

14 C BP, sigma Ref. Lab. Ages (cal BP) d 13 C(%) 

Berg. 

95–100 Sphagnum peat 725785 Gif-11130 793–538 25.9 


157–160 Plant macro-remains 4050780 GifA-99221 4825–4379 




Pad. 

10–15 Sphagnum peat modern Gif-11127 26.27 




Ic I 

34 Plant macro-remains 56807110 GifA-100143 6686–6281 




Ic II 




C 


a Ic I: Ic Ponor 1; Ic II: Ic Ponor 2; Pad.: Padis; C: Cimeti"ere; Berg.: Bergerie. 

5.3. Cimeti"ere (Fig. 6) 

White clay with gravel and poor in organic matter 

forms <strong>the</strong> bottom <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sequence. Plant macro-remains 

are observed at levels 125 and 118. Between levels 90 and 

53 <strong>the</strong> content in organic matter slowly increases and 

some undetermined plant macro-remains occur. Between 

levels 53 and 42.5 a sandy sediment is observed 

and <strong>the</strong> content in organic matter slowly increases. After 

a thin grey sand layer present between levels 42.5 and 40, 

Sphagnum peat appears between levels 40 and 15. It is 

covered by Sphagnum. This diversity <strong>of</strong> facies suggests 

frequent changes in <strong>the</strong> sedimentation and erosion 

processes. The strong variations in percentages <strong>of</strong> Pinus 

and Corylus between levels 130 and 80 are not observed 

in <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r sites and support this hypo<strong>the</strong>sis. 

5.4. Bergerie (Fig. 7) 

Between levels 230 and 90, a lacustrine deposit 

presents three facies: 230–190, sandy clay deposit with 

some gravel; 190–145: clay with somes gravel; 145–90: 

clay with plant remains. Peat appears at level 90. The 

abrupt sedimentary transition does not correspond to 

strong pollen percentages variations which might 

indicate a possible gap <strong>of</strong> sediment. If such an event 

did occur, it was short and without any major 

consequences on <strong>the</strong> pollen representation. Between 

levels 90 and 25 peat decomposition regularly. Sphagnum 

is observed between levels 20 and 12. 

6. Pollen counting and representation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pollen 

diagram 

To extract pollen grains and spores, samples <strong>of</strong> one 

cubic centimeter were taken using a calibrated sampler. 

Classical proc<strong>edu</strong>res were used to eliminate organic 

matter and mineral fraction. To calculate <strong>the</strong> pollen 

concentration, <strong>the</strong> slides were prepared according to 

Cour (1974). The pollen concentrations are expressed as 

number <strong>of</strong> pollen grains per cm 3 . For each level, 

between 300 and 400 grains were counted, which 

represents a statistically significant sample. After counting, 

each slide was checked for rare pollen grains. 

Thousands <strong>of</strong> pollen grains and spores were thus 

observed per slide. 

Percentages were calculated from a pollen sum 

including <strong>the</strong> pollen types <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> trees, shrubs and 

herbs in <strong>the</strong> region. Local pollen grains <strong>of</strong> hydrophilous 

and hygrophilous taxa were excluded, including Cyperaceae, 

as well as spores <strong>of</strong> Ferns and Mosses whose


representation is frequently high and irregular (Janssen, 

1973). The percentages <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> excluded taxa were 

calculated from <strong>the</strong> sum <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r pollen grains. In 

<strong>the</strong> pollen diagrams, only <strong>the</strong> most significant taxa are 

indicated. 

Each pollen diagram was divided into Local Pollen 

Assemblage Zones (LPAZ) as defined by Cushing 

(1963), Berglund and Ralska-Jasiewiczowa (1986). 

From comparisons between <strong>the</strong> pollen diagrams, Regional 

Pollen Assemblage Zones (RPAZ) were <strong>the</strong>n 

defined 

7. Radiocarborn dates 

In many cases, <strong>the</strong> dated samples were extracted from 

Sphagnum peat, which excludes <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> ageing 

by hard water effect (Table 1). At Padis, Cimeti"ere and 

Bergerie, low level <strong>of</strong> organic matter at <strong>the</strong> base <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

cores required p15 cm <strong>of</strong> sediment per date (Table 1). 

Peat samples at Padis and Bergerie ranged between 3 

and 5 cm. At Ic Ponor, all <strong>the</strong> dates were obtained by 

AMS using unidentified terrestrial plant macro-remains 

from thin layers (Table 1). 

Additional estimated ages were obtained by comparing 

<strong>the</strong> neighbouring sites and from linear interpolations. 

Radiocarbon dates were calibrated using <strong>the</strong> 

radiocarbon calibration program REV 4.3 (Stuiver 

et al., 1998). In <strong>the</strong> text, <strong>the</strong> dates are expressed in 

cal yr BP. Their consistency is discussed in <strong>the</strong> following 

chapters. 

8. The local and regional pollen assemblage zones 

The pollen diagrams are divided into LPAZ: Ic Ponor 

1, 13 LPAZ (Fig. 3, Table 2); Ic Ponor 2, 13 LPAZ 

(Fig. 4, Table 3); Padis, 12 LPAZ (Fig. 5, Table 4); 

Cimeti"ere, 13 LPAZ (Fig. 6, Table 5) and Bergerie, 13 

LPAZ (Fig. 7, Table 6). 

From <strong>the</strong> LPAZ described above and using <strong>the</strong> 

sedimentary data, <strong>the</strong> local available radiocarbon dating 

and estimated ages obtained by interpolation, 9 RPAZ 

(RPAZ) were identified (Table 7): 

RPAZ I: Betula–Picea–Ulmus–Corylus–Pinus (10,190– 

9660 cal BP), only represented in Ic Ponor 1 and 2. 

RPAZ 2: Corylus–Picea–Ulmus–Fraxinus–Alnus 

(9660–7700 cal BP), only represented in Ic Ponor 1 

and 2. 

RPAZ 3: Picea–Corylus–Ulmus (7700–7250 cal BP), 

common to Ic Ponor 1 and 2 and Bergerie. Fagus pollen 

is rare but regularly present. 

RPAZ 4: Picea–Corylus–Ulmus–Alnus (7250– 

6600 cal BP), common to Ic Ponor 1 and 2 and Bergerie. 

Pollen <strong>of</strong> Fagus, Carpinus and Abies is rare but present. 

RPAZ 5: Picea–Corylus–Carpinus (6600–4500 cal BP), 

common to Cimeti"ere, Bergerie and <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> Padis. 

Presence <strong>of</strong> Fagus and Abies. 

RPAZ 6: Picea–Carpinus–Fagus (4500–4100 cal BP), 

not represented in Ic Ponor 1 and 2 but common to 

Padis, Cimeti"ere and Bergerie. 

RPAZ 7: Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Abies (4100–1940 

cal BP), common to Padis, Cimeti"ere and Bergerie. 

RPAZ 8: Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Abies–Poaceae 

(1940–480 cal BP), common to Padis, Cimeti"ere and 

Bergerie. 

RPAZ 9: Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Abies–Cerealia (480 

cal BPFPresent), common to Ic Ponor 1 and 2, Padis, 

Cimeti"ere and Bergerie. 

9. Discussion 

The comparison <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> five pollen diagrams shows 

that <strong>the</strong> Lateglacial and <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Postglacial 

period between 11,000 BP and 10,290 cal BP are not 

represented in <strong>the</strong> sites studied. This does not allow us to 

describe <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> Pinus and Betula or to date <strong>the</strong> 

beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Picea curve. 

The present data concern <strong>the</strong> last 10,200yr. At Ic 

Ponor, between about 10,200 and 9700–9600 BP, during 

RPAZ 1 (Table 7), Betula played a major role. Then, 

during RPAZ 2, it regressed and was replaced by 

Corylus and Picea. This Betula extension might be <strong>the</strong> 

consequence <strong>of</strong> fires which occurred around 10,200– 

9650 cal BP as indicated by <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> charcoal (Ic 

Ponor I: levels 290–285; Ic Ponor 2: level 165). Charcoal 

<strong>of</strong> Picea is present (M. Thinon, pers. comm.) which 

demonstrates <strong>the</strong> local presence <strong>of</strong> this tree at that time. 

The surrounding Picea–Corylus forest was probably 

strongly modified and birch colonised. Then Corylus 

and Picea recovered. Except in RPAZ 1 and 2, Pinus 

and Betula were poorly represented everywhere. At a 

lower stage, <strong>the</strong> oak forest was regularly represented 

with Ulmus values reaching 10%. But at <strong>the</strong> altitude <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>the</strong> site, between 10,200 and 6800 cal BP (mid RPAZ 4, 

Table 2), Corylus and Picea were <strong>the</strong> regional dominant 

species. This period corresponds to <strong>the</strong> Picea–Corylus– 

Quercetum mixtum defined by Pop (1932). Good 

correlations exist between <strong>the</strong> two cores <strong>of</strong> Ic Ponor, 

particularly from 10,200 to 6800 cal BP, and a reference 

level is recorded ca 7700 cal BP (6870790 BP Ic Ponor 1; 

6980790 BP, Ic Ponor 2) when <strong>the</strong> continuous Fagus 

curve begins. 

Athat time, comparisons with <strong>the</strong> pollen diagram <strong>of</strong> 

Bergerie becomes possible. The bottom <strong>of</strong> this sequence, 

dated 7010780 BP (7800 cal BP), does not contain 

pollen grains <strong>of</strong> Fagus. For this reason it might belong 

to upper RPAZ 2. Fagus pollen appears above, before 

7600–7500 cal BP (6680780 BP) and <strong>the</strong> first centimeters 

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> core belong to <strong>the</strong> transition between

1476 


Table 2 

Description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local pollen assemblage zones in <strong>the</strong> Ic Ponor 1 pr<strong>of</strong>ile 

LPAZ/Depth (cm) LPAZ name Main features <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> LPAZ 

Ic 1–13 0–5 Picea–Poaceae–Betula–Cerealia Decrease in Poaceae and Picea, slight increase in Pinus and 

Fabaceae, presence <strong>of</strong> Centaurea cyanus 

Ic 1–12 5–15 Picea–Poaceae–Cerealia Decrease in Picea and Fagus, increase in Fabaceae. 

Upper limit: decrease in Poaceae and Picea 

Ic 1–11 15–20 Picea–Fagus–Corylus–Poaceae–Cerealia Decrease in Corylus and Alnus, increase in Picea, Fagus, 

Poaceae, small increase in Carpinus. First presence <strong>of</strong> Cerealia 

Upper limit: decrease in Fagus, Picea and Carpinus 

Ic 1–10 20–25 Picea–Corylus–Fagus–Poaceae Decrease in Picea, slight decrease in Abies, increase in Poaceae, 

maximum <strong>of</strong> Ericaceae 

Upper limit: increase in Poaceae, Fagus and Picea, decrease in 

Ericaceae 

Ic 1–9 25–35 Picea–Corylus–Fagus Strong decrease in Picea, increase in Fagus, Carpinus and Alnus. 

Increase in Poaceae and Ericaceae, occurrences <strong>of</strong> Plantago 

lanceolata, decrease in Ulmus 

Upper limit: decrease in Picea and Abies, slight increase in 

Chenopodiaceae 

Ic 1–8 35–45 Picea–Corylus Increase in Picea, decrease in Corylus and Quercus. Small 

increase in Fagus and Abies 

Upper limit: decrease in Picea, increase in Carpinus and Fagus 

Ic 1–7 45–55 Corylus–Picea Increase in Corylus and Quercus, strong decrease in Picea 

Upper limit: increase in Picea, decrease in Corylus and Quercus 

Ic 1–6 55–70 Picea–Corylus–Ulmus Increase in Picea, decrease in Fraxinus. Regular presence <strong>of</strong> 

Carpinus and Abies with low values. Fagus regularly present but 

rare. Small increase in Artemisia and Humulus–Cannabis type 

Upper limit: decrease in Picea, increase in Corylus 

Ic 1–5 70–95 Picea–Corylus–Fraxinus Decrease in Corylus. Small increase in Fagus and decrease in 

Ericaceae 

Upper limit: regular presence <strong>of</strong> Carpinus and Abies, increase in 

Picea 

Ic 1–4 95–190 Picea–Corylus–Ericaceae Dominance <strong>of</strong> Picea and Corylus. Regular presence <strong>of</strong> Fagus 

with low values. Occurrences <strong>of</strong> Abies and Carpinus. Occurrences 

<strong>of</strong> Chenopodiaceae, Urticaceae and Rumex. Increase in 

Humulus–Cannabis type at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase 

Upper limit: increase in Fagus, decrease in Corylus and 

Ericaceae. 

Ic 1–3 190–220 Corylus–Picea–Ulmus–Fraxinus–Ericaceae Dominance <strong>of</strong> Corylus and Picea, increase in Ericaceae and 

Humulus–Cannabis type. Decrease in AP/T values 

Upper limit: decrease in Corylus, regular presence <strong>of</strong> Fagus 

Ic 1–2 220–280 Corylus–Picea–Ulmus–Fraxinus Abrupt fall in Betula values, increase in Corylus and Picea, 

occurrences <strong>of</strong> Rumex, sporadic presence <strong>of</strong> Fagus and Carpinus 

Upper limit: fall in Corylus, increase in Ericaceae and Humulus– 

Cannabis type 

Ic 1–1 280–295 Betula–Picea–Ulmus–Corylus–Pinus Abundance <strong>of</strong> Betula, Picea between 10% and 18%, decrease in 

Pinus 

Upper limit: fall in Betula values, increase in Corylus and Betula 

RPAZ 2 and 3. In RPAZ 3 most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> curves <strong>of</strong> 

Bergerie are similar to those <strong>of</strong> Ic Ponor 1 and 2, except 

that <strong>of</strong> Picea. This tree is well developed at Ic Ponor 

from 10,200 cal BP upward, but it extends to Bergerie 

only from 7800 cal BP. This will be discussed below. 

Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sedimentary characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cores 

at Ic Ponor around 6600–6500 cal BP, comparisons 

between Bergerie and Ic Ponor 1 are limited to RPAZ 

3 and 4. Using estimated dates obtained from interpolation 

at Ic Ponor 1 and Bergerie, <strong>the</strong> limit between 

<strong>the</strong> two phases might be situated around 7250 cal BP, 

when Picea values increase at Bergerie and those <strong>of</strong> 

Fagus at Ic Ponor 1. 

At Bergerie, <strong>the</strong> lower and upper limits <strong>of</strong> RPAZ 4 are 

defined by <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> Picea <strong>the</strong>n Carpinus at 7250 

and 6600–6400 cal BP (5665780 BP), respectively. 

The Carpinus extension is also a good reference event 

allowing a correlation to be established between <strong>the</strong> 

sequences <strong>of</strong> Cimeti"ere and Bergerie. At Cimeti"ere, 

before this event, in addition to <strong>the</strong> description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

core, several palynological observations suggest disturbances 

in <strong>the</strong> sedimentation processes: <strong>the</strong> abrupt


Table 3 

Description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local pollen assemblage zones in <strong>the</strong> Ic Ponor 2 pr<strong>of</strong>ile 


Ic 2–13 5–15 Fabaceae–Rosaceae–Picea–Corylus–Cerealia Strong decrease in Picea and Corylus. Slight decrease in 

Carpinus, Fagus and Poaceae. Abundance <strong>of</strong> Fabaceae. 

Urticaceae and Centaurea cyanus well represented. Presence <strong>of</strong> 

Cerealia 

Ic 2–12 15–20 Picea–Corylus–Fagus–Carpinus Strong decrease in Corylus, increase in Picea and Carpinus, 

Poaceae and Ericaceae 

Upper limit: decrease in AP/T ratio, Picea, Betula and Corylus 

Ic 2–11 20–30 Picea–Corylus–Fagus–Alnus Increase in Alnus, slight increase in Cannabis–Humulus type, 

occurrences <strong>of</strong> Urticaceae 

Upper limit: decrease in Corylus, increase in Carpinus and Picea 

Ic 2–10 30–35 Picea–Corylus–Fagus Increase in Fagus, Alnus, Betula and Picea, decrease in Corylus, 

Ulmus and Fraxinus. Beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regular presence <strong>of</strong> 

Carpinus and occurrences <strong>of</strong> Abies. Increase in Plantago 

lanceolata, Chenopodiaceae and Poaceae 

Upper limit: increase in Alnus and Picea, decrease in Fagus 

Ic 2–9 35–40 Picea–Corylus–Ulmus–Quercus Decrease in Picea, increase in Corylus, Quercus, Ulmus and 

Betula 

Upper limit: decrease in Corylus, Ulmus and Quercus, increase in 

Fagus 

Ic 2–8 40–55 Picea–Corylus Picea dominant, regular presence <strong>of</strong> Fagus with low values. 

Slight increase in Poaceae <strong>the</strong>n Ericaceae, first occurrences <strong>of</strong> 

Abies 

Upper limit: decrease in Picea, increase in Corylus 

Ic 2–7 55–75 Picea–Corylus–Ulmus–Fraxinus Increase in Picea, synchronous decrease in Corylus. Slight 

increase in Poaceae <strong>the</strong>n Artemisia. Occurrences <strong>of</strong> Fagus 

Upper limit: beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Fagus curve, decrease in Ulmus 

Ic 2–6 75–115 Corylus–Picea–Ulmus–Fraxinus Peaks <strong>of</strong> Picea in <strong>the</strong> first part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> zone, Corylus stable, AP/T 

values at <strong>the</strong>ir maximum 

Upper limit: increase in Picea, decrease in Corylus and Ulmus 

Ic 2–5 115–135 Corylus–Picea–Ulmus–Fraxinus Dominance <strong>of</strong> Corylus, Picea stable around 20%, decrease in 

Poaceae. Peak <strong>of</strong> Pinus at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase. First 

occurrences <strong>of</strong> Carpinus and Fagus 

Upper limit: increase in Picea, small decrease in Betula 

Ic 2–4 135–145 Corylus–Picea–Ulmus–Betula Increase in Corylus, Fraxinus and Picea, decrease in Betula 

Upper limit: decrease in Poaceae and Fraxinus 

Ic 2–3 145–150 Corylus–Betula–Picea–Ulmus Increase in Corylus, decrease in Picea and Betula. Small 

increase in Alnus 

Upper limit: decrease in Betula, increase in Picea and Corylus 

Ic 2–2 150–160 Betula–Picea–Corylus Decrease in Betula, slight increase in Corylus, increase in Picea, 

small increase in Poaceae 

Upper limit: decrease in Betula and Picea, increase in Corylus 

Ic 2–1 160–165 Betula–Picea–Ulmus–Corylus–Pinus Increase in Betula, decrease in Picea and Pinus 

Upper limit: decrease in Betula, increase in Picea 

change in percentages <strong>of</strong> Pinus, Corylus and Poaceae at 

<strong>the</strong> clay–peat transition; <strong>the</strong> strong variations in <strong>the</strong> 

percentages <strong>of</strong> Pinus and Corylus between levels 130 and 

90 and, at <strong>the</strong> bottom <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sequence, <strong>the</strong> high values <strong>of</strong> 

Carpinus and Fagus not observed at Bergerie and Ic 

Ponor. Both <strong>the</strong> situation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> peat bog at <strong>the</strong> summit 

<strong>of</strong> a western slope exposed to strong winds and rainfalls 

and <strong>the</strong> local human impact explain that run-<strong>of</strong>f has 

affected <strong>the</strong> sedimentary processes. For <strong>the</strong>se reasons, 

deposits from <strong>the</strong> bottom to level 40, were considered as 

unsuitable for radiocarbon dating and those between 

levels 130 and 80 were rejected for paleoecological 

reconstruction. The pollen diagram <strong>of</strong> Cimeti"ere was 

subdivided using data from Bergerie and Padis. 

During <strong>the</strong> early <strong>Holocene</strong> represented by RPAZ 1–4, 

sporadic occurrences <strong>of</strong> Carpinus, Fagus and Abies are 

observed. At Ic Ponor, <strong>the</strong> first Carpinus pollen was 

noted near 9500–8900 cal BP <strong>the</strong>n regularly observed ca 

7800 cal BP at Bergerie and 7700–7600 cal BP at Ic 

Ponor. At Ic Ponor and Bergerie, Abies pollen occurred 

around 7600–7500 cal BP. Fagus is found around 9400– 

9000 cal BP at Ic Ponor and from 7800 cal BP at 

Bergerie. 

These occurrences suggest <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> scattered 

stands situated at low and mid elevation during <strong>the</strong> 

early <strong>Holocene</strong>. It can be assumed that <strong>the</strong>y probably 

originate from regional Glacial and Lateglacial 

refuges.

1478 


Table 4 

Description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local pollen assemblage zones in <strong>the</strong> Padis pr<strong>of</strong>ile 


Pad. 12 5–11 

Poaceae–Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Corylus–Quercus 

Small decrease in Poaceae, Picea and Carpinus, slight increase 

in Fagus, Quercus, Corylus and Pinus 

Pad. 11 11–15 Poaceae–Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Cerealia Decrease in Poaceae and synchronous increase in Fagus, Picea, 

Carpinus, Quercus and Pinus 

Upper limit: decrease in Poaceae, increase in Fagus 

Pad. 10 15–20 Poaceae–Fagus–Picea–Cerealia Abrupt increase in Poaceae and synchronous decrease in Fagus 

and Picea. Cerealia, Plantago, Rumex and Chenopodiaceae well 

represented, 

Upper limit: decrease in Poaceae, increase in Fagus and Picea 

Pad. 9 20–25 Fagus–Poaceae–Picea–Corylus–Quercus Increase in Picea, decrease in Quercus, slight increase in Fagus, 

decrease in Chenopodiaceae 

Upper limit: increase in Poaceae, decrease in Fagus and Picea 

Pad. 8 25–30 Fagus–Poaceae–Picea Decrease in Picea and Abies, increase in Quercus and Betula, 

Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Rumex, Plantago and Cerealia 

Upper limit: slight increase in Fagus and Picea, decrease in 


Pad. 7 30–40 Fagus–Picea–Abies Fall in Carpinus, decline in Fagus, increase <strong>the</strong>n decline in Picea 

and Abies. Increase in Chenopodiaceae at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase 

Upper limit: decline in Picea and Abies, increase in Poaceae and 


Pad. 6 40–50 Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Poaceae–Abies Optimum <strong>of</strong> Fagus, small variations in Picea and Carpinus and 

increase in Poaceae and Corylus. Small increase in Artemisia 

Upper limit: decrease in Fagus and Carpinus, increase in Picea 

and Abies 

Pad. 5 50–55 Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Abies Increase in Picea, Carpinus and Chenopodiaceae. Small 

decrease in Abies and small increase in Fagus 

Upper limit: decrease in Carpinus and Picea, increase in 

Poaceae 

Pad. 4 55–70 Fagus–Picea–Abies–Carpinus Small increase in Abies and Fagus, fluctuations <strong>of</strong> Carpinus and 

Corylus, small increase in Chenopodiaceae. Beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

AP/T decline at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase 

Upper limit: Increase in Picea, Carpinus and Chenopodiaceae 

Pad. 3 70–80 Corylus–Carpinus–Fagus–Picea–Abies Decrease in Corylus, Carpinus Ulmus. Increase in Abies, Fagus 

and Picea. Small increase in Juglans 

Upper limit: decrease in Carpinus, small increase in Corylus 

Pad. 2 80–85 Corylus–Carpinus–Picea–Fagus Decrease in Corylus and increase in Carpinus and Fagus. Small 

increase in Quercus and Abies. Presence <strong>of</strong> Juglans 

Upper limit: increase in Abies and Fagus, decrease in Corylus 

and Carpinus 

Pad. 1 85–90 Corylus–Picea–Poaceae Increase in Corylus,decrease in Poaceae. Carpinus, Fagus and 

Abies present but rare 

Upper limit: decrease in Corylus, increase in Carpinus and 

Fagus 

From RPAZ 5–9 (ca 6450 cal BP–Present), <strong>the</strong> pollen 

diagrams <strong>of</strong> Bergerie, Padis and Cimeti"ere can be 

compared. 

At Padis, between 4650 and 4100 cal BP, in <strong>the</strong> upper 

part <strong>of</strong> RPAZ 5, <strong>the</strong> percentages <strong>of</strong> Carpinus are low 

(2%) when comparing with Bergerie (near 5%) and 

Cimeti"ere (near 10%). At Padis, Cimeti"ere and Bergerie, 

<strong>the</strong> increase in Fagus and Carpinus and <strong>the</strong> synchronous 

decrease in Corylus characterise <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

RPAZ 6 dated ca 4500 cal BP (4050780 BP) at Bergerie. 

This age, d<strong>edu</strong>ced from that <strong>of</strong> levels 160–155 from 

Bergerie (4050780 BP), was preferred to that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

bottom <strong>of</strong> Padis (4595765 BP, 5300 cal BP) for three 

reasons: at Padis <strong>the</strong> thickness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sample is 15 cm 

and at Bergerie only 5 cm; at Padis <strong>the</strong> dated sediment 

concerns material situated below <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

Fagus curve; comparison between <strong>the</strong> dates obtained for 

<strong>the</strong> Fagus expansion at Bergerie (4050780 BP) and in 

<strong>the</strong> southwestern Carpathians, in Banat mountains 

(3880760 BP; R.osch and Fischer, 2000), are close to 

4500 cal BP. 

The beginning <strong>of</strong> RPAZ 7 corresponds to <strong>the</strong> Abies 

development dated ca 4200 cal BP (3720760 BP) at 

Bergerie. The end <strong>of</strong> RPAZ 7 is not dated. The proposed 

limit at 1940 cal BP is based on an interpolation between 

<strong>the</strong> radiocarbon dating <strong>of</strong> Bergerie (3720760 and


Table 5 

Description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local pollen assemblage zones in <strong>the</strong> Cimeti"ere pr<strong>of</strong>ile 


Cim. 13 0–5 Poaceae–Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Corylus Strong decrease in Poaceae. Slight increase in Fagus, Picea, 

Abies and Carpinus 

Cim. 12 5–10 Poaceae–Fagus–Picea–Carpinus Decrease in Picea, small increase in Fagus, increase in Poaceae, 

presence <strong>of</strong> Vitis, decrease in Cerealia 

Upper limit: Fall in Poaceae, increase in Fagus, Abies, Carpinus 

and Corylus 

Cim. 11 10–15 Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Abies–Cerealia Decrease in Fagus and synchronous increase in Picea, presence 

<strong>of</strong> Olea and Cerealia 

Upper limit: decrease in Picea, increase in Poaceae 

Cim. 10 15–30 Fagus–Poaceae–Corylus–Cerealia Scarcity <strong>of</strong> Carpinus, dominance <strong>of</strong> Fagus, regular presence <strong>of</strong> 

Juglans and Cerealia. Small increase in Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae, 

Urticaceae, Rumex, Plantago 

Upper limit: fall in Fagus, increase in Picea 

Cim. 9 30–50 Fagus–Poaceae–Picea–Abies Increase in Fagus, decrease in Carpinus. Increase in Artemisia, 

regular presence <strong>of</strong> Chenopodiaceae, Rumex and Plantago 

lanceolata 

Upper limit: decline in Picea, beginning <strong>of</strong> Juglans 

Cim. 8 50–65 Corylus–Fagus–Carpinus–Abies Beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Abies curve. Strong increase in Fagus (2–20%) 

and synchronous decrease in Corylus (30–10%). Decline in 

Ulmus. Small increase in Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia, 

presence <strong>of</strong> Rumex 

Upper limit: increase in Fagus, Artemisia and Rumex, decrease 

in Corylus 

Cim. 7 65–70 Corylus–Carpinus–Picea Increase in Fagus and beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regular presence <strong>of</strong> 

Chenopodiaceae and Urticaceae. Decrease in Corylus 

Upper limit: increase in Abies and Fagus, decrease in Corylus 

Cim 6 70–80 Corylus–Picea–Poaceae–Carpinus–Ulmus Increase in Carpinus and Alnus, decrease in Ulmus and Poaceae. 

Small increase in Picea 

Upper limit: increase in Fagus, decrease in Corylus 

Cim. 5 80–90 Pinus–Corylus–Poaceae–Picea–Ulmus Strong decrease in Pinus (50–2%) and Filicales, increase in 

Corylus, Ulmus, Tilia and Poaceae. Beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> curve <strong>of</strong> 

Cannabis–Humulus type 

Upper limit: increase in Carpinus, decrease in Poaceae 

Cim. 4 90–95 Pinus–Corylus–Picea Strong increase in Pinus, decline in Corylus, Ulmus, Alnus, Picea 

and Poaceae 

Upper limit: abrupt decrease in Pinus, increase in Corylus and 

Poaceae 

Cim. 3 95–105 Corylus–Picea–Ulmus Abrupt decrease in Pinus and increase in Corylus. Increase in 

Picea and Poaceae. High values <strong>of</strong> Ulmus (16%) 

Upper limit: increase in Pinus, decrease in Corylus Ulmus and 

Picea 

Cim. 2 105–115 Pinus–Picea Decrease in Picea and Pinus. Increase in Ulmus and high values 

(15%) at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase, increase in Poaceae 

Upper limit: decrease in Pinus and Filicales, increase in Corylus 

and Picea 

Cim. 1 115–130 Corylus–Pinus–Picea–Poaceae Picea at 15%, decrease in Corylus, increase in Pinus 

Upper limit: decrease in Pinus and Picea 

725785 BP) and Padis (37507100 and 445780 BP). 

At Bergerie, Cimeti"ere and Padis this limit corresponds 

to a decrease in <strong>the</strong> AP/T ratio and Corylus values. 

At Bergerie it is also marked by a decrease in 

Carpinus percentages. At that time, <strong>the</strong> human impact, 

described below, is <strong>the</strong> determining factor <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

landscape <strong>history</strong>. The limits <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> RPAZ 8 and 9 

correspond to major changes observed in <strong>the</strong> three 

sites. However, because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> difference in <strong>the</strong> local 

human impact, complete analogies are difficult to be 

found. 

RPAZ 8 begins with a decrease in AP/T and an 

increase in <strong>the</strong> anthropogenic indicators. It ends when 

Poaceae values increase. According to <strong>the</strong> sites, Juglans 

is regularly present (Cimeti"ere and Padis) and <strong>the</strong> 

percentages <strong>of</strong> Carpinus, Fagus and Picea decrease. At 

Padis, <strong>the</strong> upper limit <strong>of</strong> RPAZ 8 is dated ca 500 cal BP 

(445780 BP).

1480 


Table 6 

Description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local pollen assemblage zones in <strong>the</strong> Bergerie pr<strong>of</strong>ile 


Berg. 13 25–30 Poaceae–Picea–Fagus Abrupt increase in Poaceae, increase in Chenopodiaceae, 

Cichorioideae, Rumex, Plantago lanceolata and Cerealia 

Berg. 12 30–70 Poaceae–Fagus–Picea–Abies–Carpinus Strong increase in Abies at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase. Increase 

in Poaceae, Plantago, Humulus–Cannabis type and Rumex. 

Regular decrease in Carpinus. Decrease <strong>the</strong>n stabilization in 

AP/T. First occurrence <strong>of</strong> Cerealia at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase 

Upper limit: fall in Fagus, Picea,Abies and Carpinus. Strong 

increase in Poaceae 

Berg. 11 70–90 Poaceae–Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Abies Increase in Poaceae, Rumex and Artemisia. Slight decrease in 

Fagus and AP/T 

Upper limit: increase in Abies, decrease in Fagus and Picea 

Berg. 10 90–100 Fagus–Poaceae–Picea–Carpinus Small increase in Carpinus, decrease in Picea and Fagus. 

Increase in Artemisia 

Upper limit: increase in Poaceae, decrease in Carpinus 

Berg. 9 95–110 Fagus–Picea–Poaceae–Carpinus–Abies Increase in Poaceae <strong>the</strong>n Artemisia at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase. 

Small increase in Abies, Betula and Chenopodiaceae, regular 

occurrence <strong>of</strong> Humulus–Cannabis type and Plantago lanceolata. 

Decrease in AP/T 

Upper limit: decrease in Picea, Fagus and Poaceae 

Berg. 8 110–120 Fagus–Picea–Carpinus–Poaceae–Abies Fall in Carpinus, increase in Poaceae, Rumex and Urticaceae. 

Beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regular presence <strong>of</strong> Plantago lanceolata. Small 

increase in Pinus 

Upper limit: increase in Poaceae and Humulus–Cannabis type, 

decrease in Picea 

Berg. 7 120–145 Carpinus–Picea–Fagus–Corylus–Abies Regular increase in Fagus, small decline in Picea, decrease in 

Ulmus. Small but regular increase in Abies and Poaceae. 

Beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regular occurrence <strong>of</strong> Chenopodiaceae and 

Cichorioideae. First occurrence <strong>of</strong> Plantago lanceolata 

Upper limit: fall in Carpinus, increase in Ranunculaceae, Rumex 

and Urticaceae 

Berg. 6 145–160 Corylus–Carpinus–Picea–Fagus Decrease in Corylus, increase in Fagus, Carpinus and Picea. 

Small decrease in Asteroideae, small increase in Poaceae. 

Regular presence <strong>of</strong> Abies at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase 

Upper limit: increase in Abies, Fagus and Alnus, decrease in Corylus 

Berg. 5 160–170 Corylus–Picea–Carpinus–Ulmus Increase in Carpinus and Salix, decrease in Corylus except at <strong>the</strong> 

end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase. Small decrease in Poaceae and Asteroideae. 

Increase in Pinus at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase Presence <strong>of</strong> Abies 

Upper limit: increase in Fagus, Carpinus and Picea, decrease in 

Corylus and Pinus 

Berg. 4 170–184 Corylus–Picea–Asteroideae–Ulmus Increase in Picea, small decrease in Asteroideae, Cichorioideae, 

Poaceae, Rumex, Humulus–Cannabis type. Decline in Corylus 

with abrupt changes. Increase in Poaceae, Fraxinus and Betula 

at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase. Presence <strong>of</strong> Abies 

Upper limit: increase in Carpinus and Salix, decrease in Poaceae 

Berg. 3 184–195 Corylus–Asteroideae–Picea–Ulmus Decrease in Corylus at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase, increase in 

Ulmus <strong>the</strong>n Pinus at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase. Small increase in 

Cannabis–Humulus type. Picea stable 

Upper limit: increase in Picea, abrupt fall in Corylus, beginning 

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regular presence <strong>of</strong> Betula 

Berg. 2 195–205 Corylus–Asteroideae–Picea Increase in Picea, decline in Corylus, small increase in 

Cichorioideae and Rumex <strong>the</strong>n Artemisia. First presence <strong>of</strong> Abies 

Upper limit: increase in Ulmus, decrease in Artemisia 

Berg. 1 205–220 Corylus–Asteroideae–Poaceae–Picea–Ulmus High values <strong>of</strong> Corylus and Asteroideae. Values <strong>of</strong> Ulmus and 

Picea around 5%. Presence <strong>of</strong> Fagus and Carpinus 

Upper limit: increase in Picea, Quercus and Cichorioideae 

RPAZ 9 corresponds to a phase <strong>of</strong> intensive human 

activity well characterised by <strong>the</strong> anthropogenic indicators. 

The AP/T value falls and strong deforestation are 

recorded. 

10. Human impact 

The first evidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> humans is 

visible at Ic Ponor around 7800 cal BP. At that time


Table 7 

Time-space correlation <strong>of</strong> local and regional pollen assemblage zones a 

a A=Abies, Al=Alnus, Ast=Asteroideae, Be=Betula, Ca=Carpinus, Ce=Cerealia, Co=Corylus, E=Ericaceae, Fab=Fabaceae, F=Fagus, 

Fr=Fraxinus, P=Pinus, Pi=Picea, Po=Poaceae, Q=Quercus, Ro=Rosaceae, U=Ulmus.

1482 


Chenopodiaceae and Asteroideae became more frequent. 

This early impact is not surprising when 

considering <strong>the</strong> situation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> site along a valley 

allowing easy access to <strong>the</strong> flat areas <strong>of</strong> mid elevation. 

From <strong>the</strong> available archaeochronological data, this first 

presence might be attributed to <strong>the</strong> first Neolithic 

occupations in Transylvania (Gura Baciului, Ocna 

Sibiului, Starcevo–Cris III–IV Cultures) dated between 

7850 and 7350 cal BP (Lazarovici, 1993; Demoulle, 1998; 

Mantu, 1998). Settlements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se people were present 

o100 km from <strong>the</strong> studied area, <strong>the</strong> anthropogenic 

indicators suggesting that, at that time, groups had 

already begun to travel over <strong>the</strong> mountain. At Bergerie, 

during <strong>the</strong> same period, anthropogenic indicators such 

as increases in Cichorioideae and Rumex are also found 

near 7600 cal BP. The local impact seems limited. The 

sedimentation rate which was 0.6 mm/yr between ca 

7800 and 7600 cal BP was only 0.17 mm/yr between 7600 

and 4570 cal BP. 

The age <strong>of</strong> this first palynological evidence <strong>of</strong> 

Romanian Neolithic husbandry agrees with <strong>the</strong> presence 

<strong>of</strong> numerous dated archaeological sites in <strong>the</strong> Balkans 

between 8900 and 6800 cal BP (Willis, 1994; Willis and 

Bennett, 1994) and with <strong>the</strong> earliest Neolithic 14 C dates 

from <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Balkans (8350–7800 cal BP) (Edwards 

et al., 1996). 

The first Cerealia pollen is noticed at Ic Ponor I 

during <strong>the</strong> Neolithic, around 7100 cal BP (6190790 BP). 

At <strong>the</strong> same time Artemisia and Poaceae are more 

abundant. During <strong>the</strong> same period, several groups are 

known in Transylvania near <strong>the</strong> studied zone: Cheile 

Turzii-Lumea Noua Complex and Turdas Groups 

(Mantu, 1998). 

Around 5200–4500 cal BP at Cimeti"ere and Bergerie, 

percentages <strong>of</strong> Poaceae and ruderal communities (Chenopodiaceae, 

Rumex, Urticaceae) increase as well as 

Carpinus and Fagus. At Bergerie during <strong>the</strong> period 

4570–4100 cal BP <strong>the</strong> sedimentation rate is 0.71 mm/yr 

which is higher than during <strong>the</strong> periods 7600– 

4570 cal BP (0.17 mm/yr) and 4100–1935 cal BP 

(0.14 mm/yr). The interpretation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se changes is 

difficult. The changes might be due to <strong>the</strong> climatic 

variations which concerned this period in Europe and 

determined <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> beech (Huntley and 

Prentice, 1988; Huntley et al., 1989; Huntley, 1990a, b; 

Kelly and Huntley, 1991; Gardner and Willis, 1999). But 

<strong>the</strong> consequences <strong>of</strong> human impact should not be 

underestimated. In <strong>the</strong> Pyrenees, at mid and low 

altitudes (Jalut et al., 1982, 1998; Jalut, 1984; Kenla 

and Jalut, 1979) as well as in <strong>the</strong> plains <strong>of</strong> central 

Europe (K.uster, 1997) and in <strong>the</strong> Romanian mountains, 

<strong>the</strong> abundance <strong>of</strong> Fagus in <strong>the</strong> forests may be partly 

related to <strong>the</strong> successive cuttings <strong>of</strong> fir, oak or spruce 

forests. At Bergerie, when deforestation increases from 

4100 to 1935 cal BP, <strong>the</strong> sedimentation rate decreases 

(0.143 mm/yr) <strong>the</strong>n increases between ca 1935 and 

680 cal BP (0.24 mm/yr) which renders <strong>the</strong> interpretation 

difficult. 

At Padis, despite very favourable topographic conditions, 

<strong>the</strong>re is no clear palynological evidence for an 

early strong local human impact and <strong>the</strong> sedimentological 

study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> core is not informative. The 

sedimentation rate stays low all along <strong>the</strong> core (between 

0.09 and 0.14 mm/yr from level 90 to level 35). Only <strong>the</strong> 

recent Sphagnum peat shows a higher rate (0.78 mm/yr). 

At Cimeti"ere, <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sedimentological data 

might be more informative but <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> dates does not 

allow calculation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sedimentation rate. However, 

around 1935 cal BP a relationship exists between <strong>the</strong> 

abundance in anthropogenic indicators, <strong>the</strong> decrease in 

AP/T values and <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> thin layers <strong>of</strong> sand in 

<strong>the</strong> peat. They might be <strong>the</strong> consequence <strong>of</strong> erosion 

processes related to deforestations. The contemporaneous 

decline in <strong>the</strong> pollen concentration reinforces 

<strong>the</strong> hypo<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> a strong human impact on <strong>the</strong> 

landscape. 

In <strong>the</strong> three sites, between ca 4500 and 3200– 

2750 cal BP <strong>the</strong> forest cover remained stable. Then it 

began to regress. The decrease in AP values is correlated 

to a rise in Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Plantago 

species. 

At Padis and Bergerie, around 2750–2550 cal BP, <strong>the</strong> 

development <strong>of</strong> Poaceae and <strong>the</strong> increase in ruderal 

communities (Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Rumex, Urticaceae, 

Plantago) demonstrate increased human activities. 

They rose around 1935 BP and 695–660 cal BP 

(presence <strong>of</strong> Cerealia at Cimeti"ere). These periods 

correspond to decreases in AP values (Bergerie, Cimeti- 

"ere, Padis). Humans gradually spread into <strong>the</strong> mountain 

(Obelic et al., 1998). 

At <strong>the</strong> same time, human impact affected both 

elevations between 1000 and 1400 m and <strong>the</strong> lower 

zones. Thus, <strong>the</strong> decrease in percentages and pollen 

concentration <strong>of</strong> Carpinus, Quercus, Ulmus and Tilia, is 

synchronous with an increase in anthropogenic indicators 

and possibly reflects <strong>the</strong> destruction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

Querceto–Carpinetum. 

The massive forest clearance during <strong>the</strong> last century is 

shown by <strong>the</strong> fall in AP values and <strong>the</strong> greater Poaceae 

abundance in <strong>the</strong> upper levels <strong>of</strong> most peat bogs. In <strong>the</strong> 

studied area <strong>the</strong> present scarcity <strong>of</strong> Abies and <strong>the</strong> 

noticeable extension <strong>of</strong> Fagus are probably <strong>the</strong> consequences 

<strong>of</strong> this deforestation. In some places such as Ic 

Ponor, <strong>the</strong> pollen analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fifteen upper centimeters 

<strong>of</strong> Sphagnum peat shows <strong>the</strong> correlation between 

<strong>the</strong> forest destruction and <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cultivated 

areas. Cerealia pollen is regularly observed and, in <strong>the</strong> 

surface samples, pollen <strong>of</strong> Secale, Fagopyrum, Centaurea 

cyanus, Plantago lanceolata, Plantago coronopus and 

Fabaceae are well represented. The abundance <strong>of</strong> 

Onobrychis pollen type indicates cultivated zones, fallow 

land and pathways in <strong>the</strong> close vicinity (Figs. 3 and 4).


11. Comparisons with published local data 

In a work focussed on <strong>the</strong> same area <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> 

mountains, Ciobanu (1965) studied five sites including 

Pietrele Onachii (2 cores) and La Ic (called here Ic 

Ponor). At <strong>the</strong> bottom <strong>of</strong> Pietrele Onachii I, <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> 

Pinus and increase in Picea and Corylus values are 

recorded. At Pietrele Onachii II, Abies and Carpinus are 

present with low values during <strong>the</strong> Picea–Corylus phase, 

before <strong>the</strong> Fagus and Carpinus extension. Then Carpinus, 

Fagus and Abies seem to extend at <strong>the</strong> same time 

while Picea decreases. The apparent synchronism in <strong>the</strong> 

extension <strong>of</strong> Carpinus, Fagus and Abies is due to 

excessively long sampling intervals. 

In <strong>the</strong> Ic Ponor sequence (La Ic <strong>of</strong> Ciobanu, 1965) 

Fagus, Abies and Carpinus appear sporadically during 

<strong>the</strong> phase with a maximum <strong>of</strong> Picea. This confirms our 

observations at Ic Ponor, where sporadic occurrences <strong>of</strong> 

Fagus, Abies and Carpinus occur during <strong>the</strong> early 

<strong>Holocene</strong>. 

In o<strong>the</strong>r sites <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains (Fig. 2), La 

Mlastina and La Mol (Ciobanu, 1967), Calatele 

(Ciobanu, 1968), Dealul Negru (2 cores) (Lupsa, 

1972), Dimbul Negru (4 cores; Lupsa, 1973), Baita 

(Ratiu and Boscaiu, 1971) and Mluha (2 cores) 

(Ciobanu, 1958) (Fig. 2), a first extension <strong>of</strong> Carpinus 

followed by <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> beech and fir is 

observed. This corresponds to <strong>the</strong> chronology described 

at Padis, Cimeti"ere and Bergerie. The same succession is 

also recorded at Dimbul Negru-La Pod and at Dealul 

Negru I. In <strong>the</strong> latter site, at level 270, <strong>the</strong> first 

percentage <strong>of</strong> Fagus (about 8%) indicates that <strong>the</strong> 

beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> curve is situated lower, between levels 

280 and 270, which agrees with our data. In <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r 

diagrams, <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> curves <strong>of</strong> Abies and Fagus 

are indistinct because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sampling 

interval. 

At Ciurtuci (Fig. 2) (Lupsa, 1971, 1974) several cores 

were extracted in different peat bogs. In <strong>the</strong> earliest work 

(Lupsa, 1971), <strong>the</strong> Abies curve is lacking in <strong>the</strong> pollen 

diagrams but <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> Fagus and <strong>the</strong> decrease <strong>of</strong> 

Picea are synchronous. From our results, it can be 

assumed that this event probably occurred around 

4500 cal BP. In <strong>the</strong> second study, (Ciurtuci I, Lupsa, 

1974) <strong>the</strong> decline <strong>of</strong> Corylus and <strong>the</strong> first increases in 

Carpinus and Fagus values are observed. In <strong>the</strong> pollen 

diagram, <strong>the</strong>se events seem to be simultaneous, both 

occurring between 6450 and 4500 cal BP. Then, a second 

and greater extension <strong>of</strong> Carpinus and Fagus occurred, 

correlated with <strong>the</strong> decline <strong>of</strong> Picea and <strong>the</strong> development 

<strong>of</strong> Abies which reached 17%. At Bergerie and Padis <strong>the</strong>se 

events are dated 4030 BP. 

In conclusion, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sites studied in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> 

mountains, including Padis, Cimeti"ere and Bergerie, 

show a comparable <strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> Picea, Carpinus, Fagus 

and Abies. 

The present and past studies <strong>of</strong> Ic Ponor confirm <strong>the</strong> 

presence <strong>of</strong> Carpinus, Fagus and Abies during <strong>the</strong> early 

<strong>Holocene</strong>, between 10,190 and 6820 BP. 

Beyond <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, in <strong>the</strong> Eastern 

Carpathians (Iezerul Calimani, alt. 1650 m, Calimani 

Mts.) and Central Carpathians (Fig. 1) (Taul Zanogutii, 

alt. 1840 m, Retezat Mts.) (Pop and Lupsa, 1971; 

Mitroescu-Farcas, 1995; Farcas, 1996; Farcas and 

Tantau, 1998; Farcas et al., 1999) <strong>the</strong> Lateglacial period 

is well represented with a strong development <strong>of</strong> 

Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae followed by successive 

extensions <strong>of</strong> Pinus and Picea. The fall in Artemisia 

values and <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> increase in Picea values 

are dated ca 13,140 cal BP (11,140775 BP) and latter, 

Younger Dryas seems to be represented (Farcas et al., 

1999). 

For <strong>the</strong> period 10,190 cal BP–Present, noticeable 

differences are observed with our data from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> 

mountains. At Iezerul Calimani Pinus remains abundant 

up to about 5110 cal BP. At Taul Zanogutii (1840 m) it 

stops being well represented around 9660 cal BP due to 

<strong>the</strong> competition between Corylus and Picea. Asimilar, 

but un-dated evolution, is recorded in Banat mountains, 

to <strong>the</strong> west <strong>of</strong> Taul Zanogutii (R.osch and Fischer, 2000) 

(Fig. 1). During <strong>the</strong> Lateglacial and <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

<strong>Holocene</strong>, Betula is poorly represented and, as previously 

discussed, its abundance at Ic Ponor is <strong>the</strong> 

consequence <strong>of</strong> forest fires favouring heliophilous 

species. During <strong>the</strong> early <strong>Holocene</strong>, frequent natural 

fires were also noticed by R.osch and Fischer (2000) in 

<strong>the</strong> Banat mountains. 

During <strong>the</strong> early <strong>Holocene</strong>, at Iezerul Calimani and 

Taul Zanogutii (Farcas and Tantau, 1998), low-altitude 

oak forest is represented with Ulmus percentages 

frequently higher than that <strong>of</strong> Quercus. Such high 

Ulmus percentages are also noticed in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> 

mountains (Ic Ponor) and <strong>the</strong> Banat mountains. In 

Eastern and Central Carpathians as at <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, 

Corylus and Picea are <strong>the</strong> two dominant trees in 

<strong>the</strong> mountains. After which, Picea declines, while 

Carpinus, Fagus and Abies expand. On <strong>the</strong> contrary, 

In <strong>the</strong> Banat mountains, only Corylus is well represented 

during <strong>the</strong> early <strong>Holocene</strong> and <strong>the</strong> values <strong>of</strong> Picea stay 

low (ca 5%). 

During <strong>the</strong> early <strong>Holocene</strong> at Taul Zanogutii (Farcas 

and Tantau, 1998) as well as in <strong>the</strong> Banat mountains 

(R.osch and Fischer, 2000), Carpinus is sporadically 

present and its curve becomes continuous before its 

extension phase. In a more recent study <strong>of</strong> Taul 

Zanogutii (Farcas et al., 1999), occurrences <strong>of</strong> isolated 

hornbeam pollen are very rare during <strong>the</strong> early 

<strong>Holocene</strong> and <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> Carpinus is dated 

7560 cal BP (6645765 BP). This date can be compared 

with <strong>the</strong> dating <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regular presence 

<strong>of</strong> Carpinus at Ic Ponor I (7670 cal BP: 6870790 BP) 

and at Ic Ponor II (7800 cal BP: 6980790 BP). However,

1484 


at Iezerul Calimani, <strong>the</strong> first regular occurrences <strong>of</strong> 

Carpinus are noticed only between 5110 and 4500 BP 

and in <strong>the</strong> Banat mountains, hornbeam spreads between 

7600 cal BP (6780760 BP) and 4350 cal BP (38807 

60 BP). In <strong>the</strong>se sites, <strong>the</strong> <strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> Carpinus is similar 

to that described at Bergerie, Cimeti"ere and Padis. To 

explain <strong>the</strong> different timing <strong>of</strong> Carpinus colonisation, 

Diaconeasa and Farcas (1998) suggested <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> 

two simultaneous patterns <strong>of</strong> Carpathian colonisation 

from nor<strong>the</strong>rn Yugoslavia, one via <strong>the</strong> west, <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r 

from <strong>the</strong> south and <strong>the</strong> east. This hypo<strong>the</strong>sis is 

questionable because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> early presence <strong>of</strong> Carpinus 

in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, <strong>the</strong> Central Carpathians and 

<strong>the</strong> Banat Mountains which suggests <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> 

glacial and Lateglacial refuges in <strong>the</strong>se areas and, 

consequently, a process <strong>of</strong> <strong>Holocene</strong> recolonisation 

from numerous sheltered zones in <strong>the</strong> Carpathians 

ra<strong>the</strong>r than a single area. On <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> this latter 

hypo<strong>the</strong>sis, <strong>the</strong> late development <strong>of</strong> Carpinus in <strong>the</strong> NE 

Carpathians might be explained not by <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> 

refuges but by climate conditions. It was only during <strong>the</strong> 

5110–4500 cal BP period that Calimani Mountains, close 

to <strong>the</strong> Ukraine forest-steppe and <strong>the</strong> present sou<strong>the</strong>astern 

lowland Carpinus limit (Ozenda, 1994), experienced 

climatic conditions favourable for <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> 

hornbeam from isolated stands. 

Differences exist between our dates and <strong>the</strong> previously 

published dates for <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> Fagus and Abies. 

Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> a hiatus, <strong>the</strong> extensions <strong>of</strong> 

Fagus and Abies are not dated at Taul Zanogutii. At 

Iezerul Calimani, <strong>the</strong> first regular occurrences <strong>of</strong> Fagus 

are observed during <strong>the</strong> period 5110–4000 cal BP. 

Despite <strong>the</strong> inversion <strong>of</strong> two comparable radiocarbon 

dates, it can be assumed that this phase <strong>of</strong> development 

begins ca 4500 cal BP. It is contemporaneous with that 

observed at Padis, Cimeti"ere and Bergerie as well as in 

most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r studied sites. Regular occurrences <strong>of</strong> 

Abies are also noticed from about 4500 cal BP at Iezerul 

Calimani, but a real increase is only noticed around 

2875 cal BP, later than in our western sites. The recent 

data from <strong>the</strong> Banat mountains show a synchronous 

extension <strong>of</strong> Fagus and Abies dated around 4350 cal BP 

(3880760 BP). Here, <strong>the</strong> distinct interval between <strong>the</strong> 

two events, visible in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains and at 

Iezerul Calimani, is not observed. 

Prior to <strong>the</strong> studies <strong>of</strong> Farcas et al. (1999), palynological 

studies were devoted <strong>the</strong> Eastern Carpathians. 

They had concerned <strong>the</strong> sites <strong>of</strong> Poiana Stiolului, Dupa 

Lunca-Voslobeni, Mohos (Pop, 1962; Pop and Diaconeasa, 

1967; Ratiu, 1969; Farcas and Tantau, 1998); 

Calimani Exploatare II, alt. 1700 m; Poiana Boilor, alt. 

1300 m; Rachitis, alt. 1700 m (Mitroescu-Farcas, 1995) 

and Cica Mica 1; alt. 1700 m (Farcas, 1995). The 

observation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> related pollen diagrams shows that 

<strong>the</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> trees is dependent on local 

ecological conditions or pollen transport but <strong>the</strong> most 

important chronological data agree with our present 

results. 

In <strong>the</strong> eastern Carpathians (Poiana Stiolului, Dupa 

Lunca–Voslobeni, Mohos) (Pop, 1962; Pop and Diaconeasa, 

1967; Ratiu, 1969; Farcas and Tantau, 1998), <strong>the</strong> 

pollen data show <strong>the</strong> same succession: Pinus phase, 

Pinus–Picea phase, Picea–Quercetum mixtum–Corylus 

phase, Picea–Carpinus phase, Picea–Fagus phase. In <strong>the</strong> 

first two sites Abies is not represented. At Mohos it 

appears after Fagus development but it stays rare. 

Concerning human impact, by comparison with <strong>the</strong> 

available pollen data from <strong>the</strong> Romanian Carpathians, 

<strong>the</strong> data from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains reveal an early 

human impact on <strong>the</strong> mountain. In <strong>the</strong> Eastern 

Carpathians, at Iezerul Calimani (Farcas et al., 1999), 

<strong>the</strong> regular presence <strong>of</strong> Plantago is only noticed from ca 

3430 cal BP and is synchronous with <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> 

Fagus. High values <strong>of</strong> Juglans are dated around 

1580 cal BP, after a strong decrease in Pinus values and 

an increase in Poaceae, Asteroideae and Carpinus 

pollen. The latter might have been favoured by <strong>the</strong> 

local deforestations. 

In <strong>the</strong> Banat mountains, <strong>the</strong> first presence <strong>of</strong> humans 

is recorded earlier, around 4450 cal BP. It is characterised 

by <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> grains <strong>of</strong> Triticum-type and 

Plantago lanceolata and by an increase in charred 

particles (R.osch and Fischer, 2000). Then, during <strong>the</strong> 

Iron Age around 4650–4250 cal BP, increases in Plantago, 

Cereals and charcoal are recorded. Increases in 

charcoal are noticed from <strong>the</strong> late medieval to <strong>the</strong> 

modern period. 

12. Regional comparisons 

The forest <strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains described 

above is similar to that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> surrounding countries 

(Ukraine, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia, Poland 

and Slovenia) (Fig. 1) There is no difference concerning 

<strong>the</strong> <strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> Quercus and Ulmus. They were present in 

all <strong>the</strong>se countries from <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Holocene</strong>. 

Their abundance at 10,190 BP in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains 

suggests that <strong>the</strong>y were also present. 

Picea, present in Romania around 11,165– 

10,870 cal BP (Farcas et al., 1999) is also regularly 

observed from <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Holocene</strong> in Czechia 

and Slovakia (Zlatnicka dolina, Tojrohe Pleso, Vracov: 

Rybnickova and Rybnicek, 1996), Slovenia (Sercelj, 

1996; Culiberg and Sercelj, 1996), and Poland (Ralska- 

Jasiewiczowa and Latalowa, 1996). However, from <strong>the</strong> 

observation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pollen diagrams it seems that its 

maximum values are not synchronous. 

Carpinus is regularly observed from <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>the</strong> <strong>Holocene</strong> in Bulgaria (Kupena, Lake Sucho Ezero 2, 

Tschokljovo: Bozilova and Smit, 1979; Bozilova et al., 

1990, 1989; Tshchalova et al., 1990; Tonkov and


Bozilova, 1992; Willis, 1994; Bozilova et al., 1996; 

Tonkov et al., 1998) and Hungary (Batorliget: Willis 

et al., 1995) and sporadically present before 7800 cal BP 

in Ukraine (Dovjok, Orgeev, Kardashinski: Kremenetski, 

1991, 1995; Kremenetski et al., 1999). These early 

occurrences support <strong>the</strong> hypo<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> 

numerous regional glacial and Lateglacial refuges. In <strong>the</strong> 

<strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, hornbeam occurrs sporadically 

around 9450–8875 cal BP (Ic Ponor). Its pollen is 

regularly present at Bergerie from ca 7800 cal BP and 

its percentages increase strongly ca 6400 cal BP. This 

chronology is coherent with data from <strong>the</strong> Balkans 

(Willis, 1994), but in <strong>the</strong> surrounding countries, <strong>the</strong> 

Carpinus extension phase is not always synchronous. 

Fagus appears in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains ca 9450– 

9200 cal BP (Ic Ponor), as well as in Hungary, Slovenia, 

Czechia and Slovakia where it is observed around 

10,435, 8900 and before 7800 cal BP, respectively. At 

Padis, Cimeti"ere and Bergerie its extension occurred ca 

4500 cal BP, as in <strong>the</strong> western Mediterranean (Jalut, 

1984; Jalut et al., 1982, 1998; Reille and Lowe, 1993). In 

Slovenia, Czechia, Slovakia and Poland, <strong>the</strong> extension 

phases were not synchronous. They occurred around 

8340, 7800, 6820 and 5360 cal BP, respectively. 

In <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains, Abies is present around 

6820 cal BP (Ic Ponor) as well as in Czechia and 

Slovakia (Rybnickova and Rybnicek, 1996) and Poland 

(Ralska-Jasiewiczowa and Latalowa, 1996), but earlier 

in Slovenia (>7800 cal BP) (Sercelj, 1996; Culiberg and 

Sercelj, 1996). The extension phases dated 4030 cal BP at 

Bergerie and Padis, around 4500 cal BP in Czechia and 

Slovakia (Rybnickova and Rybnicek, 1996), and 5110– 

4500 BP at Iezerul Calimani and Taul Zanogutii (Farcas 

et al., 1999), as well as <strong>the</strong> contemporaneous extension 

<strong>of</strong> Fagus, emphasises <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 5110– 

4030 cal BP period for <strong>the</strong> installation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mountain 

forests. Comparisons with vegetation changes occurring 

at <strong>the</strong> same time in <strong>the</strong> Western Mediterranean (Jalut 

et al., 1997, 2000) area show that <strong>the</strong>se changes were 

essentially controlled by climate. When considering that 

human impact increased around 5100–4500 cal BP, we 

can consider, like Willis (1994) that, for Romania and 

<strong>the</strong> surrounding areas, it was a critical period for <strong>the</strong> 

development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> present day landscape. 

At a <strong>geo</strong>graphic scale which includes a large part <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>the</strong> Balkan region (Willis, 1994) and covers a great 

diversity <strong>of</strong> ecological situations, correspondences between 

major vegetation changes in <strong>the</strong> Balkans and in 

<strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains can be observed. Between 10,190 

and 8875 cal BP <strong>the</strong>re was expansion <strong>of</strong> Pistacia in <strong>the</strong> 

Balkans and development <strong>of</strong> Quercus and Ulmus in <strong>the</strong> 

<strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains. Between 7800 and 5730 cal BP, 

Carpinus betulus and Fagus appeared in <strong>the</strong> Balkans 

with <strong>the</strong> regular presence <strong>the</strong>n development <strong>of</strong> Carpinus 

in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains. Around 5100 cal BP, important 

changes occurred in <strong>the</strong> landscape in <strong>the</strong> Balkans, 

contemporaneous with: <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> Fagus, <strong>the</strong> 

increase in Poaceae and ruderal communities in <strong>the</strong> 

<strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains. This correlation <strong>of</strong> natural environmental 

and vegetation changes suggests that <strong>the</strong>y 

were determined by climatic changes and possibly that 

such changes influenced human activities. 

13. Conclusions 

Studies in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains date <strong>the</strong> classical 

<strong>Holocene</strong> phases described in earlier palynological 

investigations. In <strong>the</strong> study area Pinus and Betula were 

never important forest components between 

10,190 cal BP and <strong>the</strong> Present. At Ic Ponor, <strong>the</strong> peak 

<strong>of</strong> Betula near 9850 cal BP corresponds to a local 

development associated to natural forest fires. The 

beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Picea extension occurred prior to 

10,190 cal BP and around 11,180 cal BP (Farcas et al., 

1999). 

Between 10,190 and 6450 cal BP, Corylus and Picea 

were dominant at mid altitude (<strong>the</strong> Picea–Corylus– 

Quercetum mixtum phase. Carpinus occurred at low and 

medium elevation ca 6450 cal BP. The Picea–Carpinus 

phase ended around 4500 cal BP when Fagus spread. 

The Abies development occurred slightly later ca 

4100 cal BP. Then <strong>the</strong> Picea–Carpinus–Fagus–Abies 

phase began. 

Around 2540–1935 cal BP Carpinus, decreased and 

around 680–660 BP <strong>the</strong> montane forest was submitted to 

strong human impact. Before <strong>the</strong>ir extension phases, <strong>the</strong> 

regional presence <strong>of</strong> Carpinus, and Fagus is attested by 

sporadic presence around 8875 cal BP <strong>the</strong>n by noticeable 

occurrences from about 7800 cal BP. Abies is observed 

later at 7545–7425 cal BP. These occurrences suggest <strong>the</strong> 

existence, during <strong>the</strong> last cold phases, <strong>of</strong> regional refuges 

situated in <strong>the</strong> deep valleys <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Apuseni</strong> mountains. 

They might have favoured <strong>the</strong> survival <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 

present tree species during <strong>the</strong> glaciation. 

More generally, it can be assumed that during <strong>the</strong> 

Last Glacial and Lateglacial period numerous refuges 

existed in <strong>the</strong> Carpathians. These isolated stands 

favoured colonisation during <strong>the</strong> <strong>Holocene</strong>. Local 

climate conditions were major limiting factors and 

explain many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chronological differences. 

These new palynological investigations demonstrate 

<strong>the</strong> early role <strong>of</strong> humans on <strong>the</strong> forest. The first 

evidences for settlements is recorded around 7800 cal BP 

<strong>the</strong>n 7570 and 7425 cal BP. 

The first Cerealia pollen is found ca 6820 cal BP. 

During <strong>the</strong> Bronze Age, between about 5100 and 3200– 

2750 cal BP, human impact seems stable and limited. 

Then it increased at all elevations, particularly around 

1935 and 695–660 BP. It is during <strong>the</strong> Last Century that 

<strong>the</strong> most extensive forest destructions occurred. At

1486 


medium elevation, beech was favoured at <strong>the</strong> expense <strong>of</strong> 

Picea during <strong>the</strong> recent recolonisation phases. 

Acknowledgements 

This research was supported by <strong>the</strong> Minist"ere Fran- 

-cais de l’Education Nationale, de la Recherche et de la 

Technologie ‘‘R!eseau Formation Recherche Pays Europe 

Centrale et Orientale–R!eseau Franco–Roumain’’ 

(Contract 4778836 A), Coordinator Dr. Ch. Causse, and 

by <strong>the</strong> Minist"ere Fran-cais des Affaires Etrang"eres 

(Grant no. 268230C). We express our gratitude to Dr. 

E. Silvestru (Emil Racovita Speological Institute, Cluj 

Napoca, Romania), for his determining help during <strong>the</strong> 

field work; to Pr. L. Ghergari, for her support at <strong>the</strong> 

Babes-Bolyai University <strong>of</strong> Cluj Napoca; to Pr. Dr. C. 

Radulescu, Speological Institute <strong>of</strong> Bucharest for his 

support and his welcome; Dr. M. Bakalowicz and Dr. A. 

Mangin for <strong>the</strong>ir helpful comments on <strong>the</strong> field; to Dr. 

M. Thinon for determination <strong>of</strong> Picea charcoal, Ms D. 

Dejean for her help in bibliography. 

Thanks are due to M. Arnold, head <strong>of</strong> UMS 2004 

Tandetron, L.S.C.E., Gif sur Yvette and to <strong>the</strong> L.S.C.E. 

Radiocarbon team, especially M. Paterne, N. Tisnerat, 

E. Kaltnecker, C. Noury and C. Hatt!e. 

We thank Dr K. Willis, Dr M. Magny and Pr<strong>of</strong>. J. 

Rose for <strong>the</strong>ir helpful comments on <strong>the</strong> manuscript. 

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