Marlborough & the War of Spanish Succession - Strategy & Tactics ...
Marlborough & the War of Spanish Succession - Strategy & Tactics ...
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Tactical File: Blenheim 1704 • Rhodesia 1966-1980<br />
Number 238<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
& <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong><br />
U.S. $23. 99<br />
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Hi s t o r i c a l Ga m e<br />
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strategy & tactics 3
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F E A T U R E S<br />
6 <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s Art <strong>of</strong> <strong>War</strong><br />
He was <strong>the</strong> best British general <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 18 th century. What were<br />
<strong>the</strong> secrets <strong>of</strong> his tactical and strategic success?<br />
by Will Stroock<br />
20 Tactical File<br />
The Famous Victory:<br />
Blenheim, 13 August 1704<br />
A top to bottom analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> best battle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> best general.<br />
by David Higgins<br />
4 #238
contents<br />
Number 238<br />
September 2006<br />
F E A T U R E S<br />
40 The Chimurenga <strong>War</strong>:<br />
The Rhodesian Insurgency, 1966-80<br />
Fourteen years <strong>of</strong> strike and counter-strike in sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Africa.<br />
by James Gordon<br />
departments<br />
29 for your information<br />
The Skull <strong>of</strong> Sultan Mkwawa<br />
by Brendan Whyte<br />
Not Their Finest Hour—The Royal<br />
Navy’s Efforts in <strong>the</strong> Pacific <strong>War</strong><br />
by <strong>War</strong>ren Robinson<br />
Turkish Gettysburg—The Battle <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Sakarya River<br />
by John Osborn<br />
American Ships <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Line<br />
by Mark Lardas<br />
35 The long tradition<br />
54 Civil <strong>War</strong> Submarine Operations<br />
Everything you didn’t know about <strong>the</strong> how and why <strong>of</strong><br />
attack subs in <strong>the</strong> 1860s.<br />
by Carl Otis Schuster<br />
38 works in progress<br />
Rules<br />
R1 <strong>Marlborough</strong>: <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong>, 1701-04<br />
by Joseph Miranda<br />
strategy & tactics 5
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s Art <strong>of</strong> <strong>War</strong><br />
by Will Stroock<br />
6 #238<br />
The Duke <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong> fought almost<br />
every kind <strong>of</strong> battle one can imagine.<br />
At Schellenberg (2 July 1704), his army<br />
stormed and took a heavily fortified hill. At<br />
Blenheim (13 August 1704), he won a set<br />
piece engagement. At Ramillies (23 May 1706), <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
occupied <strong>the</strong> central position and shifted his<br />
forces against <strong>the</strong> enemy’s weak points. The Duke went<br />
from <strong>the</strong> defensive to <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>fensive on <strong>the</strong> field at Oudenarde<br />
(11 July 1708). At <strong>the</strong> Battle <strong>of</strong> Malplaquet (11<br />
September 1709), <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s army smashed into and<br />
triumphed over <strong>the</strong> French in a bloody frontal assault.<br />
Though on <strong>the</strong> surface <strong>the</strong>se battles seem different,<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s formula for victory remained consistent.<br />
After seizing <strong>the</strong> tactical initiative, he sought to draw enemy<br />
attention and infantry reserves away from <strong>the</strong> center<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> line by launching sustained attacks against <strong>the</strong><br />
flanks. Those attacks were maintained despite heavy casualties.<br />
Once <strong>the</strong> enemy’s reserves were thus engaged,<br />
he attacked at a decisive point in <strong>the</strong> center. On breaching<br />
<strong>the</strong> enemy line, <strong>Marlborough</strong> sent squadrons <strong>of</strong> cavalry<br />
into <strong>the</strong> enemy rear area and followed up with more infantry<br />
to hold open <strong>the</strong> breach. That last maneuver would<br />
split <strong>the</strong> enemy position in two and win <strong>the</strong> day.<br />
The commanders <strong>Marlborough</strong> confronted and beat<br />
tended toward caution, and were more concerned with<br />
minimizing risk than winning <strong>the</strong> day. <strong>Marlborough</strong> usually<br />
attacked, and even when <strong>the</strong> enemy started <strong>the</strong> battle<br />
with <strong>the</strong> initiative, <strong>the</strong>y quickly lost it. What set <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
apart was his willingness to accept risk in order to<br />
win a decisive victory, and that’s why his battles are so<br />
interesting.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> Takes Command<br />
The <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong> broke out in 1701,<br />
though Britain did not declare war until <strong>the</strong> following<br />
year. As usual, <strong>the</strong> issues were complex, but <strong>the</strong> basic<br />
reason was France’s King Louis XIV was attempting to<br />
make his kingdom <strong>the</strong> pre-eminent power on <strong>the</strong> continent.<br />
In particular, Louis claimed <strong>the</strong> throne <strong>of</strong> Spain
for his grandson. That move was opposed by Austria<br />
(sometimes known as <strong>the</strong> Holy Roman Empire),<br />
which had its own candidate for <strong>the</strong> throne, and by<br />
Britain and <strong>the</strong> Dutch United Provinces, who did not<br />
want to see <strong>the</strong> balance <strong>of</strong> power upset. Thus was born<br />
<strong>the</strong> Grand Alliance. The various minor states <strong>of</strong> Europe<br />
also got involved, with Prussia siding with <strong>the</strong><br />
Alliance and Bavaria marching in support <strong>of</strong> France.<br />
In 1702, London dispatched John Churchill, Duke<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>, to <strong>the</strong> United Provinces as commander<br />
<strong>of</strong> Anglo-Dutch forces. He had two objectives: <strong>the</strong><br />
first was to prevent France from overwhelming <strong>the</strong><br />
United Provinces (a French conquest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands<br />
would have been an intolerable threat along <strong>the</strong><br />
British Channel), and <strong>the</strong> second was to support Austria.<br />
During <strong>the</strong> first two years <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war, <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
probed south, capturing Cologne and Bonn. The plan<br />
was to cooperate with <strong>the</strong> armies <strong>of</strong> Prince Louis <strong>of</strong><br />
Baden and Prince Eugene <strong>of</strong> Savoy. <strong>Marlborough</strong> was<br />
stopped by <strong>the</strong> Dutch, who feared that, with <strong>the</strong> main<br />
field army away to <strong>the</strong> south, <strong>the</strong> United Provinces<br />
would be exposed to French attack. So <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
was forced to stay close to <strong>the</strong> Maas and Scheldt when<br />
he really needed to be campaigning down <strong>the</strong> Rhine<br />
and along <strong>the</strong> Danube in support <strong>of</strong> his Austrian ally.<br />
Realizing disaster awaited <strong>the</strong> Alliance if he stayed<br />
put, <strong>Marlborough</strong> resolved to march on <strong>the</strong> Danube in<br />
1704. Throughout <strong>the</strong> winter <strong>of</strong> 1703-1704 representatives<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong> and Eugene met and corresponded,<br />
settling on a plan for <strong>Marlborough</strong> to move down<br />
<strong>the</strong> Rhine to <strong>the</strong> aid <strong>of</strong> Imperial forces under Eugene’s<br />
command.<br />
To placate <strong>the</strong> Dutch, <strong>Marlborough</strong> brought all<br />
British troops in <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands under his personal<br />
command and detached 70,000 Dutch troops for <strong>the</strong><br />
defense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> United Provinces. He <strong>the</strong>n ga<strong>the</strong>red <strong>the</strong><br />
rest <strong>of</strong> his army at Bedberg, 20 miles west <strong>of</strong> Cologne.<br />
In all, <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s army totaled 51 infantry battalions<br />
(14 British), 90 cavalry squadrons (19 British),<br />
and 38 guns.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> marched to <strong>the</strong> Danube, and by 1<br />
July had reached Amerdingen, where he united with<br />
Eugene and Louis <strong>of</strong> Baden to threaten Donauworth,<br />
15 miles to <strong>the</strong> east. Taking Donauworth would allow<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> to open a road to Nordlingen while also<br />
threatening Munich and Augsburg.<br />
Defending Amerdingen was <strong>the</strong> Bavarian Marshal<br />
Count D’Arco with 14,000 men. An assault would be<br />
bloody and a siege prolonged; however, overlooking<br />
<strong>the</strong> town was <strong>the</strong> Schellenberg Hill. If it could be taken,<br />
Donauworth would be neutralized. <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>refore resolved to attack. He ordered his army to<br />
storm <strong>the</strong> Schellenberg, and storm it <strong>the</strong>y did on <strong>the</strong><br />
2 nd . Donauworth quickly capitulated and <strong>the</strong> road was<br />
open to <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s most famous victory.<br />
Blenheim: 13 August 1704<br />
On 12 August 1704, <strong>Marlborough</strong> linked up with<br />
Prince Eugene’s army. Seeking to keep <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
from advancing far<strong>the</strong>r, Count Camille de Tallard, <strong>the</strong><br />
French commander, approached from <strong>the</strong> west and<br />
menaced Donauworth. Tallard <strong>the</strong>n refused to actually<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer battle; however, <strong>Marlborough</strong> crossed <strong>the</strong><br />
River Lech into Bavaria and ravaged <strong>the</strong> countryside.<br />
In response, Tallard united with Marshal Marsin and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Elector <strong>of</strong> Bavaria, keeping his army between <strong>the</strong><br />
Allies and <strong>the</strong> Danube. Tallard’s combined force numbered<br />
nearly 60,000 men.<br />
Meanwhile on <strong>the</strong> 12 th , Tallard marched to <strong>the</strong> village<br />
<strong>of</strong> Blenheim, where he encamped. The Franco-<br />
Bavarians took up a strong position with <strong>the</strong> River<br />
Nebel to <strong>the</strong> front, <strong>the</strong> flanks anchored by <strong>the</strong> villages<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lutzingen on <strong>the</strong> left and Blenheim on <strong>the</strong> right,<br />
and Oberglau a bastion in <strong>the</strong> center. Marsin and <strong>the</strong><br />
Elector commanded <strong>the</strong> positions between Lutzingen<br />
and Oberglau, Tallard everything to <strong>the</strong> east. He garrisoned<br />
Blenheim with nine battalions, supported its<br />
flanks with seven more, and held 11 cavalry squadrons<br />
in reserve. The Blenheim-Oberglau line was held<br />
by 44 cavalry squadrons with nine infantry battalions<br />
in reserve. Fourteen infantry battalions held Oberglau<br />
proper. On <strong>the</strong> left flank, Tallard placed 32 more<br />
squadrons <strong>of</strong> cavalry under Marsin and ano<strong>the</strong>r 17 battalion<br />
<strong>of</strong> infantry. In and around Lutzingen, under <strong>the</strong><br />
direct command <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Elector, were 51 squadrons <strong>of</strong><br />
cavalry. Twelve infantry battalions held <strong>the</strong> town.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> morning <strong>of</strong> 13 August, <strong>Marlborough</strong> and Eugene<br />
advanced south with 52,000 men and 66 guns to<br />
attack <strong>the</strong> Franco-Bavarian position at Blenheim. The<br />
plan was what was to become vintage <strong>Marlborough</strong>:<br />
Eugene would assault and pin down enemy forces<br />
west <strong>of</strong> Oberglau, while <strong>Marlborough</strong> himself would<br />
attack <strong>the</strong> left from Oberglau to Blenheim. <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
formed his wing into four lines. Up front were17<br />
infantry battalions to take <strong>the</strong> right bank <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nebel,<br />
35 battalions and 36 cavalry squadrons in <strong>the</strong> second<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> at <strong>the</strong> Battle <strong>of</strong> Blenheim.<br />
strategy & tactics 7
The <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong> Opens<br />
It was <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> kings and dynasties. Europe was dominated<br />
in <strong>the</strong> west by <strong>the</strong> French Bourbons and in <strong>the</strong> east by<br />
Austrian Habsburgs. Germany was divided into dozens <strong>of</strong><br />
petty monarchies, duchies, and protectorates such as Bavaria,<br />
Baden, Brandenburg, Brunswick, Hanover, <strong>the</strong> Palatinate and<br />
Württemberg. Prussia was on <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>astern fringe. In Paris,<br />
Louis XIV plotted to dominate <strong>the</strong> continent; in Vienna, Emperor<br />
Leopold maintained his realm against <strong>the</strong> Bourbons in<br />
<strong>the</strong> west and Ottoman incursions in <strong>the</strong> east. In London, Queen<br />
Anne had just taken <strong>the</strong> throne.<br />
When <strong>the</strong> childless King Charles II <strong>of</strong> Spain died in 1700,<br />
he left a vacant throne, to which <strong>the</strong> primary claimant was<br />
Phillip <strong>of</strong> Anjou, grandson <strong>of</strong> Louis II <strong>of</strong> France. Of course, a<br />
Bourbon on <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong> throne was unacceptable to Habsburg<br />
Austria and France’s perpetual rival, Britain. When Britain declared<br />
war on France on 15 May 1702, France and Spain were<br />
aligned against <strong>the</strong> Grand Alliance: Britain, <strong>the</strong> United Provinces,<br />
Austria, and most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> German states.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s military experience made him <strong>the</strong> obvious<br />
choice to defend British interests on <strong>the</strong> continent. A real struggle<br />
was expected. In <strong>the</strong> decades since <strong>the</strong> Treaty <strong>of</strong> Westphalia<br />
(1648), French armies and generals had dominated Europe. The<br />
roster <strong>of</strong> victorious French generals included great captains<br />
such as Prince Louis Conde, Marshal Nicholas Catinat, Duc<br />
Francois Luxembourg, and Viscount Henri Turenne. Under<br />
Louis XIV, French power expanded into <strong>the</strong> Low Countries, to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Rhine, and across nor<strong>the</strong>rn Italy.<br />
The Strategic Situation<br />
As operations commenced in 1703, <strong>the</strong> French held <strong>the</strong> upper<br />
hand, not only in Italy, as Eugene left <strong>the</strong> area to join allied<br />
forces in south Germany, but along <strong>the</strong> Danube as well. There<br />
Louis Hector de Villars marched his French army down <strong>the</strong> river,<br />
linked up with <strong>the</strong> Elector <strong>of</strong> Bavaria’s forces and steadily<br />
drove Louis, Prince <strong>of</strong> Baden, in front <strong>of</strong> him as he advanced<br />
toward Vienna. Villars, despite his successful operations, was<br />
replaced by Marshal Marsin at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> year. The French<br />
were now masters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> middle Rhine crossings. They could<br />
threaten Austria and its German allies from Bavaria.<br />
As 1704 began, <strong>Marlborough</strong> was confronted by Villars<br />
at Antwerp with 10,000 men, Tallard with 30,000 men was at<br />
Strasburg and Kehl, while <strong>the</strong> Elector <strong>of</strong> Bavaria and Marsin<br />
had 45,000 men at Ulm. Unless action was taken, Vienna itself<br />
might fall to <strong>the</strong> French, freeing <strong>the</strong> Bourbons to turn <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
attention toward <strong>the</strong> Low Countries, threatening <strong>the</strong> Channel<br />
ports central to Britain’s defense.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s March to <strong>the</strong> Danube:<br />
May-June 1704<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s most astonishing feats was his march<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands to <strong>the</strong> Danube. In three weeks, <strong>the</strong> Duke<br />
moved his army over 250 miles and put it in position to aid<br />
his German and Austrian allies or to strike at France. For most<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> march, <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s enemies did not know what he<br />
intended. The march began on 20 May. <strong>Marlborough</strong> rapidly<br />
moved south, reaching Bonn on <strong>the</strong> 23 rd and Coblenz on <strong>the</strong><br />
25 th , where he crossed over to <strong>the</strong> east bank, keeping <strong>the</strong> Rhine<br />
between him and Tallard. On 7 June, <strong>Marlborough</strong> crossed <strong>the</strong><br />
River Neckar at <strong>the</strong> town <strong>of</strong> Ladensburg. From <strong>the</strong>re he moved<br />
south, making as if he were going march on Phillipsburg. Instead<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> re-crossed <strong>the</strong> Neckar and on June 10 th<br />
marched into Mondelsheim, where he was joined by Eugene<br />
and Louis <strong>of</strong> Baden. Their combined forces amounted to 40,000<br />
men.<br />
On 27 June, <strong>the</strong> Allied army reached <strong>the</strong> Danube town <strong>of</strong><br />
Gingen. There it was decided <strong>Marlborough</strong> and Louis would<br />
move up <strong>the</strong> Danube, while Eugene would remain in <strong>the</strong> Gingen<br />
area with 30,000 men to prevent Villeroi and Tallard from<br />
marching on <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s rear. On 2 July, <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
fought <strong>the</strong> action at <strong>the</strong> Schellenberg, putting <strong>the</strong> Allied army in<br />
position for its greatest victory—Blenheim.<br />
8 #238
strategy & tactics 9
The Siege <strong>of</strong> Lille: 1708<br />
In a massive operation that involved more than 200,000 men and<br />
took four months to conclude, <strong>Marlborough</strong> and Eugene invested <strong>the</strong><br />
French stronghold <strong>of</strong> Lille. Known as “Vauban’s masterpiece,” <strong>the</strong> fortress-city<br />
was <strong>the</strong> linchpin <strong>of</strong> France’s frontier defenses, defended by<br />
Marshall Boufflers’ 16,000 man garrison. In mid-August 1708, <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
and Eugene set up lines <strong>of</strong> circumvallation and slowly dug trenches<br />
closer and closer to <strong>the</strong> walls.<br />
In late August, Burgundy and Vendome moved to relieve <strong>the</strong> French<br />
garrison, but <strong>Marlborough</strong> brilliantly maneuvered to keep a strong force<br />
between <strong>the</strong>ir army and Lille. Even after <strong>the</strong> city proper was taken on 23<br />
October, Boufflers retreated to <strong>the</strong> citadel and continued his defiance.<br />
French attempts to interdict Allied communications, and even a countermove<br />
against Brussels, failed to divert <strong>Marlborough</strong>. Boufflers finally<br />
capitulated on 10 December 1708. Over 15,000 Allied casualties were<br />
sustained. Keeping with <strong>the</strong> spirit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Age <strong>of</strong> Reason, <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
and Eugene allowed Boufflers to dictate his own surrender terms.<br />
10 #238<br />
and third lines to press home <strong>the</strong> main assault, while<br />
<strong>the</strong> fourth line was composed <strong>of</strong> 11 infantry battalions<br />
as a reserve. To <strong>the</strong> left, <strong>Marlborough</strong> deployed a powerful<br />
force under Lord John Cutts and tasked him with<br />
containing <strong>the</strong> French forces in Blenheim.<br />
Beginning at 8:30 a.m., both sides began pounding<br />
one ano<strong>the</strong>r with artillery fire. As Eugene moved his<br />
troops forward, Cutts forced his way across <strong>the</strong> Nebel<br />
and took a blocking position in front <strong>of</strong> Blenheim,<br />
where his men endured heavy sniping and cannon fire.<br />
At about 12:30 p.m., word arrived Eugene had attacked<br />
and pinned down <strong>the</strong> Bavarian forces east <strong>of</strong> Oberglau.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> sprang into action. To cover his<br />
crossing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nebel, he ordered Cutts to send one <strong>of</strong><br />
his brigades against Blenheim. So Gen. Rowe personally<br />
led his brigade into devastating French fire. Rowe<br />
and a third <strong>of</strong> his men fell, but his brigade stubbornly<br />
pressed ahead. French cavalry around Blenheim counterattacked,<br />
but were driven back. Ano<strong>the</strong>r effort by<br />
<strong>the</strong> French horse was stopped by British cavalry north<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> village.
Then a crisis developed in <strong>the</strong> Allied<br />
center. The Prince <strong>of</strong> Holstein-Beck sent<br />
10 infantry battalions in a frontal assault on<br />
Oberglau, which was repulsed with heavy<br />
losses, leaving <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s center-right<br />
wide open. Marsin charged in with 32 cavalry<br />
squadrons. <strong>Marlborough</strong> reacted by ordering<br />
Eugene to send Fugger’s cuirassiers<br />
to <strong>the</strong> area and counterattack. As Marsin’s<br />
men attained <strong>the</strong> south bank <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nebel,<br />
Fugger cut into <strong>the</strong>ir left flank and pushed<br />
<strong>the</strong>m <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> river. Holstein-Beck reformed<br />
his infantry and drove <strong>the</strong> French infantry<br />
back into Oberglau. By 3 p.m. most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Franco-Bavarian infantry was holed up in<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir village bastions or pinned down by<br />
Eugene. It was time to finish <strong>the</strong> job.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> brought his entire center<br />
across <strong>the</strong> Nebel: 90 squadrons <strong>of</strong> cavalry<br />
and 23 battalions <strong>of</strong> infantry. He formed<br />
<strong>the</strong>m into four lines, two <strong>of</strong> cavalry up front,<br />
two <strong>of</strong> infantry in <strong>the</strong> rear. At 4:30 p.m.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> attacked with his main body.<br />
Several times French volley fire threw back<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s horse. <strong>Marlborough</strong> brought<br />
up his guns and, at close range, <strong>the</strong>y poured<br />
grapeshot into <strong>the</strong> ranks <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French infantry.<br />
This time, under cover <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> guns,<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s cavalry slammed into <strong>the</strong><br />
French cavalry and scattered <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong><br />
French infantry yielding as well.<br />
Believing all to be lost, Marsin and <strong>the</strong><br />
Elector withdrew, leaving Tallard to fend<br />
for himself in Blenheim. After being heavily<br />
reinforced, Cutts finally forced Tallard<br />
to surrender. Thus ended <strong>the</strong> battle <strong>of</strong> Blenheim.<br />
In all, <strong>the</strong> allies suffered 4,500 dead and 7,500<br />
wounded, 2,000 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m British. In killed, wounded,<br />
and missing, <strong>the</strong> French lost 15,000 men and ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
15,000 were taken prisoner. The Allies took 200 flags,<br />
50 guns, and <strong>the</strong> whole baggage train. Notes Phillip J.<br />
Haythornthwaite: “For <strong>the</strong> first time in forty years a<br />
major French army had been routed, destroying <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
reputation <strong>of</strong> invincibility; Vienna was saved, and<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s reputation was assured.”<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> triumphed because he split <strong>the</strong> enemy<br />
center, compelling <strong>the</strong> Franco-Bavarian army to<br />
withdraw or risk being destroyed piecemeal. That was<br />
possible only because Eugene vigorously attacked <strong>the</strong><br />
Franco-Bavarian left, convincing Tallard he was facing<br />
<strong>the</strong> main thrust. Credit must also be given to Cutts,<br />
who endured and <strong>the</strong>n attacked brilliantly on <strong>the</strong> right.<br />
That allowed <strong>Marlborough</strong> to strike <strong>the</strong> center. Even<br />
though <strong>the</strong> going was bloody, <strong>Marlborough</strong> proved<br />
heedless <strong>of</strong> his own casualties. While <strong>the</strong> brunt <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
fighting was born by <strong>the</strong> infantry, <strong>the</strong> final blow was<br />
delivered by cavalry.<br />
Ramillies: 23 May 1706<br />
While <strong>Marlborough</strong> would have preferred to relieve<br />
pressure on Austria by defeating <strong>the</strong> French in north Italy,<br />
which was always a campaigning ground, <strong>the</strong> year<br />
1706 once again saw him in Flanders. In May 1706,<br />
Duc Villeroi marched into that area with an army <strong>of</strong><br />
62,000 men and 130 guns. <strong>Marlborough</strong> had with him<br />
in Maastricht county 60,000 British and Dutch troops<br />
and 130 guns. Not wanting to cede <strong>the</strong> initiative to Villeroi,<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> broke camp and sought him out.<br />
Their vanguards encountered one ano<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> early<br />
morning hours <strong>of</strong> 23 May and both sides deployed for<br />
battle.<br />
Facing east and taking <strong>the</strong> high ground, Villeroi<br />
assumed a defensive posture around <strong>the</strong> town <strong>of</strong> Ramillies.<br />
He anchored his right flank on <strong>the</strong> village <strong>of</strong><br />
Taviers and his left at <strong>the</strong> town <strong>of</strong> Autre-Egtise. Villeroi<br />
turned Ramillies into a bastion. He deployed his<br />
cavalry between Taviers and Ramillies and his infantry<br />
between Ramillies and Autre-Egtise. He placed his<br />
strategy & tactics 11
Biographies<br />
John Churchill, Duke <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong> (1650-1722).<br />
John Churchill was born on or about 5 June 1650 in<br />
Devonshire to a well connected family. Churchill’s military<br />
apprenticeship came under <strong>the</strong> legendary Marshal<br />
Turenne, and he was present at <strong>the</strong> Battles <strong>of</strong> Sinzheim<br />
(16 June 1674) and Entzheim (4 October 1674). Turenne<br />
is reported to have thought highly <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> future general.<br />
Having cut his teeth on a campaign with one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
military masters <strong>of</strong> his age, Churchill was deemed fit to<br />
serve in <strong>the</strong> Duke <strong>of</strong> York’s regiment. In 1677 he was<br />
appointed colonel.<br />
Later, Churchill was involved in <strong>the</strong> dispute between<br />
James II and William <strong>of</strong> Orange, eventually siding<br />
with William <strong>of</strong> Orange and helping him to seize power.<br />
For his efforts on behalf <strong>of</strong> William, Churchill was created<br />
<strong>the</strong> Earl <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>. <strong>Marlborough</strong> proved his<br />
loyalty to <strong>the</strong> new king by defeating <strong>the</strong> French at <strong>the</strong><br />
Battle <strong>of</strong> Walcourt (25 August 1689). In 1690, <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
participated in operations against James II in<br />
Ireland, capturing Cork and Kinsale. But those conflicts<br />
were minor compared to <strong>the</strong> conflict about to engulf Europe<br />
in <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong>.<br />
He was created a Duke for his handling <strong>of</strong> Anglo-<br />
Dutch forces in 1702-03, but to his men he was “Corporal<br />
John.” <strong>Marlborough</strong> ensured his troops were well<br />
fed, well armed, and paid on time. They knew him to be<br />
a great general who would not risk <strong>the</strong>ir lives without<br />
reason or hope <strong>of</strong> victory, and <strong>the</strong>y loved him for it.<br />
Louis, Margrave <strong>of</strong> Baden (1655-1707). Though defeated<br />
by Villars at <strong>the</strong> Battle <strong>of</strong> Friedlingen (2 October<br />
1702), Louis was an experienced and capable general.<br />
He fought against <strong>the</strong> Turks at Vienna (12 September<br />
1683) and <strong>the</strong> Siege <strong>of</strong> Belgrade (11 August-6 September<br />
1688).<br />
John William Friso, Prince <strong>of</strong> Orange (1686-1711).<br />
After Eugene, <strong>the</strong> Prince <strong>of</strong> Orange was <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s<br />
best ally. In fact, throughout <strong>the</strong> war, <strong>the</strong> Dutch Army<br />
was bigger than <strong>the</strong> British, numbering 119,000 men at<br />
its peak in 1708. William’s troops played a critical role at<br />
Oudenarde, where <strong>the</strong>y overran <strong>the</strong> French right, and at<br />
Malplaquet <strong>the</strong>y anchored <strong>the</strong> Allied left. When he was<br />
not leading men in battle, Friso spent his time jockeying<br />
for position to suceed his uncle, William III, as Stadjolder<br />
<strong>of</strong> Holland. William drowned in July 1711. His son, born<br />
six weeks after his death, became William IV.<br />
Eugene, Prince <strong>of</strong> Savoy (1663-1736). The son <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Prince <strong>of</strong> Savoy-Carignan, Eugene was born in Paris<br />
on 18 October 1663. He was classically educated and<br />
wished only to be a soldier. Unable to attain a military<br />
posting in France, he enlisted in <strong>the</strong> service <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Austrian<br />
Emperor Leopold. Eugene gained much experience<br />
fighting <strong>the</strong> Turks, where he rode with Sobieski to <strong>the</strong><br />
relief <strong>of</strong> Vienna in 1683. From 1689-1690 he fought in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands before getting his first independent command<br />
in Bosnia-Zenta campaign <strong>of</strong> 1697.<br />
When <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong> broke<br />
out, Eugene was in command <strong>of</strong> Habsburg forces in Italy<br />
with about 30,000 men. The French sent Louis Joseph,<br />
Duke de Vendome, into Italy with an army <strong>of</strong> 45,000. An<br />
indecisive battle was fought and <strong>the</strong> two armies retired<br />
into winter quarters. In 1702, Eugene sparred against<br />
<strong>the</strong> forces <strong>of</strong> Vendome and Count Villeroi, culminating<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Battle <strong>of</strong> Luzzara (15 August 1702), which was<br />
a draw. Eugene was <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s most important and<br />
most trusted ally, and he deserves a share <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> credit for<br />
all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Duke’s major victories. [For more on Eugene <strong>of</strong><br />
Savoy, see S&T 234.]<br />
Marshal Comte Camille, Duc de Tallard (1652-<br />
1728). A diplomat and marshal <strong>of</strong> France, Tallard negotiated<br />
<strong>the</strong> treaties that helped bring about <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong>. He also commanded French forces<br />
at Blenheim. Had he supported Marsin’s desperate cavalry<br />
charge, he might have won <strong>the</strong> day for France. In<br />
1726 he was appointed minister <strong>of</strong> state.<br />
Louis Joseph, Duc de Vendome (1654-). Vendome<br />
was born in France in 1654. As a youth he served in <strong>the</strong><br />
Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands, on <strong>the</strong> Rhine with Marshal Turenne, with<br />
Prince Conde in Flanders, and fought in Catinat’s Italian<br />
campaigns. He had his first independent command<br />
in Spain during <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> League <strong>of</strong> Augsburg, and<br />
he captured Barcelona in 1695. He commanded French<br />
forces against <strong>Marlborough</strong> at Oudenarde, where he<br />
wanted to maintain <strong>the</strong> initiative and attack, a move<br />
that might have destroyed <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s forces as <strong>the</strong>y<br />
crossed <strong>the</strong> Scheldt.<br />
Louis Hector, Duc de Villars (1653-1734). Born to a<br />
French noble family, Villars was a career soldier and diplomat.<br />
He participated in <strong>the</strong> siege <strong>of</strong> Maastricht (5-30<br />
June 1673), and was on <strong>the</strong> field at <strong>the</strong> Battle <strong>of</strong> Senef (28<br />
August 1674). He went on to become <strong>the</strong> French king’s<br />
ambassador to Vienna, and <strong>the</strong>n a marshal in France’s war<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands. On 2 October 1702, he defeated<br />
Prince Louis <strong>of</strong> Baden at <strong>the</strong> battle <strong>of</strong> Friedlingen. Only<br />
massed British musketry kept French cavalry (valiantly<br />
led by <strong>the</strong> Duke de Boufflers) from driving a wedge in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Allied line. While <strong>the</strong> battle was not a French victory,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Allies faired little better in its aftermath.<br />
Francois de Neufville, Duc de Villeroi (1644-1730).<br />
Villeroi was born to a noble family with good royal connections.<br />
He was a confidante <strong>of</strong> King Louis XIV and<br />
fought alongside Turenne in Alsace in <strong>the</strong> Battles <strong>of</strong><br />
Enzheim (4 October 1674), Muhlhausen (20 December<br />
1674), and Turckheim (5 January 1675). He led French<br />
forces in Italy at <strong>the</strong> outbreak <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
<strong>Succession</strong>, where he sparred with Eugene. Villeroi may<br />
have been a polished courtier, but he was also a valiant<br />
and gallant solider. He commanded French forces at Ramillies.<br />
12 #238
cavalry reserve behind his line troops on <strong>the</strong> extreme<br />
right flank. <strong>Marlborough</strong> took advantage <strong>of</strong> Villeroi’s<br />
deployment, arraying his forces convexly, so that he<br />
occupied a central position. This allowed him to easily<br />
transfer forces from one sector to ano<strong>the</strong>r. <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
placed his cavalry opposite Villeroi’s, his<br />
Dutch infantry in <strong>the</strong> center, opposite and overlapping<br />
Ramillies, and his British troops on his right. <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
determined <strong>the</strong> French right (his own left) to<br />
be <strong>the</strong> strongest position and <strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong> key to <strong>the</strong><br />
battle. There is where <strong>Marlborough</strong> resolved to make<br />
his main attack.<br />
Around noon, <strong>the</strong> battle began with an artillery barrage.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s first move was to send in his British<br />
troops against Autre-Egtise, where began a furious<br />
musketry exchange, but that push was just a feint. As<br />
Villeroi sent reserve infantry battalions to shore up his<br />
left flank, <strong>Marlborough</strong> used <strong>the</strong> smoke and confusion<br />
to mask <strong>the</strong> movement <strong>of</strong> his reserves in support <strong>of</strong><br />
his cavalry opposite Taviers. <strong>Marlborough</strong> <strong>the</strong>n sent<br />
a Dutch force against Taviers and 12 more Dutch battalions<br />
against Ramillies.<br />
The Dutch took Taviers, but concentrated attacks<br />
by French household cavalry (Maison du Roi’) opened<br />
a gap. The French heavy horse drove deep into <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s<br />
flank and were soon threatening <strong>the</strong> Dutch<br />
assault on Ramillies.<br />
Once again, <strong>Marlborough</strong> saved <strong>the</strong> day. He personally<br />
led a counterattack by 17 squadrons against<br />
<strong>the</strong> Maison du Roi’s flank and staved <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong>ir attack.<br />
With <strong>the</strong> French drive in <strong>the</strong> center halted, Allied<br />
troops worked around <strong>the</strong> Maison du Roi’s flanks.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> <strong>the</strong>n pressed home his infantry attacks<br />
and seized <strong>the</strong> high ground around Ramillies. But Villeroi<br />
was not yet ready to concede defeat, and tried to<br />
form a new line on Ramillies and Autre-Egtise. <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
gave <strong>the</strong> French no respite, taking Ramillies,<br />
securing his left flank for a fur<strong>the</strong>r assault. From <strong>the</strong>re,<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> ordered a general advance, which swept<br />
into Autre-Egtise. With no bastions left to hold, <strong>the</strong><br />
French army disintegrated, losing 7,000 killed and<br />
wounded and 6,000 prisoners. <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s casualties<br />
amounted to 1,000 dead and 3,000 wounded.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s formula worked even better at Ramillies<br />
because Villeroi’s deployment allowed <strong>the</strong><br />
allies to occupy a central position. As a result, <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
could more easily transfer reserves from one<br />
front to ano<strong>the</strong>r. Careful but stalwart action was necessary<br />
from Eugene, who never wavered on <strong>the</strong> Allied<br />
right. Next, <strong>the</strong> cavalry blunted a French counterattack,<br />
preparing <strong>the</strong> way for <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s final move.<br />
Once again <strong>the</strong> enemy was drawn away from <strong>the</strong> center;<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s infantry forced an opening, and <strong>the</strong><br />
cavalry tore into <strong>the</strong> breach.<br />
Oudenarde: 11 July 1708<br />
During <strong>the</strong> late spring <strong>of</strong> 1708, a surprise French<br />
<strong>of</strong>fensive into Flanders caught <strong>Marlborough</strong> <strong>of</strong>f guard.<br />
Nominally under <strong>the</strong> Duke <strong>of</strong> Burgundy, but in actuality<br />
commanded by Duc Vendome, <strong>the</strong> French Army<br />
numbered 100,000 men. When <strong>the</strong> French crossed <strong>the</strong><br />
border, <strong>Marlborough</strong> was near Brussels with a force <strong>of</strong><br />
65,000 British, Dutch, Danish, Hanoverian and Prussian<br />
troops, and 113 guns. On hearing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> invasion,<br />
and suspecting <strong>the</strong> loyalty <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> garrison at Antwerp,<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> wasted no time, broke camp and placed<br />
his army between Vendome and Antwerp. The French<br />
marched deeper into Flanders, arriving a few miles<br />
east <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s position at Hal. Little happened<br />
because <strong>the</strong> Duke <strong>of</strong> Burgundy was overly cautious,<br />
and <strong>Marlborough</strong> was waiting for Eugene, who was<br />
hundreds <strong>of</strong> miles away having recently defeated <strong>the</strong><br />
French at Turin.<br />
For once, <strong>Marlborough</strong> did not hold <strong>the</strong> initiative.<br />
With Vendome threatening communications along <strong>the</strong><br />
Scheldt near Oudenarde, <strong>Marlborough</strong> had no choice<br />
but to seek battle. The French probably could have<br />
taken Oudenarde by storm, but Burgundy was unsure<br />
about attacking. Instead, <strong>the</strong> French besieged <strong>the</strong> fortress.<br />
That gave <strong>Marlborough</strong> precious time. Eugene<br />
rode ahead <strong>of</strong> his army, still several days away from<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>, and joined <strong>the</strong> Duke outside Brussels.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r great march was in order. <strong>Marlborough</strong> sent<br />
a strong detachment <strong>of</strong> infantry and cavalry under<br />
William Cadogan ahead <strong>of</strong> his main body. Cadogan’s<br />
force scouted ahead, determined <strong>the</strong> army’s path, and<br />
bridged <strong>the</strong> River Dender at Lessines, which <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
crossed 11 July. <strong>Marlborough</strong> had covered 60<br />
miles in 48 hours and was in position to bridge <strong>the</strong><br />
Scheldt, cross it, and do battle with Vendome outside<br />
<strong>of</strong> Oudenarde.<br />
strategy & tactics 13
14 #238<br />
Military Organization<br />
Infantry<br />
The basic tactical unit during <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
<strong>Succession</strong> was <strong>the</strong> regiment. British regiments rarely boasted<br />
more than a single battalion. Battalions were divided<br />
into companies. Companies were fur<strong>the</strong>r broken down into<br />
platoons for fire. Officially a British company had 60 men,<br />
though that number varied greatly. A captain usually commanded<br />
a company, followed in <strong>the</strong> chain <strong>of</strong> command by a<br />
lieutenant, an ensign, and two sergeants. Thirteen companies<br />
combined to form a regiment <strong>of</strong> 780-930 men. One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
companies was called <strong>the</strong> grenadiers. Originally, <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
troops trained to throw hand grenades, but by this time <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were made up <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> picked men <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> company and used as<br />
elite infantry.<br />
The French also made use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regimental system,<br />
though many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir regiments contained two battalions <strong>of</strong><br />
13 companies each. For instance, in 1716 a total <strong>of</strong> 98 French<br />
regiments had between <strong>the</strong>m 154 battalions. Exact numbers<br />
for any given unit are difficult to pinpoint, but French battalions<br />
tended to be weaker than <strong>the</strong>ir British counterparts. One<br />
French document lists <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial strength <strong>of</strong> one battalion<br />
as 690 <strong>of</strong>ficers and men and, <strong>of</strong> those, only 550 were actually<br />
present. That is not <strong>the</strong> only French variation. Swiss battalions<br />
in <strong>the</strong> French Army (recruited from French speaking<br />
districts) were divided into three companies <strong>of</strong> 200 men.<br />
Cavalry<br />
Cavalry was used by both sides in <strong>the</strong> war to scout,<br />
screen advancing infantry, and deliver <strong>the</strong> decisive blow in<br />
battle. General British practice was to trot toward <strong>the</strong> enemy,<br />
gradually speed up until <strong>the</strong> last 20-30 paces, and <strong>the</strong>n gallop<br />
<strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> distance. That preserved <strong>the</strong> horses’s energy<br />
and maximized shock. French cavalry was still making use<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> caracole, whereby cavalry would gallop towards <strong>the</strong><br />
enemy, discharge <strong>the</strong>ir pistols and carbines, <strong>the</strong>n ride away,<br />
though <strong>the</strong>y were quite capable <strong>of</strong> massed shock action.<br />
Cavalry equipment during <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong><br />
varied from unit to<br />
unit. Heavy cavalry, sometimes<br />
called cuirassiers, usually<br />
wore some kind <strong>of</strong> body<br />
armor. The heavies carried<br />
a combination <strong>of</strong> sword and<br />
pistol, and maybe a carbine.<br />
Light cavalry were used as<br />
scouts and foragers, and thus<br />
had lighter equipment than <strong>the</strong>ir heavy counterparts. Dragoons started<br />
as mounted infantry, but by this time were becoming a form <strong>of</strong><br />
medium cavalry. Incidentally, <strong>the</strong> British army termed much <strong>of</strong> its<br />
cavalry “dragoons,” on <strong>the</strong> grounds a dragoon was paid less than a<br />
regular horseman.<br />
British cavalry organization was ad hoc, differing greatly from<br />
unit to unit. That held throughout <strong>the</strong> war but, as a general rule, one<br />
can assume <strong>the</strong> strength <strong>of</strong> a squadron <strong>of</strong> British cavalry fell somewhere<br />
between 40-60 <strong>of</strong>ficers and men. Allied unit organization was<br />
similarly chaotic. French cavalry was organized into regiments, and<br />
deployed on <strong>the</strong> field in squadrons. Squadrons were generally composed<br />
<strong>of</strong> four companies <strong>of</strong> about 40 <strong>of</strong>ficers and men.<br />
Artillery<br />
Artillery was usually deployed up front with <strong>the</strong> first line <strong>of</strong> infantry,<br />
where <strong>the</strong>y could engage enemy batteries, s<strong>of</strong>ten up enemy<br />
positions, and repel enemy attacks. Guns tended to be scattered up<br />
and down <strong>the</strong> line, ra<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>n be massed in a grand battery. Solid<br />
shot was used to engage enemy artillery and to bombard fortifications,<br />
usually at a range <strong>of</strong> 600 paces. Case shot was employed<br />
against infantry and cavalry at 300 paces or less.<br />
The size <strong>of</strong> British, Allied and French artillery trains varied from<br />
battle to battle and campaign to campaign. During <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong> it was generally assumed an army <strong>of</strong> 50,000 men<br />
ought to have four 34-pound guns, six 12-pounders, 20 four-pounders,<br />
and 20 eight-pounders. That was about one gun for every 1,000<br />
men. In 1708, <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s army had with it 80 heavy guns, 20<br />
siege mortars, 3,000 wagons, and over 16,000 horses to pull it all. At<br />
Ramillies, <strong>Marlborough</strong> had 120 guns <strong>of</strong> all types, and he possessed<br />
similar numbers at Oudenarde and Malplaquet, while <strong>the</strong> French<br />
brought to <strong>the</strong> field 70 and 60 guns at Ramillies and Malplaquet,<br />
respectively, and had an unknown number at Oudenarde.
The Brown Bess Musket & <strong>the</strong> Socket Bayonet<br />
Toward <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 17 th century, <strong>the</strong> flintlock musket<br />
began to replace <strong>the</strong> matchlock. The flintlock, or firelock,<br />
used a cock that snapped onto a flint, causing sparks to shower<br />
over <strong>the</strong> priming pan. The flintlock was much lighter than<br />
<strong>the</strong> matchlock, and needed no stand to hold up <strong>the</strong> barrel. The<br />
most famous flintlock was <strong>the</strong> British “Brown Bess,” introduced<br />
in 1682. Also called “Her Majesty’s Musket” and <strong>the</strong><br />
“Tower Musket,” <strong>the</strong> Brown Bess had a barrel from 42 to 46<br />
inches long and fired a .76 caliber round.<br />
The Brown Bess was not much more accurate and had<br />
little more range than <strong>the</strong> matchlock. Said one historian: “At<br />
forty yards it could hit a foot-square target almost every time,<br />
but at three hundred yards only one bullet out <strong>of</strong> twenty would<br />
hit a target eighteen feet square.” But it was easy to load and<br />
fire, and massed fire with it proved deadly.<br />
Most infantry still carried a sword. They was used on occasion<br />
for melee actions, though at least one commentator<br />
noted <strong>the</strong> blades were retained largely out <strong>of</strong> a sense <strong>of</strong> honor.<br />
The real problem was how to prevent enemy cavalry from<br />
breaking into infantry formations. Until <strong>the</strong> late 17 th century,<br />
most armies still maintained small contingents <strong>of</strong> pikemen<br />
in <strong>the</strong>ir infantry battalions. They were used mainly to protect<br />
musketeers from cavalry charges, but <strong>the</strong> invention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
bayonet caused <strong>the</strong> pike to fall into disuse.<br />
At first, most bayonets were <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> plug variety; that is,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y had to be inserted into <strong>the</strong> barrel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> musket, <strong>the</strong>reby<br />
rendering it incapable <strong>of</strong> fire. But <strong>the</strong> socket bayonet had a<br />
ring that could be placed around <strong>the</strong> barrel, and a socket that<br />
fixed it in place. So <strong>the</strong> soldier could fix his bayonet and still<br />
fire. The invention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> socket bayonet spelled <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong><br />
pikemen. Now infantry could fire <strong>of</strong>f a volley and <strong>the</strong>n close<br />
up with bayonets fixed to ward <strong>of</strong>f charging cavalry.<br />
Infantry Formations<br />
British and Dutch troops deployed three ranks deep, presenting<br />
a frontage <strong>of</strong> 810 feet, so 260 muskets were pointed<br />
at <strong>the</strong> enemy. The regiment was divided into four divisions<br />
which were <strong>the</strong>n broken down into four platoons. The platoons<br />
were divided into three “firings.” The firings alternated,<br />
producing a rolling volley and maintaining pressure on <strong>the</strong><br />
enemy line. Platoon fire could take advantage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gaps in<br />
<strong>the</strong> prodigious amount <strong>of</strong> smoke produced by black powder<br />
muskets and cannon, since <strong>the</strong> men could see <strong>the</strong> target at<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y were firing.<br />
French battalions deployed four or five ranks deep, with<br />
intervals <strong>of</strong> four paces between men, presenting a frontage <strong>of</strong><br />
about 486 feet, 20 paces deep. That allowed only 162 muskets<br />
to be pointed at <strong>the</strong> enemy. When firing, <strong>the</strong> front rank would<br />
kneel, <strong>the</strong> second rank crouched, and <strong>the</strong> third stood, leaving<br />
<strong>the</strong> fourth and sometimes fifth, out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fray. Muskets<br />
were fired by ranks, so <strong>the</strong> first would fire <strong>the</strong>n reload as <strong>the</strong><br />
second fired, and so on. The French system resulted in a more<br />
dispersed impact on <strong>the</strong> enemy line, while <strong>the</strong> platoon system<br />
concentrated more fire at a single point. In battle, <strong>the</strong> British<br />
system usually seemed to work better.<br />
North <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Scheldt, from west to east, lay <strong>the</strong><br />
towns <strong>of</strong> Oycke, Eyne, and Heurne. Oycke lay on high<br />
ground, while Eyne and Heurne each occupied rough,<br />
wooded terrain. North <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> towns lay <strong>the</strong> River Norken<br />
behind which was a hill and a ridge extending to<br />
<strong>the</strong> east. It was between <strong>the</strong> Scheldt and <strong>the</strong> Norken<br />
<strong>the</strong> struggle for Oudenarde was waged.<br />
As <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s vanguard crossed <strong>the</strong> Scheldt<br />
and made for <strong>the</strong> high ground above <strong>the</strong> river, Burgundy<br />
reacted indecisively, fearing a general engagement.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> used his reprieve to push as many<br />
men across <strong>the</strong> river as possible. By noon, Cadogan<br />
had gotten 12 infantry battalions and three regiments<br />
<strong>of</strong> horse across and was feeling his way left when he<br />
encountered a French contingent.<br />
As <strong>the</strong> battle developed, Vendome deployed his<br />
80,000 men on <strong>the</strong> high ground behind <strong>the</strong> River Norken.<br />
Again, Burgundy waited for <strong>Marlborough</strong>. The<br />
French van encountered Cadogan’s battalions, who<br />
prevailed in a swift firefight for <strong>the</strong> village <strong>of</strong> Eyne.<br />
From Eyne, Cadogan pushed along <strong>the</strong> Scheldt toward<br />
<strong>the</strong> village <strong>of</strong> Huerne, clearing <strong>the</strong> enemy out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
woods and brush along <strong>the</strong> way. Following up Cadogan<br />
was <strong>the</strong> Prussian horse, which took up position on<br />
<strong>the</strong> left. In <strong>the</strong> center, <strong>Marlborough</strong> placed 22 infantry<br />
battalions in <strong>the</strong> town <strong>of</strong> Schaerken.<br />
Before <strong>Marlborough</strong> could properly deploy his<br />
army, 30 French and Swiss Guards battalions struck his<br />
center at Groemvelde. That powerful thrust dispatched<br />
opposing Allied forces and pushed toward <strong>the</strong> Scheldt.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> reinforced Eugene with 20 infantry battalions,<br />
which <strong>the</strong> prince desperately needed to stem<br />
<strong>the</strong> French tide between Groemvelde and Schaerken.<br />
Then <strong>Marlborough</strong> led some Dutch and Hanoverian<br />
battalions in a push west <strong>of</strong> Schaerken.<br />
After Eugene threw in reinforcements his situation<br />
stabilized, smashing two waves <strong>of</strong> French Infantry. To<br />
<strong>the</strong> left <strong>of</strong> Schaerken, <strong>Marlborough</strong> drove his Dutch<br />
and Hanoverian troops through <strong>the</strong> rough terrain and,<br />
in savage hand to hand fighting, compelled <strong>the</strong> French<br />
infantry to retreat. Spying open high ground on his left<br />
around <strong>the</strong> town <strong>of</strong> Oycke, <strong>Marlborough</strong> dispatched<br />
Overkirk’s cavalry with <strong>the</strong> task <strong>of</strong> turning <strong>the</strong> French<br />
right. <strong>Marlborough</strong> backed him up with 20 battalions<br />
<strong>of</strong> Dutch infantry. Overkirk gained <strong>the</strong> flank and <strong>the</strong><br />
Dutch, commanded by <strong>the</strong> Prince <strong>of</strong> Orange, steadily<br />
gained ground and pushed into <strong>the</strong> French rear. On <strong>the</strong><br />
allied right, Eugene met with similar success, pushed<br />
around Herlegem, and worked his way behind <strong>the</strong><br />
French left. The allies <strong>the</strong>n swung forward into a huge<br />
semicircle, driving <strong>the</strong> French before <strong>the</strong>m at every<br />
point.<br />
Vendome tried to stop <strong>the</strong> unfolding catastrophe by<br />
throwing all <strong>of</strong> his reserve infantry into an all-out attack<br />
against Eugene, but <strong>the</strong> Prince held his ground.<br />
By <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> French were in no condition to continue<br />
strategy & tactics 15
<strong>the</strong> fight and so melted away in <strong>the</strong> darkness. They lost<br />
3,000 killed, 4,000 wounded, and 9,000 prisoners. The<br />
Allies lost 3,000 killed and 2,500 wounded, while capturing<br />
100 French standards.<br />
At Oudenarde, <strong>Marlborough</strong> began on <strong>the</strong> defensive.<br />
Once he ascertained Vendome’s intentions, he<br />
gave Eugene <strong>the</strong> troops he needed to wear out and pin<br />
<strong>the</strong> French attack. Then he took <strong>the</strong> initiative. That<br />
time roles were reversed, as Orkney’s horse carved a<br />
path around <strong>the</strong> flank and <strong>Marlborough</strong> used his Dutch<br />
and Hanoverian infantry to collapse <strong>the</strong> French right.<br />
That also shows <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s flexibility: ra<strong>the</strong>r than<br />
press <strong>the</strong> center as usual, when he found weakness on<br />
<strong>the</strong> enemy’s right, he exploited it.<br />
Malplaquet: 11 September 1709<br />
After Oudenarde <strong>the</strong> Allies took Lille, Ghent, and<br />
Bruges, opening <strong>the</strong> way for an <strong>of</strong>fensive against<br />
France’s frontier fortifications. With a combined army<br />
<strong>of</strong> 110,000 men, <strong>Marlborough</strong> and Eugene began <strong>of</strong>fensive<br />
operations in late June <strong>of</strong> 1709, with <strong>the</strong> object<br />
<strong>of</strong> piercing France’s frontier fortifications, <strong>the</strong>reby<br />
threatening a push into <strong>the</strong> interior. <strong>Marlborough</strong> and<br />
Eugene took Tournai and <strong>the</strong>n moved against Mons,<br />
<strong>the</strong> right anchor <strong>of</strong> France’s frontier defenses. Fearing<br />
<strong>the</strong> Allies would roll up <strong>the</strong> frontier, Villars, who now<br />
commanded <strong>the</strong> French Army, decided to give battle.<br />
He concentrated his army and marched against <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
and Eugene, arriving in <strong>the</strong> vicinity <strong>of</strong> Mons<br />
in early September. There he assumed a defensive posture<br />
on high ground to <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>ast at Malplaquet.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> left a small force to blockade Mons and<br />
marched south to engage.<br />
Villars anchored his left flank on <strong>the</strong> town <strong>of</strong> La<br />
Folie, in front <strong>of</strong> which was <strong>the</strong> Wood <strong>of</strong> Sars. The<br />
Woods <strong>of</strong> Lainieres protected his right flank. In between<br />
<strong>the</strong> woods, Villars arrayed 130 infantry battalions<br />
behind strong fortifications. His 260 cavalry<br />
squadrons where deployed behind La Folie, and in<br />
reserve behind <strong>the</strong> center, Eugene advanced on <strong>the</strong><br />
Allied right, commanding Habsburg and o<strong>the</strong>r Allied<br />
forces. <strong>Marlborough</strong> commanded <strong>the</strong> left, his British<br />
troops in <strong>the</strong> center. His Hanoverian battalions, and <strong>the</strong><br />
Dutch under William <strong>of</strong> Orange’s personal command,<br />
held <strong>the</strong> extreme left. As usual, holding attacks were<br />
launched against <strong>the</strong> flanks to pin down infantry and<br />
draw in reserves while <strong>the</strong> main blow was delivered in<br />
<strong>the</strong> center.<br />
An artillery barrage began <strong>the</strong> battle at 7:30 a.m.<br />
The Prince <strong>of</strong> Orange was to wait 30 minutes before<br />
starting his attack against <strong>the</strong> French in <strong>the</strong> Wood <strong>of</strong><br />
Lanieres, but Eugene’s German commanders were eager<br />
and advanced prematurely against French forces in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Wood <strong>of</strong> Taisnieres. After much seesaw fighting,<br />
<strong>the</strong> French stopped <strong>the</strong> allied advance. Consequently,<br />
16 #238
Lord Orkney’s 15 battalions pressed ahead unsupported<br />
and with <strong>the</strong>ir right flank dangerously exposed.<br />
Meanwhile <strong>the</strong> Prince <strong>of</strong> Orange engaged in a ferocious<br />
struggle on <strong>the</strong> right and was stopped by Boufflers.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> stabilized <strong>the</strong> flank by sending his<br />
Hanoverian battalions into <strong>the</strong> fight.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> same time, Villars was determined to take<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>fensive on his left, believing <strong>the</strong> key to <strong>the</strong> battle<br />
lay <strong>the</strong>re. Villars reinforced his left at <strong>the</strong> expense <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> center and pushed hard against Eugene’s forces.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> and Eugene perceived Villars’s weakened<br />
center and acted. Eugene fought hard to hold <strong>the</strong><br />
French and draw in even more troops.<br />
Meanwhile, <strong>Marlborough</strong> sent forward Orkney’s<br />
battalions and, after a fierce struggle, seized <strong>the</strong><br />
center works. With <strong>the</strong> way open, <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s remaining<br />
cavalry charged into <strong>the</strong> breach and wrought<br />
havoc in <strong>the</strong> enemy rear. But <strong>the</strong> cavalry was eventually<br />
repulsed when Boufflers counterattacked from <strong>the</strong><br />
French right. Boufflers was un turn stopped dead in his<br />
tracks when he ran afoul <strong>of</strong> Orkney’s battalions. Boufflers<br />
reformed and hit Orkney again and again until<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> brought up his reserve horse and finally<br />
drove <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> exhausted French. That last move ended<br />
<strong>the</strong> battle, <strong>the</strong> bloodiest fight <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s career.<br />
The Allies took 20,000 casualties, <strong>the</strong> French 14,000.<br />
Little happened in <strong>the</strong> aftermath <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> battle.<br />
French forces withdrew behind <strong>the</strong>ir fortifications,<br />
leaving <strong>Marlborough</strong> and Eugene to besiege Mons.<br />
Operations began on 25 September, and by 9 October<br />
<strong>the</strong> Allies took Mons’s outworks. Mons proper capitulated<br />
on 26 October, but <strong>the</strong> casualties sustained in <strong>the</strong><br />
campaign made it impossible to advance far<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Malplaquet was <strong>the</strong> last <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s great<br />
battles. It was a bloody holocaust that required <strong>the</strong> use<br />
<strong>of</strong> every resource at hand. After <strong>the</strong> initial setbacks,<br />
Eugene struck <strong>the</strong> right and maintained his left through<br />
combined infantry and cavalry counterattacks. Once<br />
more <strong>Marlborough</strong> pinned <strong>the</strong> French right and <strong>the</strong>n<br />
pierced <strong>the</strong> center with infantry and cavalry. British<br />
musketry stopped Boufflers from breaking <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s<br />
string <strong>of</strong> victories.<br />
Endgame<br />
The events <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> campaigns <strong>of</strong> 1710 and 1711<br />
are minor in comparison to <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s previous<br />
deeds. During that time, <strong>Marlborough</strong> fell out <strong>of</strong> favor<br />
with <strong>the</strong> queen and <strong>the</strong> Tory politicians who had<br />
gained power in <strong>the</strong> Parliamentary elections. The<br />
Duke was cast aside at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> 1711, and remained<br />
embittered about his dismissal until <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> his life<br />
in June 1722. In 1713 <strong>the</strong> Treaty <strong>of</strong> Utrecht concluded<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong> and maintained <strong>the</strong><br />
balance <strong>of</strong> power against France.<br />
Not until Napoleon and Wellington would <strong>the</strong>re<br />
again be a general <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> caliber <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Duke <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>.<br />
By <strong>the</strong> Napoleonic <strong>War</strong>s, <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> pinning attacks and cavalry charges<br />
were standard tactics in <strong>the</strong> British and French Armies.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> was flexible on <strong>the</strong> battlefield. He didn’t<br />
insist <strong>the</strong> infantry always clear <strong>the</strong> way for <strong>the</strong> cavalry;<br />
sometimes <strong>the</strong> horse did so for <strong>the</strong> foot. Nor were his<br />
attacks thrown into chaos by enemy counterattacks. He<br />
dealt with <strong>the</strong> problem and moved on. If a flank was<br />
not secured right away, <strong>Marlborough</strong> chipped away at<br />
<strong>the</strong> enemy until it was.<br />
It must be remembered a good deal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> credit<br />
for <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s victories goes to Prince Eugene.<br />
It’s also a credit to <strong>Marlborough</strong> that he knew how to<br />
work alongside a great captain such as <strong>the</strong> Prince. Still,<br />
Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet are<br />
battles that belong to <strong>the</strong> Duke. His formula, his flexibility,<br />
and his iron will make <strong>Marlborough</strong> one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
greatest general <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> battles.<br />
References<br />
Brodie, Bernard and Fawn F. From Crossbow to H Bomb. (Bloomington: Indiana<br />
University Press, 1973)<br />
Chandler, David. Atlas <strong>of</strong> Military <strong>Strategy</strong>: The Art, Theory and Practice <strong>of</strong> <strong>War</strong><br />
1618-1878. (London: Arms & Armour Press, 2000)<br />
Chandler, David. The Art <strong>of</strong> <strong>War</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Age <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>. (Kent: Spellmount<br />
Ltd, 1997)<br />
Churchill, Winston. <strong>Marlborough</strong>, His Life and Times. (New York: Charles<br />
Scribner’s Sons, 1968)<br />
Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. Gustavus Adolphus. (New York: Da Capo, 1998)<br />
Fuller, JFC. A Military History <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Western World, Vol. II. (New York: Da<br />
Capo, 1955)<br />
Haythornthwaite, Philip J. Invincible Generals. (New York: Da Capo, 1994)<br />
Israel, Jonathan I. The Dutch Republic: Its Ride, Greatness, and Fall, 1477-1806.<br />
(Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1998)<br />
Weigley, Russel F. The Age <strong>of</strong> Battles. (Bloomington &Indianapolis, Indiana<br />
University Press, 1991)<br />
strategy & tactics 17
Der Weltkrieg Series<br />
The Western Front:<br />
1914-1918<br />
The Western Front: 1914-1918, contains<br />
six scenarios, each covering a major WWI<br />
campaign fought in France or Belgium.<br />
It can also be played as a start-to-finish<br />
simulation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> entire western front, or<br />
linked with o<strong>the</strong>r games in <strong>the</strong> series into a<br />
grand-campaign covering all <strong>the</strong> European<br />
fronts. The scenarios are: “August 1914:<br />
The Schlieffen Plan;” “May 1915: Ypres;”<br />
“February 1916: Verdun;” “July 1916: The Somme;” “April 1917:<br />
Nivelle’s Offensive;” “March 1918: The Kaiser’s Battle.”<br />
Components: one 22” x 34” mapsheet, 1,680 die-cut counters, standard and<br />
scenario books, corps displays, and player aid cards.<br />
$69. 95<br />
The Schlieffen Plan<br />
This game covers <strong>the</strong> fluid warfare <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> western front from 1 August<br />
to 15 November 1914. You assume <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> commander <strong>of</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong><br />
German or Allied armies. The forces available to you are <strong>the</strong> same as those<br />
commanded by <strong>the</strong> historic participants, but it is up to you to make your<br />
own strategic decisions and execute your own plans as you see fit.<br />
Components: one 22 x 34 inch mapsheet, a rule book and player aid cards, 560<br />
die-cut counters and one die.<br />
$39. 95<br />
Tannenberg & Galicia<br />
This is a division/brigade level WW1 game that covers <strong>the</strong> campaign in<br />
East Prussia and sou<strong>the</strong>rn Poland in 1914. You assume <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
commander <strong>of</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> German or Allied armies. The forces available<br />
to you are <strong>the</strong> same ones commanded by<br />
<strong>the</strong> historic participants.<br />
Components: 560 counters, two 22x 34” mapsheets,<br />
player aid cards, standard and scenario<br />
rule books.<br />
$39. 95<br />
Serbia & Romania<br />
Covers <strong>the</strong> World <strong>War</strong> I campaigns in<br />
Serbia and Romania with links between<br />
<strong>the</strong> two campaigns as well as to <strong>the</strong> previous<br />
volumes.<br />
Components: two 22x 34” mapsheets, one<br />
11x17” mapsheet, 560 die-cut counters, standard<br />
and scenario rule books, player aid cards.<br />
$39. 95<br />
ITALIAN FRONT: 1915-1918<br />
This wargame contains five separate scenarios, and can be linked<br />
with East Front (and later West Front) games <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> series for<br />
duration games.<br />
May 1915: 1st Isonzo<br />
The first battles along <strong>the</strong> Isonzo are a futile foreshadowing<br />
<strong>of</strong> what is to come.<br />
May 1916: Strafexpedition<br />
The Chief <strong>of</strong> Staff <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Austro Hungarian army, Conrad von<br />
Hotzendorff, feels <strong>the</strong> time is right to strike a blow against Italy.<br />
He ignores <strong>the</strong> advice <strong>of</strong> German Chief <strong>of</strong> staff von Falkenhayn,<br />
who sees <strong>the</strong> main threat coming from <strong>the</strong> Russian front.<br />
The Italians in <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Tyrol have neglected <strong>the</strong>ir rear area<br />
defenses. That, and <strong>the</strong> fury <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Austro-Hungarian attack, puts<br />
<strong>the</strong> Italian army in peril. Cadorna, its commanding general, rushes<br />
reinforcements to <strong>the</strong> front. It is a dicey affair, but <strong>the</strong> Italian lines<br />
hold; <strong>the</strong> threat along <strong>the</strong> Isonzo is checked.<br />
May 1917: 10th Isonzo<br />
In endless <strong>of</strong>fensives, valiant Italian infantry go over <strong>the</strong> top<br />
and into <strong>the</strong> maelstrom <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Isonzo. Each battle differs from <strong>the</strong><br />
last only by its increasing intensity and skyrocketing casualty list.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> end, both armies are exhausted. The Italians have become<br />
weary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war, but <strong>the</strong> Austrians believe one more effort on <strong>the</strong><br />
Isonzo can break through.<br />
October 1917: Caporreto<br />
When <strong>the</strong> Central Powers strike, <strong>the</strong>y break through <strong>the</strong> Italian<br />
lines along <strong>the</strong> headwaters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Isonzo. German and Austrian units<br />
pour through <strong>the</strong> mountain passes and into <strong>the</strong> Italian rear areas.<br />
Caporreto is an overwhelming victory for Germany and Austria;<br />
but Italy is not fully defeated, and her citizens rally.<br />
June 1918: Albrecht & Radetzky<br />
Conrad’s attacks across <strong>the</strong> Piave are initially successful, but<br />
his divisions <strong>the</strong>n bog down. The Austrians are unable to push <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
bridgeheads far enough forward to keep <strong>the</strong>ir pontoon bridges out<br />
<strong>of</strong> range <strong>of</strong> Italian artillery. Unable to reinforce <strong>the</strong>ir spearheads<br />
or maintain viable supply lines, <strong>the</strong> Austro-Hungarian armies fall<br />
back, awaiting <strong>the</strong> inevitable Italian counterattack.<br />
Components: one 22” x 34” mapsheet, 560 die-cut counters, standard and<br />
scenario books, player aid cards.<br />
$39. 95<br />
Don’t forget to pledge for <strong>the</strong> next two games:<br />
Grand Campaign and Middle East Campaigns.<br />
Information on <strong>the</strong> Pledge page on <strong>the</strong> Decision Games<br />
website.<br />
Send To: Decision Games,<br />
PO Box 21598, Bakersfield CA 93390<br />
661/587-9633<br />
Fax- 661/587-5031<br />
www.decisiongames.com click on WWI Games<br />
18 #238
Relive <strong>the</strong> glory and<br />
fight <strong>the</strong> campaigns <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>.<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>: <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong> (“Marby,”<br />
for short), is a wargame <strong>of</strong> intermediate-to-high complexity,<br />
designed by Joseph Miranda, simulating that critical conflict<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 18 th century. The dynastic struggle began when<br />
France’s Louis XIV attempted to place his grandson, Philip<br />
IV, on <strong>the</strong> throne <strong>of</strong> Spain. The o<strong>the</strong>r major powers saw that<br />
as a threat, and so supported <strong>the</strong>ir own candidate, Charles<br />
III. That in turn began over a decade <strong>of</strong> fighting that grew<br />
into a general struggle for domination over all <strong>of</strong> western<br />
Europe<br />
Marby is a two player game. One controls <strong>the</strong> forces <strong>of</strong><br />
France and its allies, known as <strong>the</strong> Bourbon coalition, after<br />
<strong>the</strong> ruling house <strong>of</strong> France. The o<strong>the</strong>r player controls <strong>the</strong><br />
forces opposing France, led by England and Austria and<br />
known as <strong>the</strong> Grand Alliance. Each player has a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
military, diplomatic and economic instruments with which<br />
he can attempt to win <strong>the</strong> game by controlling states and<br />
economic centers.<br />
The game includes several scenarios. Shorter scenarios<br />
represent critical parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war, while <strong>the</strong> “Grand Design”<br />
scenario covers <strong>the</strong> entire war. Each game turn represents<br />
one year; each hex scales to 50 miles. Each army represents<br />
10,000 to 20,000 soldiers and support personnel, camp followers,<br />
etc. A leader represents that person plus his guards,<br />
entourage, lackeys, wine cellars, etc. A fleet represents 60<br />
warships and an indeterminate number <strong>of</strong> transports.<br />
To purchase <strong>the</strong> game that covers <strong>the</strong> battles featured in<br />
this issue send your name and address along with:<br />
$23 US Customers<br />
$25 Canadian Customers<br />
$28 Overseas Customers<br />
All prices include postage for first class or airmail shipping.<br />
CA residents add $1.09 sales tax. Send to:<br />
Decision Games<br />
ATTN: S&T Game Offer<br />
PO Box 21598<br />
Bakersfield CA 93390<br />
strategy & tactics 19
TACTICAL FILE:<br />
The Famous Victory: Blenheim, 13 August 1704<br />
by David R. Higgins<br />
20 #238<br />
August 13, 1704<br />
Midnight<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>’s and Eugene’s army advances toward Blenheim<br />
in eight columns.<br />
0600<br />
Tallard idles, believing an outmaneuvered <strong>Marlborough</strong> will<br />
avoid contact and veer north toward his Nördlingen supply base.<br />
When <strong>the</strong> allied army continues forward French forward units set<br />
fire to Unterglauheim, Weilheim, and Schwenenbach and withdraw.<br />
0700<br />
The Allies push Tallard’s pickets behind <strong>the</strong> Nebel River and<br />
establish fascine crossings and five pontoon bridges.<br />
0800<br />
The Allies arrange for battle and <strong>the</strong>ir surprised opponents<br />
retain <strong>the</strong>ir disadvantageous deployment <strong>of</strong> cavalry in <strong>the</strong> center<br />
flanked by infantry.<br />
0830<br />
French artillery opens fire, but receives no Allied reply until<br />
0900.<br />
1000<br />
British general Cutts’ reinforcing ninth column drives enemy<br />
pickets from <strong>the</strong> Nebel and establishes crossing points.<br />
1230<br />
With Eugène finally in position <strong>Marlborough</strong> initiates <strong>the</strong> battle<br />
by unleashing Cutts towards <strong>the</strong> fortified town <strong>of</strong> Blenheim.
1300<br />
Cutts advances to within 300 meters <strong>of</strong> Blenheim, but<br />
devastating musket and artillery fire halts his lead brigade.<br />
Three French gendarmes squadrons counterattack and <strong>the</strong><br />
British vanguard hastily forms a square. The second British<br />
brigade disperses <strong>the</strong> enemy cavalry while <strong>the</strong> third unsuccessfully<br />
advances along <strong>the</strong> Danube.<br />
To <strong>the</strong> north Eugène’s Imperial cavalry advance as part<br />
<strong>of</strong> an overall attempt to keep <strong>the</strong> Elector’s and Marsin’s superior<br />
forces occupied and unable to support Tallard. The<br />
attack breaks through <strong>the</strong> first enemy cavalry line, but is rebuffed<br />
by a second that leaves Eugène’s Prussian and Danish<br />
infantry unsupported. As a Bavarian 16-gun battery pounds<br />
Eugène’s units he enacts a relief force and pulls all his units<br />
back to <strong>the</strong>ir initial positions.<br />
1330<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> attempts to control his sou<strong>the</strong>rn flank and<br />
orders Palmes’ squadrons across <strong>the</strong> Nebel to support Cutts.<br />
The remaining gendarmes join <strong>the</strong>ir comrades and attempt<br />
to encircle <strong>the</strong> British squadrons, but <strong>the</strong> French are instead<br />
encircled and dispersed. Palmes pursues <strong>the</strong> French horse<br />
behind <strong>the</strong> Weiherbrunn River, but is stopped by <strong>the</strong> French<br />
Royal Regiment’s intervention. British artillery fires supporting<br />
“partridge shot” and <strong>the</strong> sector stabilizes.<br />
1430<br />
Cutts’ aggressive posture unnerves his adversary,<br />
Clérambault, who orders eleven battalions into an increasingly<br />
crowded Blenheim. Tallard neglects to correct <strong>the</strong> misjudgment<br />
and his fragmented center is stripped <strong>of</strong> much vital<br />
infantry support.<br />
With Blenheim satisfactorily contained <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
looks to his right flank at Oberglauheim. Holstein-Beck<br />
rushes <strong>the</strong> reinforced town with ten battalions and is rudely<br />
met by nine enemy battalions under De Rosel. French cavalry<br />
swoops in to smash Beynheim’s and Goor’s leading Allied<br />
battalions and supporting squadrons and threatens to tear<br />
open Eugène’s left flank. <strong>Marlborough</strong> personally intervenes<br />
ordering three <strong>of</strong> Berendorff’s battalions, some <strong>of</strong> Averoch’s<br />
squadrons, and an artillery battery into <strong>the</strong> threatened area.<br />
Fugger’s Imperial Cuirassiers join <strong>the</strong> concentrated Allied<br />
counterattack and <strong>the</strong> Franco-Bavarians withdraw toward<br />
<strong>the</strong> town.<br />
1530<br />
With Oberglauheim and Blenheim unable to intervene,<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> thrusts his first line infantry and second line<br />
cavalry across <strong>the</strong> Nebel toward Tallard’s weakened center.<br />
Determined infantry and artillery fire from Blenheim hampers<br />
<strong>the</strong> steady Allied advance, but Bothmer, Viller, and one<br />
squadron from Bülow peel <strong>of</strong>f to deal with it.<br />
Eugène attempts a second general assault, but is again<br />
driven back with his cavalry refusing fur<strong>the</strong>r action.<br />
1600<br />
With fourteen cannons Prussian and Danish infantry<br />
advance 3.5 kilometers to Lutzingenheim’s outskirts and<br />
overrun six enemy guns. French cavalry steadily outflanks<br />
Eugène’s foray and he is repulsed for a third time.<br />
1630<br />
Tallard’s first line cavalry stymies <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s lead<br />
cavalry, but Allied infantry soon alleviates <strong>the</strong> problem.<br />
1700<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong> initiates his planned, decisive thrust into <strong>the</strong><br />
French center with his two fresh cavalry lines now forward<br />
with <strong>the</strong> two infantry lines in support. The allied squadrons<br />
advance at a cohesion-retaining trot and only withdraw behind<br />
friendly infantry to better resist opposing cavalry. Tallard’s<br />
position <strong>of</strong>fers declining resistance as his infantry and<br />
cavalry are steadily separated by devastating grapeshot and<br />
disciplined British musketry. The French army soon breaks,<br />
retreating toward Höchstädt and Sonderheim with thirty<br />
squadrons under Hompesch and <strong>the</strong> remainder with <strong>Marlborough</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong>fering pursuit, respectively. Thirty French squadrons<br />
attempt to cross <strong>the</strong> Danube near a pontoon bridge and<br />
many troopers drown amid <strong>the</strong> chaos.<br />
Marsin and <strong>the</strong> Elector see <strong>the</strong> routed French forces and<br />
abandon <strong>the</strong>ir artillery and flee ahead <strong>of</strong> a cavalry rearguard.<br />
Eugène’s exhausted cavalry follows, but falters when <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s<br />
lead squadrons are mistaken for <strong>the</strong> enemy.<br />
1900<br />
The still-sizeable French force at Blenheim unsettles <strong>the</strong><br />
Allies who bolster <strong>the</strong> sector with cannon and howitzer-supported<br />
infantry. The French attempt several uncoordinated<br />
breakouts, but <strong>the</strong> hopelessness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir situation eventually<br />
prompts <strong>the</strong>ir surrender and an end to Louis XIV’s fifty year<br />
run <strong>of</strong> military success.<br />
strategy & tactics 21
22 #238<br />
The numbers in <strong>the</strong> left column correspond to <strong>the</strong> formations on<br />
<strong>the</strong> map.<br />
Battle Date: August 13, 1704<br />
Result: Allied Victory<br />
Wea<strong>the</strong>r: Morning fog, sunny<br />
Sunrise: 0607 Sunset: 2037<br />
Terrain: Flat plain <strong>of</strong> standing corn between Oberglauheim<br />
and Blenheim while marshy north <strong>of</strong> Oberglauheim and near<br />
Danube<br />
ALLIED:<br />
<strong>Marlborough</strong>: 48 Battalions (24,847), 8 six squadrons<br />
(12,407)<br />
Eugène: 18 Battalions (9,477), 9two squadrons (8,360)<br />
Total: 55,091 in 6six squadrons (34,324)/178 Squadrons<br />
(20,767)<br />
Casualties: 6,000 KIA, 8,000 WIA<br />
Artillery: 60 (Col. Holcr<strong>of</strong>t Blood)<br />
Left: Cutts support with three Batteries <strong>of</strong> ten Sakers and<br />
one Howitzer Battery (4 Howitzers)<br />
Center: Oberglauheim support with six Demi-Culverin<br />
General: twenty-four x 3pounders<br />
Right: Eugène support with sixteen x 3pounders<br />
Capt-Gen. John Churchill, 1 st Duke <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>, KG<br />
(C-in-C) (48 battallions 8six squadrons)<br />
Blenheim Column 17 squadrons (2,509)/20 battalions<br />
(9,898)<br />
Infantry: (Lt-Gen. John, 1 st Baron Cutts <strong>of</strong> Gowran (3 rd in<br />
command) (20 battalions)<br />
1. 1 st Line: Rowe’s Brigade (Brig-Gen. Archibald Rowe)<br />
(five battalions) (2,837)<br />
Sir William Clifton’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Foot (Lt-Gen. Hon. Emmanuel<br />
Scrope Howe) (England) one battalion (584)<br />
The Welch Regiment <strong>of</strong> Fusiliers (Lt-Gen. (General <strong>of</strong> Foot)<br />
Richard Ingoldsby) (England) one battalion (520)<br />
Sir Edward Dering’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Foot (Capt-Gen. John<br />
Churchill, 1 st Duke <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>) (England) one battalion<br />
(524)<br />
Scots Fusiliers (21 st Foot) (Brig-Gen. Archibald Rowe)<br />
(England) one battalion (629)<br />
The Earl <strong>of</strong> Bath’s Regiment (<strong>of</strong> Foot) (Lt-Gen. William, 6th<br />
Baron North & Grey) (England) one battalion (580)<br />
2. 2 nd Line: Wilkes’ Brigade (Maj-Gen. Wilkes) (five battalions)<br />
(2,000)<br />
Prinz Wilhelm Infantry Regiment (Hesse-Kassel) one battalion<br />
(400)<br />
Erbprinz von Hesse-Kassel Infantry Regiment (Prinz Friedrich<br />
Heiden von Hesse-Kassel (‘Alt Heiden’) TB (Hesse-<br />
Kassel) one battalion (400)<br />
Hessian Grenadier(s) Infantry Regiment (Hesse-Kassel) one<br />
battalion (400)<br />
Hessian Guard (Leibregiment) Infantry Regiment (Hesse-<br />
Kassel) one battalion (400)<br />
<strong>War</strong>tensleben Infantry Regiment (Alexander Hermann, Graf<br />
von <strong>War</strong>tensleben) (Hesse-Kassel) one battalion (400)<br />
3. 3 rd Line Ferguson’s Brigade (Brig-Gen. James Ferguson)<br />
(five battalions) (3,061)<br />
Archibald Douglas’ Regiment <strong>of</strong> Foot (Col. James (Stanley),<br />
10 th Earl <strong>of</strong> Derby) (England) one battalion (663)<br />
Earl <strong>of</strong> Angus’s Regiment (<strong>of</strong> Foot) (Brig-Gen. James Ferguson)<br />
(England) one battalion (653)<br />
Royal Regiment <strong>of</strong> Ireland (Maj-Gen. Frederick Hamilton)<br />
(England) one battalion (579)<br />
2/His Majesty’s Royal Regiment <strong>of</strong> Foot (Lt-Gen. Lord George<br />
Hamilton, 1 st Earl <strong>of</strong> Orkney) (England) one battalion (577)<br />
1 st Regiment <strong>of</strong> Foot Guards (Capt-Gen. John Churchill, 1st<br />
Duke <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>) (England) one battalion (589)<br />
4. 4 th Line: St. Paul’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. St. Paul) + Hulsen’s<br />
Brigade (Brig-Gen. Hulsen) (five battalions) (2,000)<br />
de Luc (Maj-Gen. de Luc) Infantry Regiment (Lüneburg-Celle)<br />
one battalion (400)<br />
de Breuil Infantry Regiment (Hanover) (Lüneburg-Celle) one<br />
battalion (400)<br />
Gauvin Infantry Regiment (Gauvin) (Hanover) one battalion<br />
(400)<br />
Hanoverian Guard Infantry Regiment (1/ Lüneburg-Celle, 2/<br />
Hanover-Calenburg) two battalions (800) (Not committed)<br />
Cavalry Support: (Lt-Gen. Hon. Henry Lumley) (17 squadrons)<br />
(2,509)<br />
5. 1 st Line: Palmes’ Brigade (Brig-Gen. Palmes) (5 squadrons)<br />
(736)<br />
2/Earl <strong>of</strong> Plymouth’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Horse (4 th Horse) (Maj-Gen.<br />
Cornelius Wood) (England) one squadron (155)<br />
The Queen Dowager’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Horse (9 th Horse) (Lt-Gen.<br />
Hugh Wyndham) (England) two squadrons (311)<br />
Lord Cavendish’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Horse (8 th Horse) (Meinhardt,<br />
3 rd Duke <strong>of</strong> Schomberg (Duke <strong>of</strong> Leinster)) (England) two<br />
squadrons (270)<br />
6. 1 st Line: Wood’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. Cornelius Wood) (five<br />
squadrons) (789)<br />
The Queen’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Horse (2 nd Horse) (Lt-Gen. Henry<br />
Lumley) (England) three squadrons (482)<br />
1/Earl <strong>of</strong> Plymouth’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Horse (4 th Horse) (Maj-Gen.<br />
Cornelius Wood) (England) one squadron (158)<br />
Duke <strong>of</strong> Shrewsbury’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Horse (7 th Horse) (Col. William<br />
(Cadogan), 1st Earl <strong>of</strong> Cadogan (England) one squadron<br />
(149)<br />
7. 2 nd Line: Ross’s Dragoon Brigade (Maj-Gen. Charles Ross)<br />
+ Hay’s Brigade (Brig-Gen Hay) (seven squadrons) (984)<br />
James Wynne’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Dragoons (5 th Dragoons) (Brig-<br />
Gen. Hon. Charles Ross (England/Ireland) two squadrons<br />
(324)<br />
Grey Dragoons (2 nd Dragoons) (Brig-Gen. Lord John Hay)<br />
(England/Scotland) one squadron (340)<br />
Erbprinz von Hesse-Kassel Dragoons (Erbprinz Friedrich<br />
Heiden von Hesse-Kassel (‘Alt Heiden’)) (Hesse-Kassel)<br />
four squadrons (320)<br />
Center: (Lt-Gen. Charles Churchill (General <strong>of</strong> Foot)) (28<br />
battalions) (14,949)<br />
1 st Line (Infantry): (Lt-Gen. (General <strong>of</strong> Foot) Richard Ingoldsby)<br />
(nine battalions) (3,977)<br />
8. d’Herleville’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. d’Herleville) + Stückrad’s<br />
Brigade (Brig-Gen. Stückrad) (five battalions) (2,000)<br />
Schöpping Infantry Regiment (Schöpping) (Hesse-Kassel) one<br />
battalion (400)<br />
Stückrad Infantry Regiment (Brig-Gen. Stückrad) (Hesse-Kas-
sel) one battalion (400)<br />
d’Herleville Infantry Regiment (Maj-Gen. d’Herleville) (Hanover-Calenburg)<br />
one battalion (400)<br />
von Tozin Infantry Regiment (von Tozin) (Lüneburg-Celle) one<br />
battalion (400)<br />
Hulsen Infantry Regiment (Brig-Gen. Hulsen) (Hanover-Calenburg)<br />
one battalion (400)<br />
9. Württemberg Brigade (Brig-Gen. Friedrich Heinrich, Graf<br />
von Seckendorff) (four battalions) (1,977)<br />
Württemberg Regiment Stenfels (Stenfels) (Württemberg/UP<br />
auxiliary) one battalion (571)<br />
Württemberg Regiment Hermann (Hermann) (Württemberg/UP<br />
auxiliary) one battalion<br />
Württemberg Grenadier Regiment (Leib-Grenadiers) (Württemberg/UP<br />
auxiliary) one battalion (with Hermann 833)<br />
Seckendorff’s Infantry Regiment (Brig-Gen. Friedrich Heinrich,<br />
Graf von Seckendorff) (Ansbach/UP auxiliary) one battalion<br />
(573)<br />
1 st Line (Infantry): (Lt-Gen. Horn) (ten battalions) (5,522)<br />
10. Holstein-Beck’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. <strong>the</strong> Prince <strong>of</strong> Holstein-<br />
Beck) + Heidebrecht’s Brigade (Brig-Gen. Heidebrecht)<br />
(five battalions) (2,812)<br />
Heidebrecht Infantry Regiment (Brig-Gen. Heidebrecht) (Ansbach/UP<br />
auxiliary) one battalion (599)<br />
Stürler Infantry Regiment (Stürler) (Swiss (Bern)/UP auxiliary)<br />
one battalion (523)<br />
Hirzel Infantry Regiment (Hirzel) (Swiss (Zurich)/UP auxiliary)<br />
one battalion (561) (Not committed)<br />
Rechteren Infantry Regiment (Rechteren) (UP) one battalion<br />
(548)<br />
Goor Infantry Regiment (UP) one battalion (581)<br />
11. Dutch Mercenary Brigade (Maj-Gen. Pallandt) + Wulffen’s<br />
Brigade (Wulffen) (five battalions) (2,710)<br />
Beynheim Infantry Regiment (UP) one battalion (571)<br />
Schwerin Infantry Regiment (Col. Kurt Christ<strong>of</strong>, Graf von<br />
Schwerin) (Mecklenburg- Prussian Meith Regiment) one<br />
battalion (547)<br />
de Varenne Infantry Regiment (Jacques l‘Aumonier, Marquis de<br />
Varenne) (Prussia/UP auxiliary) one battalion (461)<br />
Wulffen Infantry Regiment (Wulffen) (Prussia/UP auxiliary) one<br />
battalion (591)<br />
Erbprinz von Hesse-Kassel Infantry Regiment (Erbprinz von<br />
Hesse-Kassel) (Prussia/UP auxiliary) one battalion (540)<br />
Center: (Erbprinz von Hesse-Kassel (General <strong>of</strong> Horse)) (69<br />
squadrons) (9,898)<br />
12. (Left-center): (Lt-Gen. Bülow) (17 squadrons) (1,315)<br />
2 nd Line (Cavalry): Noyelles’ Brigade (Maj-Gen. Jacques-Louis,<br />
comte de Noyelles en Falais) (six squadrons) (450)<br />
Leib Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Hanover-Calenburg) two<br />
squadrons (150)<br />
Voigt’s Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Voigt) (Hanover-Calenburg)<br />
two squadrons (150)<br />
Noyelles’ Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Maj-Gen. Jacques-<br />
Louis comte de Noyelles en Falais) (Hanover-Calenburg-<br />
Osnabrück/UP auxiliary) two squadrons (150)<br />
13. 3 rd Line (Cavalry): Viller’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. Viller) +<br />
Bothmer’s Brigade (Brig-Gen. Bothmer) (eleven squadrons)<br />
(865)<br />
von Bülow’s Dragoons (Regiment) (Lt-Gen. von Bülow) (Hanover-Calenburg)<br />
three squadrons (225)<br />
Viller’s Dragoons (Viller) (Lüneburg-Celle) four squadrons<br />
(320)<br />
Bothmer’s Dragoons (Brig-Gen. Bothmer) (Lüneburg-Celle) four<br />
squadrons (320)<br />
2 nd Line (Cavalry): (Lt-Gen. Graf von Hompesch) (15 squadrons)<br />
(1,330)<br />
14. Hesse-Homberg’s Brigade (Maj-Gen., <strong>the</strong> Prince <strong>of</strong> Hesse-<br />
Homberg) (four squadrons) (320)<br />
Leib Horse Regiment (Hesse-Kassel/UP auxiliary) two squadrons<br />
(160)<br />
Spiegel’s Karabinere (Hesse-Kassel/UP auxiliary) two squadrons<br />
(160)<br />
15. 2 nd Line (Cavalry): Schulenburg’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. Schulenburg)<br />
(four squadrons) (310)<br />
Schulenburg’s Dragoons (Hanover-Calenburg) two squadrons<br />
(150)<br />
Breidenbach’s Horse Regiment (Hanover-Calenburg & Lüneburg-Celle)<br />
two squadrons (160)<br />
16. 2 nd Line (Cavalry) Erbach’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. Erbach) +<br />
Baldwin’s Brigade (Brig-Gen. Baldwin) (seven squadrons)<br />
(700)<br />
Erbach’s Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Maj-Gen. Erbach) (UP)<br />
two squadrons (200)<br />
Baldwin’s Horse (Brig-Gen. Baldwin) (UP) one squadron (100)<br />
Schmettau’s Dragoons (company - vacant:1703-1713) (Ansbach)<br />
four squadrons (400)<br />
3 rd Line (Cavalry): (Lt-Gen., comte de Oostfriese) (sixteen squadrons)<br />
(1,310)<br />
17. Vittingh<strong>of</strong>f’s Brigade (Lt-Gen. Vittingh<strong>of</strong>f) + Grevendorff’s<br />
Brigade (Brig-Gen. Grevendorff) (ten squadrons) (830)<br />
Grevendorff’s Dragoons (Brig-Gen. Grevendorff) (Saxe-Gotha)<br />
three squadrons (240)<br />
Hardenberg’s Dragoons (Saxe-Gotha) three squadrons (240)<br />
Sachsen-Heilburg Horse Regiment (UP) two squadrons (200)<br />
Bannier’s Horse Regiment (Hanover-Calenburg) two squadrons<br />
(150)<br />
18. 3 rd Line (Cavalry): Auroch’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. Auroch) (six<br />
squadrons) (480)<br />
Erbach’s Horse Regiment (Maj-Gen Erbach) (Hesse-Kassel) two<br />
squadrons (160)<br />
Auroch’s Dragoons (Maj-Gen. Auroch) (Hesse-Kassel) four<br />
squadrons (320)<br />
(Lt-Gen., <strong>the</strong> Prince <strong>of</strong> Württemberg-Neustadt) (21 squadrons)<br />
(5,943)<br />
19. 3 rd Line (Cavalry): Rantzau’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. Johann von<br />
Rantzau) + Rantzau’s Brigade (Brig-Gen. Jürgen von Rantzau<br />
(1one squadron) (3,028)<br />
2 nd Sjællandske Horse Regiment (Maj-Gen. Johann von Rantzau)<br />
(Denmark/UP auxiliary) (585) two squadrons<br />
5 th Jydske Regiment <strong>of</strong> Horse (Col. von Schmettau) (Denmark/<br />
UP auxiliary) (440) two squadrons<br />
4 th Jydske Regiment <strong>of</strong> Horse (Brig-Gen. Jürgen von Rantzau)<br />
(Denmark/UP auxiliary) (440) two squadrons<br />
Livregimentet Rytter (Col. Reventlow) (Denmark/UP auxiliary)<br />
(556) two squadrons <strong>of</strong> 6 companies<br />
Württemberg-Öels Dragoons (Carl Friedrich, Herzog von Würt-<br />
strategy & tactics 23
24 #238<br />
temberg-Öels (Denmark/UP auxiliary) (1,007) three<br />
squadrons <strong>of</strong> 10 companies<br />
20. 3 rd Line (Cavalry): Brockdorff’s Brigade (Brig-Gen.<br />
Ditlev von Brockdorff) (ten squadrons) (2,915)<br />
3 rd Jydske Horse Regiment (Col. Ditlev von Brockdorff)<br />
(Denmark/England auxiliary) (591) two squadrons<br />
Ahlefeldt’s Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Denmark/England<br />
auxiliary) two squadrons (589)<br />
2 nd Jydske Horse Regiment (Col. von Uterwick Prehn) (Denmark/England<br />
auxiliary) (568) two squadrons<br />
Holstein’s Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Col. Dewitz) (Denmark/England<br />
auxiliary) two squadrons (578)<br />
Württemberg-Öels Dragoons (Carl Friedrich, Herzog von<br />
Württemberg-Öels (Denmark/UP auxiliary) (589) two<br />
squadrons <strong>of</strong> 10 company<br />
21. 4 th Line (Infantry): (Lt-Gen. Lord Orkney) + (Maj-Gen.<br />
de Luc) (nine battalions) (5,450)<br />
Webb’s Brigade (Maj-Gen. John Richmond Webb) + Meredith’s<br />
Brigade (Brig-Gen. Thomas Meredith) (four battalions)<br />
(2,543)<br />
Churchill’s Infantry Regiment (Winston Churchill) (England)<br />
one battalion (590) (Not committed)<br />
Thomas Meredith’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Foot (Brig-Gen. Thomas<br />
Meredith) (England) one battalion (575) (Not committed)<br />
The Queen’s Regiment <strong>of</strong> Foot (Maj-Gen. John Richmond<br />
Webb) (England) one battalion (739)<br />
1/His Majesty’s Royal Regiment <strong>of</strong> Foot (George Hamilton,<br />
1st Earl <strong>of</strong> Orkney (England) one battalion (639)<br />
22. 4 th Line (Infantry): von Rantzau’s Brigade (Maj-Gen.<br />
Detlev von Rantzau) + Bernsdorff’s Brigade (Brig-Gen.<br />
Bernsdorff) (five battalions) (2,907)<br />
1/Rantzau (Maj-Gen. Detlev von Rantzau) (Lüneburg-Celle/<br />
UP auxiliary) one battalion (588)<br />
2/Rantzau (Maj-Gen. Detlev von Rantzau) (Lüneburg-Celle/<br />
UP auxiliary) one battalion (636)<br />
Bernsdorff Infantry Regiment (Brig-Gen. Bernsdorff) (Lüneburg-Celle<br />
/UP auxiliary) one battalion (531)<br />
Teckelenberg Infantry Regiment (Hanover-Calenburg /UP<br />
auxiliary) one battalion (532)<br />
St. Paul Infantry Regiment (St. Paul des Estanges) (Hanover-<br />
Calenburg/UP auxiliary) one battalion (620)<br />
Right: Army <strong>of</strong> Imperial Austria (Feldmarshall, Prince<br />
François Eugène von Savoy-Carignan)<br />
1 st Line (Cavalry): (General der imperialer Kavallerie,<br />
Prince Maximillian von Hanover (General <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Imperial<br />
Horse) (40 squadrons) (3,500)<br />
23. Natzmer’s Brigade (Generalmajor Dubislav Gneomar<br />
von Natzmer auf Gannewitz) (fourteen squadrons)<br />
(1,360)<br />
Leib Dragoons (Prussia) three squadrons (300)<br />
Margraf Philip’s Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Maj-Gen.<br />
Philip Wilhelm, Margraf von Brandenburg-Schwedt)<br />
(Prussia) three squadrons (300)<br />
<strong>War</strong>tensleben Horse Regiment (<strong>War</strong>tensleben) (Prussia)<br />
three squadrons (300)<br />
Bayreuth-Kulmbach Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Col.<br />
Christian Heinrich, Margraf von Bayreuth-Kulmbach)<br />
(Prussia) three squadrons (300)<br />
von Krassow’s Dragoons (Ernst Detlev von Krassow)<br />
(Mecklenburg) two squadrons (Not committed) (160)<br />
24. Fugger’s Brigade (Generalmajor, Graf von Fugger)<br />
(twelve squadrons) (1,000)<br />
Alt-Hanover Cuirassiers (Austria) six squadrons (500)<br />
Lobkowitz’s Cuirassiers (Austria) six squadrons (500)<br />
25. Durlach’s Brigade (Feldmarshall-leutnant, Margraf<br />
Frederick VII <strong>of</strong> Baden-Durlach) + Alexandre’s Brigade<br />
(Generalmajor, Prinz Alexandre von Württemberg)<br />
(1four squadrons) (1,140)<br />
Limburg-Styrum’s Dragoons (Austria) six squadrons (500)<br />
Württemberg Independent Cavalry (Leib Dragoon) (Helmstaett)<br />
(Württemberg) three squadrons (240)<br />
Fugger’s Cuirassiers (Generalmajor, Graf von<br />
Fugger) (Swabia) three squadrons (240)<br />
Ottingen’s Dragoons (Swabia) two squadrons (160)<br />
2 nd Line (Cavalry): (General der Kavallerie, Eberhard Louis,<br />
Herzog von Württemberg–Teck) (3six squadrons)<br />
(3,580)<br />
26. l’Ostange’s Brigade (Generalmajor Charles Graf, de<br />
l‘Ostange) (six squadrons) (600)<br />
Sonsfeld’s Dragoons (Prussia) three squadrons (300)<br />
l’Ostange Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Generalmajor<br />
Charles, Graf de l‘Ostange) (Prussia) three squadrons<br />
(300)<br />
27. Bibra’s Brigade (Generalmajor Bibra) (8 squadrons)<br />
(820)<br />
Helmstaett Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Erbprinz Helmstaett<br />
von Württemberg) (Swabia) three squadrons (240)<br />
Nagel’s Karabinere (Nagel) (Münster/UP auxiliary) two<br />
squadrons (200)<br />
Venningen’s Karabinere (Georg Friedrich von Venningen)<br />
(Palatine/UP auxiliary) two squadrons (three companies<br />
each) (300)<br />
Hachenberg’s Cuirassiers (Neiderrhein) one squadron (80)<br />
28. Cusani’s Brigade (Feldmarshall-leutnant, <strong>the</strong> Marquis<br />
de Cusani) (twelve squadrons) (1,200)<br />
Darmstadt’s Imperial Cuirassiers (Darmstadt)<br />
(Austria) six squadrons (600)<br />
Cusani’s Imperial Cuirassiers (Feldmarshall-lt., <strong>the</strong> Marquis<br />
de Cusani) (Austria) six squadrons (600)<br />
29. Caraffa’s Brigade (Generalmajor von Caraffa) (ten<br />
squadrons) (960)<br />
Fechenbach’s Dragoons (Freiherr von Fechenbach) (Würzburg/Mainz)<br />
four squadrons (400)<br />
Württemberg Leibgarde (Württemberg) two squadrons<br />
(160)<br />
Bibra’s Dragoons (Generalmajor von Bibra) (Mainz/Austrian<br />
auxiliary) four squadrons (400)<br />
3 rd Line (Cavalry Reserve): (General der Kavallerie,<br />
Charles Maximilien, comte de la Tour et Valsassina)<br />
(sixteen squadrons) (1,280)<br />
30. Efferen’s Brigade (Efferen) (six squadrons) (480)<br />
Moorheim’s Cuirassiers (Mecklenburg) two squadrons<br />
(160)<br />
Leutsch’s Cuirassiers (Saxe-Gotha) two squadrons (160)<br />
(Not committed)<br />
von der Os<strong>the</strong>im’s Horse (Cuirassier) Regiment (Holstein-<br />
Gottorf) two squadrons (160) (Not committed)
Weapon<br />
Range,<br />
Effective<br />
Range,<br />
Maximum<br />
Round<br />
Rate <strong>of</strong><br />
Fire<br />
Stats<br />
Carbine
FRANCO-BAVARIAN:<br />
Tallard: 36 battalions (18,200)/58 squadrons (6,750)<br />
Marsin & <strong>the</strong> Elector: 4three battalions (21,500)/85 squadrons<br />
(10,200)<br />
Total: 56,650 in 7nine battalions (39,500)/14three squadrons<br />
(16,950)<br />
Casualties: 14,150 KIA/WIA, 38,609 POW<br />
Artillery:<br />
Tallard:<br />
Royal Artillery (Marquis de Frézelière)<br />
Blenheim support (1 battery <strong>of</strong> eight x 8-pounders)<br />
North <strong>of</strong> Blenheim (2 batteries <strong>of</strong> four x 4-pounders)<br />
Along <strong>the</strong> Münster- Höchstädt road (four x 24-pounders)<br />
Evenly distributed between Blenheim and Oberglauheim (3<br />
batteries <strong>of</strong> four x 4-pounders)<br />
Elector & Marsin:<br />
Royal Artillery (Marquis de Houville)<br />
Right <strong>of</strong> Oberglauheim (battery <strong>of</strong> two x 24-pounders)<br />
Before Lutzingenheim (battery <strong>of</strong> six x 16-pounders, four<br />
batteries <strong>of</strong> four x 8-pounders, three batteries <strong>of</strong> four x<br />
12-pounders)<br />
Even front distribution (22 x 4-pounders)<br />
Camille d’Hostun de la Baume, Duc de Tallard, Marshall<br />
<strong>of</strong> France (36 battalions, 58 squadrons)<br />
Blenheim Wing Command (Lt-Gen. Philippe, Marquis de<br />
Clérambault) (27 battalions) (8,003) (twelve squadrons)<br />
(1,226)<br />
Maréchal de Camp, <strong>the</strong> Marquis de Blansac (sixteen<br />
squadrons twelve squadrons)<br />
Dismounted Dragoons (Between Blenheim and <strong>the</strong> Danube)<br />
1. Hautefeulle’s Brigade (12 squadrons) (1,226)<br />
Mestre de Camp Général three squadrons (338)<br />
La Reine’s Dragoons three squadrons (231)<br />
Rohan-Chabot’s Dragoons three squadrons (330)<br />
Vasse’s Dragoons three squadrons (327)<br />
2. Blenheim Garrison (nine battalions) (4,500)<br />
de Maulevrier’s Brigade (Marquis de Maulevrier)<br />
Régiment de Navarre three battalions (1,500)<br />
Balincourt’s Brigade (Marquis de Balincourt)<br />
Régiment d’Artois two battalions (1,000)<br />
1/Provence one battalion (500)<br />
Greder’s Brigade (Marquis de Greder)<br />
Régiment de Greder Allemande (German) two battalions<br />
(1,000)<br />
Régiment de Lassay one battalion (500)<br />
Blenheim Reserve (7 battalions) (3,500)<br />
3. d’Argelos’ Brigade (Baron d’Argelos)<br />
Régiment de Languedoc two battalions (1,000)<br />
Régiment de Santerre two battalions (1,000)<br />
4. St. Segond’s Brigade (Marquis de St. Segond)<br />
Zurlauben (Walloon) two battalions (1,000)<br />
St. Segond (Marquis de St. Segond) (Italy) one battalion<br />
(500)<br />
Infantry Reserve (Lt-Gen., <strong>the</strong> Marquis de Marinvaux) (11<br />
battalions) (5,500)<br />
5. Montroux’s Brigade (Marquis de Montroux)<br />
Régiment de Montroux (Italy) one battalion (500)<br />
Régiment de Aunis two battalions (1,000)<br />
6. Monfort’s Brigade (Marquis de Montfort)<br />
Régiment de Montfort (Marquis de Montfort) (Walloon/<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> auxiliary) two battalions (1,200)<br />
Blaisois one battalion (500)<br />
7. d’Enonville’s Brigade (Comte d’Enonville)<br />
Royal three battalions (1,500)<br />
Régiment de Boulonnais two battalions (1,000)<br />
Between Blenheim and Oberglauheim (Marquis de Montpeyroux<br />
(Commander <strong>of</strong> Tallard’s Horse)) (nine battalions)<br />
(1,064) (46 squadrons) (5,524)<br />
1 st Line (Cavalry): (Lt-Gen., le Comte de Zurlauben) (one<br />
squadron) (2,956)<br />
8. Vertilly’s Brigade (Marquis de Vertilly)<br />
Gendarmerie de France eight squadrons (1,500)<br />
9. Broglie’s Brigade (Marquis de Broglie)<br />
Régiment de le Roi three squadrons (423)<br />
Régiment de Tarneau two squadrons (184)<br />
Régiment de la Baume two squadrons (282)<br />
10. Grignan’s Brigade (Marquis de Grignan)<br />
Mestre de Camp Général three squadrons (255)<br />
Régiment de Grignan (Marquis de Grignan) three squadrons<br />
(312)<br />
2 nd Line (Cavalry): Maréchal de Camp, <strong>the</strong> Duc<br />
d’Humeries) (25 squadrons) (2,568)<br />
11. Merode-Westerloo’s Brigade (Comte de Merode-Westerloo)<br />
Regimiento de Gaetano (Spain) two squadrons (214)<br />
Regimiento de Acosta (Spain) two squadrons (200)<br />
Regimiento de Heider (Spain) two squadrons (200)<br />
12. la Valliere’s Brigade (Marquis de la Valliere)<br />
Régiment de Bougogne three squadrons (360)<br />
Régiment de la Valliere two squadrons (136)<br />
Régiment de Noailles two squadrons (200)<br />
Régiment de Beringhen three squadrons (783)<br />
13. Silly’s Brigade (Marquis de Silly)<br />
Régiment de Orléans three squadrons (165)<br />
Régiment de Montreval two squadrons (110)<br />
Régiment de St. Pouanges two squadrons (100)<br />
Régiment de Ligonday two squadrons (100)<br />
3 rd Line (Infantry): (Maréchal de Camp, <strong>the</strong> Marquis de St.<br />
Pierre) (nine battalions) (4,500)<br />
14. Treçesson’s Brigade (Marquis de Treçesson)<br />
Régiment de Robecque (Walloon) two battalions (1,000)<br />
Régiment de d’Albaret one battalion (500)<br />
15. Breuil’s Brigade (Marquis de Breuil)<br />
Régiment de Auxerrois two battalions (1,000)<br />
Régiment de Chabrillant one battalion (500)<br />
16. Belleisle’s Brigade (Marquis de Belleisle)<br />
Régiment de Nice one battalion (500)<br />
Régiment de Tavannes one battalion (500)<br />
Régiment de Bandeville one battalion (500)<br />
26 #238
The Army <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Elector <strong>of</strong> Bavaria Prince Maximillian<br />
II Emmanuel Wittelsbach, Elector <strong>of</strong> Bavaria & Marshal<br />
Marsin (Second in command)<br />
(Lt-Gen., <strong>the</strong> Marquis du Bourg) (twenty squadrons)<br />
(2,400) (Part <strong>of</strong> Marsin’s Army, but under Tallard’s<br />
command)<br />
1 st Line (Cavalry):<br />
17. Massenbach’s Brigade<br />
Régiment de Royal three squadrons (360)<br />
Régiment de La Ferronnaye two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Levy two squadrons (240)<br />
18. Prince Charles de Lorraine’s Brigade<br />
Régiment de Prince Charles de Lorraine (Prince Charles de<br />
Lorraine) two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Choiseul two squadrons (240)<br />
2 nd Line (Cavalry):<br />
19. d’Anlezy’s Brigade<br />
Régiment d’Anlezy two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Livry two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Heudincourt two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Dauphin Étranger three squadrons (360)<br />
(Lt-Gen., <strong>the</strong> Marquis de Blainville) (12 battalions)<br />
(11,000)<br />
In Oberglauheim: (Maréchal de Camp Dorrington) (eight<br />
battalions) (4,000)<br />
20. Blingy’s Brigade (Marquis de Bligny)<br />
Régiment de Champagne three battalions (1,500)<br />
1/Saintonge one battalion (500)<br />
21. Nangis’ Brigade (Marquis de Nangis)<br />
Bourbonnais two battalions (1,000)<br />
1/Foix one battalion (500)<br />
1/Agénois one battalion (500)<br />
(Lt-Gen., The Marquis de Rosel)<br />
Oberglauheim support- right/rear (nine battalions)<br />
(4,500)<br />
22. Buzançois’s Brigade (Marquis de Buzançois)<br />
Régiment de la Reine three battalions (1,500)<br />
23. Clare’s Brigade (Viscount Clare)<br />
Dorrington’s Regiment (Ireland) one battalion (500)<br />
Clare’s Regiment (Ireland) one battalion (500)<br />
Lee’s Regiment (Ireland) one battalion (500)<br />
24. Coëtquen’s Brigade<br />
Régiment de Coëtquen two battalions (1,000)<br />
1/Chartres one battalion (500)<br />
25. Oberglauheim support- left (Prince d’Isenghien) (five<br />
battalions) (2,500)<br />
1/Poitou one battalion (500)<br />
1/Guyenne one battalion (500)<br />
Régiment d’Isenghien (Walloon) one battalion (500)<br />
Régiment de Beaufermé two battalions (1,000)<br />
Oberglauheim to Lutzingenheim (Field Marshal, Johann<br />
Baptist, Count d’Arco) (65 squadrons) (7,800)<br />
1 st Line (Cavalry): (Lt-Gen., <strong>the</strong> Marquis de Magnac)<br />
+ (Maréchal de Camp Vivans) (12 squadrons)<br />
(1,440)<br />
26. Montmain’s Brigade<br />
Régiment de Condé two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Montmain two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Bourck (Ireland) two squadrons (240)<br />
27. Vivans’ Brigade<br />
Régiment de Abusson two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Vivans two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Fourquevaux two squadrons (240)<br />
2 nd Line (Cavalry): (Lt-Gen, <strong>the</strong> Marquis de Legall) (13<br />
squadrons) (1,560)<br />
28. Barentin’s Brigade<br />
Régiment de Barentin two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de la Billarderie two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Bissy two squadrons (240)<br />
29. Vigiers Brigade (l’Isle du Vigier)<br />
Régiment de Royal Piédmont three squadrons (360)<br />
Régiment du Vigier two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Merinville two squadrons (240)<br />
Bavarian Horse (27 squadrons) (3,240)<br />
30. 1 st Line (Cavalry): von Weickel’s Brigade (Feldmarshallleutnant<br />
von Weickel)<br />
d’Arco’s Cuirassiers (Johann Baptist, Count d’Arco) six<br />
squadrons (720)<br />
Weickel’s Cuirassiers (von Weickel) four squadrons (480)<br />
Garde Karabinere one squadron (120)<br />
Grenadiers à Cheval (Horse Grenadiers) one squadron (120)<br />
Locatelli’s Hussars (Leib Company) one squadron (120)<br />
31. 2 nd Line (Cavalry): von Wolframsdorff’s Brigade (Generalmajor<br />
von Wolframsdorff)<br />
Törring-Seefeld’s Dragoons two squadrons (240)<br />
von Wolframsdorff’s Cuirassiers (Generalmajor von Wolframsdorff)<br />
six squadrons (720)<br />
de Costa’s Cuirassiers six squadrons (720)<br />
Lutzingenheim (Generalmajor, <strong>the</strong> Marquis de Maffei) (nine<br />
battalions) (4,500)<br />
32. de Maffei’s Brigade<br />
Régiment de Maffei one battalion (500)<br />
Kurprinz Regiment one battalion <strong>of</strong> seven companies (500)<br />
Leibgarde Fusiliers Regiment two battalions (1,000)<br />
Leibgarde Grenadiers Regiment one battalion (500)<br />
Régiment d’Ocfort one battalion (500)<br />
33. Mercy’s Brigade (Generalmajor, <strong>the</strong> Marquis de Mercy)<br />
Régiment de Mercy two battalions (1,000)<br />
Régiment de Tattenbach one battalion <strong>of</strong> 7 company (500)<br />
(Lt-Gen., <strong>the</strong> Comte de Dreux) (13 squadrons) (1,560)<br />
34. Fontbeausard’s Dragoon Brigade<br />
Régiment de Listenois three squadrons (360)<br />
Régiment de la Vrillière three squadrons (360)<br />
Régiment de Fontbeausard three squadrons (360)<br />
35. Conflans’ Brigade<br />
Régiment de Conflans two squadrons (240)<br />
Régiment de Rouvray two squadrons (240)<br />
North <strong>of</strong> Lutzingenheim (Lt-Gen., <strong>the</strong> Marquis de Sauffrey) +<br />
(Maréchal de Camp de Lee) (12 battalions) (6,000)<br />
strategy & tactics 27
36. Montbron’s Brigade (Marquis de Montbron) (five battalions)<br />
Régiment de Dauphin three battalions (1,500)<br />
1/Condé one battalion (500)<br />
Régiment de Montboissier one battalion (500)<br />
37. Tourouvre’s Brigade (Chevalier de Tourouvre) (three<br />
battalions)<br />
Régiment de Lorraine one battalion (500)<br />
Régiment de Toulouse two battalions (1,000)<br />
38. Montmorency’s Brigade (Chevalier de Montmorency)<br />
(four battalions)<br />
1/Bearn one battalion (500)<br />
1/Bourbon one battalion (500)<br />
1/Nivernais one battalion (500)<br />
1/Vermandois one battalion (500)<br />
Infantry battalion (Franco-Bavarian)<br />
• France (generally understrength)- 13 companies (5 ranks<br />
with only 3 able to fire at once)<br />
• Bavaria- 5 companies<br />
• Spain- 12 companies<br />
"Volley fire"- Platoons form a deeper, narrower formation<br />
Initial fire is formidable, but fire control is quickly lost<br />
Cavalry squadron (Franco-Bavarian)<br />
• France/Bavaria- 4-6 companies<br />
• Slow, controlled advance<br />
• All three squadron ranks fire pistols simultaneously to<br />
disorganize <strong>the</strong> enemy before charging with swords (momentum<br />
interrupted)<br />
Bibliography:<br />
Chandler, Dr. David G. Blenheim Preparation: The English Army On<br />
The March To The Danube Collected Essays. Great Britain, 2004.<br />
-<strong>Marlborough</strong> as Military Commander. London, 2000.<br />
Chartrand, René and Back, Francis. Louis XIV’s Army (203). London,<br />
1996.<br />
Deane, John Marshall. A Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s Campaigns During<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Succession</strong> 1704-1711. Society for Army<br />
Historical Research. London, 1984<br />
Falkner, James. Blenheim 1704: <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s Greatest Victory. Great<br />
Britain, 2004.<br />
Fitzroy, James, Duke <strong>of</strong> Monmouth. An Abridgement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> English<br />
military discipline. Boston: Samuel Green, 1690. (American Antiquarian<br />
Society (Readex Microprint) Worcester, Mass. 1955.)<br />
Green, David. Blenheim. N.Y., N.Y., 1974.<br />
Hall, A. R. Ballistics in <strong>the</strong> Seventeenth Century: A Study in <strong>the</strong> Relations<br />
<strong>of</strong> Science and <strong>War</strong> with Reference Principally to England.<br />
Cambridge, 1952.<br />
Hughes, B. P. Open Fire: Artillery <strong>Tactics</strong> from <strong>Marlborough</strong> to Wellington.<br />
Great Britain, 1983.<br />
Hussey, John. <strong>Marlborough</strong>: The Hero Of Blenheim (Great Commanders).<br />
London, 2005.<br />
Erichsen, Johannes and Katharina Heinemann. Brennpunkt Europas<br />
1704: Die Schlacht von Höchstädt/The Battle <strong>of</strong> Blenheim. Ostfildern,<br />
2004.<br />
Kemp, Anthony. Weapons & Equipment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong> <strong>War</strong>s.<br />
Great Britain, 1980.<br />
Spencer, Charles. Blenheim: Battle for Europe. London, 2004.<br />
Stanford, Iain. <strong>Marlborough</strong> Goes to <strong>War</strong>. A Pike & Shot Society Publication.<br />
Susane, Louis. Historie de l’Infantrie française. Paris, 1874-1876 (reprinted<br />
1984).<br />
Historie de l’Artillerie française (1 vol.).<br />
Historie de la Cavalerie française (3 vol.).<br />
Tincey, John. Blenheim 1704. The Duke <strong>of</strong> <strong>Marlborough</strong>’s masterpiece:<br />
Campaign (141). London, 2004<br />
- The British Army, 1660-1704. London, 1994.<br />
Trevelyan, George Macaulay, O.M. England under Queen Anne (vol.<br />
1): Blenheim. Longmans, London, 1930.<br />
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28 #238
For Your Information<br />
Did You Know<br />
• A recently declassified cache <strong>of</strong><br />
Al Qaida documents captured<br />
in Afghanistan has revealed that<br />
organization’s standard enlistment<br />
contract for new recruits.<br />
Among its terms: men’s salaries<br />
are boosted by 700 rupees per<br />
month for each wife beyond <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
first, and everyone gets five days<br />
paid vacation each month.<br />
• In AD 60, Celtic rebels in<br />
Britain, under <strong>the</strong> leadership <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir Queen Boudicca, captured<br />
<strong>the</strong> Roman provincial capital<br />
<strong>of</strong> Londinium (London). They<br />
massacred all its residents and<br />
burned <strong>the</strong> place to <strong>the</strong> ground.<br />
So total was <strong>the</strong> destruction, to<br />
this day a three foot thick strata<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ash left behind by <strong>the</strong><br />
carnage can be found underlying<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> modern city.<br />
• At present, 61 percent <strong>of</strong> all US<br />
military personnel are Caucasian.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> same time, fully<br />
75 percent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> US military<br />
members so far killed in Iraq<br />
have been Caucasian.<br />
• Torsion powered catapults came<br />
into general use among better<br />
provisioned armies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Western<br />
world starting about 340 BC.<br />
Their propulsive power, range,<br />
rate <strong>of</strong> fire, and serviceability<br />
were not surpassed by gunpowder<br />
artillery until around <strong>the</strong> year<br />
AD 1600.<br />
• During World <strong>War</strong> II, excluding<br />
those <strong>of</strong> Japanese, German<br />
or Italian ancestry, some 6,000<br />
native-born Americans were<br />
imprisoned as “war resisters.”<br />
• Julius Caesar’s eight-year<br />
campaign in Gaul is estimated to<br />
have made him one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> richest<br />
men in <strong>the</strong> world at that time.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> same time, though, it also<br />
cost <strong>the</strong> residents <strong>the</strong>re a total <strong>of</strong><br />
a million dead, ano<strong>the</strong>r million<br />
enslaved, and some 800 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
settlements taken by storm.<br />
• Early in 2006, approximately a<br />
quarter <strong>of</strong> all military combat<br />
operations in Iraq were being<br />
carried out solely by Iraqi army<br />
and/or police units. Some 50<br />
percent were carried out by joint<br />
US/Iraqi task-groups, and <strong>the</strong> remaining<br />
25 percent were carried<br />
out by troops from <strong>the</strong> US, UK<br />
and/or o<strong>the</strong>r Coalition nations.<br />
• Some 10 million people died in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Thirty Years <strong>War</strong> (1618-48).<br />
That number is estimated to have<br />
represented slightly more than<br />
25 percent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total population<br />
<strong>of</strong> Central Europe, <strong>the</strong> war’s<br />
<strong>the</strong>ater <strong>of</strong> operations.<br />
• Early in <strong>the</strong> 1300s, Chinese<br />
military engineers focused <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
efforts on devising powerful<br />
gunpowder explosive rounds<br />
delivered by catapults. Two <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> more widely used types were<br />
catalogued under <strong>the</strong> names<br />
“Dropping From Heaven Bomb”<br />
and “Bandit-Burning Vision-<br />
Confusing Magic-Fireball.”<br />
• More data have come in concerning<br />
<strong>the</strong> Stryker Brigades first<br />
mentioned in this column back<br />
in issue 236. These units’ table<br />
<strong>of</strong> organization and equipment<br />
looks like this:<br />
The Skull <strong>of</strong> Sultan<br />
Mkwawa<br />
The 1919 Treaty <strong>of</strong> Versailles,<br />
which <strong>of</strong>ficially brought an end to<br />
World <strong>War</strong> I, contained among its reparations<br />
clauses <strong>the</strong> following article:<br />
Article 246. Within six months<br />
from <strong>the</strong> coming into force <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> present treaty, Germany<br />
will restore to His Majesty <strong>the</strong><br />
King <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hejaz <strong>the</strong> original<br />
Koran <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Caliph Othman,<br />
which was removed from<br />
Medina by <strong>the</strong> Turkish authorities<br />
and is stated to have been<br />
presented to <strong>the</strong> ex-Emperor<br />
William II. Within <strong>the</strong> same<br />
period Germany will hand over<br />
to His Britannic Majesty’s Government<br />
<strong>the</strong> skull <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sultan<br />
Mkwawa, which was removed<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Protectorate <strong>of</strong> German<br />
East Africa and taken to<br />
Germany. The delivery <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
articles above referred to will<br />
be effected in such place and in<br />
such conditions as may be laid<br />
down by <strong>the</strong> governments to<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y are to be restored.<br />
Sultan Mkwawa (pronounced<br />
“em-KWA-wuh”) was born sometime<br />
in 1855. By about 1870 his fa<strong>the</strong>r<br />
Munyigumba had united <strong>the</strong> Hehe<br />
people, an inland tribe <strong>of</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Tanganyika who numbered about<br />
50,000. Mkwawa succeeded his fa<strong>the</strong>r<br />
in 1880, and <strong>the</strong> Hehe began to expand<br />
eastward, where <strong>the</strong>y came into<br />
contact with <strong>the</strong> Germans, who were<br />
<strong>the</strong>n pushing <strong>the</strong>ir trade and administration<br />
inland from <strong>the</strong> coast. Initially<br />
both sides were happy to negotiate,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Germans being particularly desirous<br />
to avoid confrontation due to <strong>the</strong><br />
paucity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir resources and <strong>the</strong> effect<br />
conflict would have on trade and<br />
development.<br />
However, upon hearing reports<br />
<strong>of</strong> native raiding by <strong>the</strong> Hehe and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r tribes, <strong>the</strong> Germans sent out a<br />
punitive column under a Commander<br />
Zelewski in August 1891. Several<br />
villages were burned, <strong>the</strong> inhabitants<br />
strategy & tactics 29
“A neutral is bound to be hated by those who lose and<br />
despised by those who win.”<br />
—Niccolo Machiavelli, 1514<br />
30 #238<br />
having fled. A party <strong>of</strong> spear-armed<br />
Hehe were also fired on. Then <strong>the</strong><br />
column moved toward Mkwawa’s<br />
capital, Kalenga, which <strong>the</strong> Germans<br />
had heard to be a fortified town.<br />
At 7 a.m. on 16 August, with<br />
Zelewski riding a donkey at <strong>the</strong> front<br />
<strong>of</strong> his column, <strong>the</strong> Germans walked<br />
into an ambush launched by perhaps<br />
3,000 Hehe. Accounts differ, but it<br />
appears <strong>the</strong> Hehe signal to attack<br />
was an imitated birdcall, or perhaps<br />
a single gunshot. Ei<strong>the</strong>r a real bird<br />
called out, or one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Germans shot<br />
at some nearby game. At any rate,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Hehe assumed it was <strong>the</strong>ir signal<br />
and charged out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bush at <strong>the</strong><br />
column. That first charge shattered <strong>the</strong><br />
column, but German survivors under<br />
a Lt. Tettenborn managed to reach<br />
a nearby hill where <strong>the</strong>y defended<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves for <strong>the</strong> next night and<br />
day. The Hehe <strong>the</strong>n withdrew, after<br />
burning <strong>the</strong> grass to kill any wounded<br />
unable to flee. Tettenborn estimated<br />
Hehe dead at 700, while <strong>the</strong> Germans<br />
lost 10 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir number including<br />
Zelewski, 200 native troops, 96 porters,<br />
200 rifles, three cannon and most<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir baggage. Mkwawa had won<br />
<strong>the</strong> day, but he forbade mourning <strong>the</strong><br />
dead to avoid fur<strong>the</strong>r depressing <strong>the</strong><br />
survivors.<br />
The Germans were unable to<br />
respond immediately to this defeat<br />
as <strong>the</strong>y had o<strong>the</strong>r restless tribes to<br />
deal with. In <strong>the</strong> meantime, <strong>the</strong> Hehe<br />
attacked trade caravans and made<br />
raids against tribes who had submitted<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Germans. But Berlin was<br />
not pleased. By late 1894 <strong>the</strong> colonial<br />
German Governor, Freiherr von<br />
Schele, and built up his armed forces.<br />
He marched inland with a large expedition,<br />
bound again for Kalenga.<br />
Plan <strong>of</strong> Kalenga, reproduced from a reproduction [and translation] <strong>of</strong> von Schele’s plan,<br />
in “Mitteilungen von Forschungsreisenden aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten” 1896<br />
Mkwawa had spent several years<br />
rebuilding his capital with stone fortifications<br />
after seeing similar fortifications<br />
built both by o<strong>the</strong>r tribes and<br />
Arabs near <strong>the</strong> coast. Its walls were<br />
almost four kilometers in circumference,<br />
fronted by thorn-filled ditches<br />
and guard towers for added protection.<br />
Avoiding <strong>the</strong> route <strong>of</strong> Zelewski’s<br />
doomed expedition had taken three<br />
years prior, <strong>the</strong> Germans approached<br />
Kalenga from uplands above <strong>the</strong> town<br />
and encamped only 400 meters from<br />
it.<br />
The Germans attacked before<br />
dawn on 30 October, led by Capt.<br />
Tom von Prince and, after breaching<br />
<strong>the</strong> walls <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fortified town,<br />
engaged in close combat among <strong>the</strong><br />
houses and inner fortifications. One<br />
German and many native troops were<br />
killed, but <strong>the</strong> place was in German<br />
hands by <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> day. Many<br />
Hehe, including Mkwawa, fled. Von<br />
Prince discovered 30,000 pounds <strong>of</strong><br />
gunpowder and much ivory in <strong>the</strong><br />
town.<br />
The Germans were amazed <strong>the</strong><br />
Hehe had defended <strong>the</strong>ir town in a<br />
set-piece battle ra<strong>the</strong>r than using his<br />
usual guerilla tactics to attack <strong>the</strong><br />
column on its march inland. Perhaps<br />
Mkwawa thought his citadel impregnable.<br />
It was reported that, when <strong>the</strong><br />
walls were breached, he attempted<br />
suicide, but was persuaded to instead<br />
flee by his men.<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> his capital,<br />
Mkwawa still didn’t come to terms<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Germans. He continued to<br />
ambush German forces and attack<br />
tribes that had submitted to <strong>the</strong> colonial<br />
authorities. In 1896 <strong>the</strong> Germans<br />
again returned to <strong>the</strong> interior and this<br />
time built a substantial fort <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
own at Iringa, seven miles from Kalenga.<br />
The balance <strong>of</strong> power had not<br />
shifted. Mkwawa ordered four <strong>of</strong> his<br />
subordinates, including his youngest<br />
bro<strong>the</strong>r Mpangile, to surrender to von<br />
Prince. The Germans <strong>the</strong>n installed<br />
Mpangile as <strong>the</strong> new Sultan <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Hehe in an attempt to rule through
For Your Information<br />
him. Mkwawa’s raids continued,<br />
though, and believing Mpangile was<br />
partly responsible for continuing<br />
attacks on his troops, von Prince had<br />
him tried and convicted, executing<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir hapless client on 21 February<br />
1897.<br />
Hehe resistance began to weaken<br />
as <strong>the</strong> continuing unrest brought<br />
hunger and disease in its wake. In<br />
mid-1898 <strong>the</strong> Germans received reports<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whereabouts <strong>of</strong> Mkwawa.<br />
An expedition pursued him, and on<br />
19 July came across his body in a<br />
cave alongside those <strong>of</strong> two <strong>of</strong> his<br />
companions. Mkwawa had this time<br />
committed suicide to avoid capture.<br />
Staff Sgt. Maj. Merkl, who discovered<br />
<strong>the</strong> bodies, shot Mkwawa’s<br />
corpse through <strong>the</strong> head, not believing<br />
he was actually dead. Merkl <strong>the</strong>n<br />
persuaded one <strong>of</strong> his native troopers<br />
to decapitate Mkwawa, and <strong>the</strong> head<br />
was exhibited in Iringa. The death <strong>of</strong><br />
Mkwawa ended Hehe resistance to<br />
German colonial domination. When<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r tribes subsequently rebelled, <strong>the</strong><br />
Hehe remained neutral or sometimes<br />
even supported <strong>the</strong> Germans against<br />
longstanding enemies.<br />
Mkwawa’s head was dried and<br />
taken to Dar es Salaam by Merkl to<br />
be shipped to Germany. The collecting<br />
<strong>of</strong> skulls formed an important part<br />
<strong>of</strong> colonial anthropological studies<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time, and hundreds <strong>of</strong> native<br />
skulls were shipped to Europe for scientific<br />
and pseudo-scientific research.<br />
After World <strong>War</strong> I, such artifacts<br />
became one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mainstays <strong>of</strong> Nazi<br />
racial <strong>the</strong>ories. Additionally, heads<br />
and skulls provided popular souvenirs<br />
for colonial <strong>of</strong>ficials and tourists,<br />
even being used as ashtrays.<br />
During World <strong>War</strong> I, <strong>the</strong> British<br />
Empire conquered German East<br />
Africa, though not without difficulty.<br />
The Hehe supported <strong>the</strong> British,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> post-war British administrator<br />
(and later governor) <strong>of</strong> former<br />
German East Africa, Horace Byatt,<br />
suggested <strong>the</strong> return <strong>of</strong> Mkwawa’s<br />
skull be one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> stipulations in <strong>the</strong><br />
Treaty <strong>of</strong> Versailles. His intention was<br />
to “allow <strong>the</strong> Hehe to bury it with due<br />
ceremony in <strong>the</strong> grave <strong>of</strong> Mkwawa,<br />
<strong>the</strong>reby giving <strong>the</strong> Hehe full satisfaction<br />
as <strong>the</strong>y have been constantly<br />
helpful during <strong>the</strong> war. In <strong>the</strong>ir eyes<br />
this would be a tangible pro<strong>of</strong> that<br />
German power has been completely<br />
broken.”<br />
The Colonial Office agreed with<br />
<strong>the</strong> suggestion, and <strong>the</strong> clause was<br />
duly inserted in <strong>the</strong> treaty as Article<br />
246, alongside a claim for an ancient<br />
Koran manuscript supposedly passed<br />
to Germany by <strong>the</strong> Turkish authorities<br />
who had removed it from Medina.<br />
The Germans were perplexed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> demand for <strong>the</strong> skull, which had<br />
nothing to do with <strong>the</strong> World <strong>War</strong>.<br />
They declared <strong>the</strong> skull had never<br />
been taken to Germany, and had<br />
probably been buried somewhere near<br />
Iringa. As <strong>the</strong> Germans had protested<br />
almost every article <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> treaty, <strong>the</strong><br />
British were not convinced by that argument<br />
and, after fur<strong>the</strong>r probing, <strong>the</strong><br />
German Foreign Ministry submitted<br />
a report to <strong>the</strong> British Foreign Office<br />
dated 6 May 1920. In that report, Col.<br />
Ernst Nigmann claimed he had exchanged<br />
Mkwawa’s skull for ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
with Mkwawa’s family.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r explanation was also<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered, this one affirmed by Merkl<br />
himself, that he had preserved <strong>the</strong><br />
head in alcohol, but that Hehe warriors<br />
had later broken into <strong>the</strong> German<br />
fort and removed <strong>the</strong> head and <strong>the</strong><br />
alcohol, leaving a substitute freshly<br />
severed head behind. The <strong>the</strong>ft was<br />
only discovered, he wrote, when<br />
<strong>the</strong> replacement head “came to <strong>the</strong><br />
olfactory attention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> German garrison.”<br />
In Tanganyika, Gov. Byatt scorned<br />
all those explanations, concluding<br />
that “to pretend <strong>the</strong> skull had been<br />
returned is a travesty <strong>of</strong> facts in an attempt<br />
to empty a fur<strong>the</strong>r clause <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
peace treaty.”<br />
Finally, though, on 22 August<br />
1921, Colonial Secretary Winston<br />
Churchill told Byatt that, “in <strong>the</strong> circumstances<br />
I do not propose to take<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r action in this matter”.<br />
There things rested until 1931,<br />
when German author Rudolf Frank<br />
published an anti-war novel titled The<br />
Skull <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Negro Chieftain Mkwawa,<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> skull was used a totem to<br />
lead <strong>the</strong> tribe to war. When <strong>the</strong> Nazis<br />
came to power in early 1933 <strong>the</strong><br />
book was banned, and it was publicly<br />
burned on 10 May that year alongside<br />
works by authors such as Freud,<br />
Einstein and Jack London. On 24<br />
May, Stanley Baldwin, British foreign<br />
affairs secretary, was asked in <strong>the</strong><br />
House <strong>of</strong> Commons <strong>the</strong> whereabouts<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> skull and <strong>the</strong> government’s<br />
intentions regarding it. He could<br />
only reply it had not yet been traced,<br />
and ano<strong>the</strong>r MP suggested, to much<br />
laughter, that Churchill and Lloyd<br />
George, as <strong>the</strong> main authors <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
treaty, should form a Royal Commission<br />
to investigate.<br />
On 7 June 1933, a Berlin newspaper<br />
followed up <strong>the</strong> parliamentary<br />
debate, claiming <strong>the</strong> story <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> skull<br />
was myth, and had only been used<br />
by British intelligence agents to stir<br />
up <strong>the</strong> tribes <strong>of</strong> Tanganyika against<br />
<strong>the</strong> German authorities. The skull<br />
story was thus used to disparage <strong>the</strong><br />
Versailles Treaty as a whole.<br />
On 17 March 1936, <strong>the</strong> whereabouts<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> skull was again<br />
discussed in <strong>the</strong> House <strong>of</strong> Commons.<br />
Again to much laughter, <strong>the</strong> colonial<br />
secretary replied that, despite <strong>the</strong> best<br />
efforts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> German government, it<br />
had not been traced, and would not be<br />
pursued fur<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
World <strong>War</strong> II <strong>the</strong>n intervened,<br />
but in 1951 Hehe Chief Adam Sepi,<br />
Mkwawa’s grandson, approached Sir<br />
Edward Twining, governor <strong>of</strong> Tanganyika,<br />
once more inquiring as to <strong>the</strong><br />
return <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> skull. Twining made new<br />
inquiries, and received information<br />
<strong>the</strong> skull might be at <strong>the</strong> Bremen’s<br />
Overseas Museum. Twining and <strong>the</strong><br />
local British consul visited <strong>the</strong>re,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> director revealed cupboards<br />
containing 2,000 human skulls while<br />
informing <strong>the</strong> visitors only 84 were<br />
from German East Africa. He also<br />
claimed no o<strong>the</strong>r institution in Germany<br />
had skulls from that region.<br />
The skulls were arranged according<br />
to <strong>the</strong>ir “cephalic indices.” For<br />
once <strong>the</strong> outmoded <strong>the</strong>ories <strong>of</strong> head<br />
measurement proved useful. Measurements<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> heads <strong>of</strong> Adam Sapi<br />
and his family all fell into Group 71<br />
and, among <strong>the</strong> skulls belonging to<br />
that group, one was discovered with<br />
strategy & tactics 31
For Your Information<br />
a bullet hole in <strong>the</strong> temple and signs<br />
<strong>of</strong> injury by a sharp object. Forensic<br />
study suggested <strong>the</strong> hole was caused<br />
by a bullet <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> type used by German<br />
colonial forces in <strong>the</strong> 1890s. The<br />
sheen <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> skull accorded with <strong>the</strong><br />
story <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> head having been dried<br />
and preserved in alcohol, and <strong>the</strong> condition<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> teeth appeared to match<br />
what was known about Mkwawa. A<br />
report and photos were sent to Sapi,<br />
who deemed <strong>the</strong> skull to be that <strong>of</strong> his<br />
grandfa<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
On 19 June 1954 <strong>the</strong> skull was<br />
formally returned to <strong>the</strong> Hehe, in a<br />
dramatic ceremony in front <strong>of</strong> 30,000<br />
people, some <strong>of</strong> whom had walked<br />
100 miles to take part. The skull was<br />
placed in a mausoleum in Kalenga,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Hehe sent several tribal<br />
artifacts to <strong>the</strong> Bremen museum in<br />
gratitude. Today <strong>the</strong> skull has been removed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Hehe to a more secure<br />
location, but a museum to Mkwawa<br />
remains, documenting <strong>the</strong> campaigns<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> African tribal chief and <strong>the</strong><br />
strange story <strong>of</strong> his skull, which featured<br />
in <strong>the</strong> unlikeliest <strong>of</strong> places—<strong>the</strong><br />
Treaty <strong>of</strong> Versailles.<br />
—Brendan Whyte<br />
Skull <strong>of</strong> Chief Mkwawa on display<br />
at <strong>the</strong> Mkwawa Memorial Museum,<br />
Kalenga, near Iringa.<br />
Not Their Finest Hour<br />
The Royal Navy’s Efforts in <strong>the</strong> Pacific <strong>War</strong><br />
The British Pacific Fleet in World<br />
<strong>War</strong> II represented <strong>the</strong> most powerful<br />
single naval striking force assembled<br />
by Britain in <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> that war<br />
and was, in fact, likely as powerful<br />
as any force assembled by <strong>the</strong> Royal<br />
Navy (RN) at any time in its history.<br />
By early 1945 <strong>the</strong> British Pacific Fleet<br />
consisted <strong>of</strong> six modern battleships,<br />
six new fleet aircraft carriers, 10 light<br />
carriers, 20 cruisers and nearly 100<br />
destroyers and o<strong>the</strong>r escort vessels,<br />
along with scores <strong>of</strong> lighter craft and<br />
supply ships. Yet one searches in vain<br />
in most histories <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pacific <strong>War</strong><br />
for even a mention <strong>of</strong> that formidable<br />
armada. The truth is, while elements<br />
<strong>of</strong> that British force were present<br />
in <strong>the</strong> late battles in <strong>the</strong> Central and<br />
North Pacific, <strong>the</strong>y played at best a<br />
marginal role <strong>the</strong>re. And why that was<br />
true makes an interesting footnote to<br />
World <strong>War</strong> II naval history.<br />
In December-February <strong>of</strong> 1941<br />
<strong>the</strong> British suffered several major<br />
defeats at <strong>the</strong> hands <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Japanese,<br />
losing <strong>the</strong> Repulse and Prince <strong>of</strong><br />
Wales along with <strong>the</strong>ir great base <strong>of</strong><br />
Singapore. In response, London sent<br />
naval reinforcements from <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Home Fleets. These<br />
amounted to several older battleships<br />
and aircraft carriers, eight cruisers<br />
and some destroyers, all under <strong>the</strong><br />
command <strong>of</strong> Adm. James Somerville<br />
and forming <strong>the</strong> Far East Fleet based<br />
in Ceylon. The Japanese battleshipcarrier<br />
strike force under Adm. Nagumo<br />
sortied into <strong>the</strong> Indian Ocean in<br />
April 1942, but Somerville declined<br />
battle. When Japanese airstrikes on<br />
Ceylon and India did substantial damage<br />
and sank a carrier and two cruisers,<br />
Somerville withdrew far<strong>the</strong>r west<br />
to Mombassa on <strong>the</strong> coast <strong>of</strong> West<br />
Africa, conceding to <strong>the</strong> Japanese <strong>the</strong><br />
East Indian Ocean. Instead <strong>of</strong> engaging<br />
<strong>the</strong> Japanese at a disadvantage, he<br />
concentrated on protecting <strong>the</strong> Allied<br />
supply route to <strong>the</strong> Middle East.<br />
In mid-1942 <strong>the</strong> Japanese turned<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir attention to <strong>the</strong> Southwest Pacific<br />
and, with <strong>the</strong> threat to <strong>the</strong> Indian<br />
Ocean substantially reduced, many <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> British capital ships in <strong>the</strong> Indian<br />
Ocean returned to <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> next two years, Japan continued<br />
to threaten much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indian<br />
Ocean with light forces and submarines,<br />
including a flotilla <strong>of</strong> German<br />
U-boats based in Penang.<br />
In early 1944 <strong>the</strong> situation again<br />
changed. The war in <strong>the</strong> Atlantic was<br />
going so well <strong>the</strong> British were able<br />
to reinforce <strong>the</strong>ir Far East Fleet to a<br />
strength <strong>of</strong> three battleships (Queen<br />
Elizabeth, Valiant and Renown),<br />
a fleet carrier (Illustrious), eight<br />
cruisers and o<strong>the</strong>r supporting units.<br />
Several new state <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> art battleships<br />
and fleet carriers were ticketed<br />
for future assignment to <strong>the</strong> growing<br />
Far East Fleet. Churchill pushed hard<br />
for early <strong>of</strong>fensive action against<br />
<strong>the</strong> Andaman Islands in <strong>the</strong> eastern<br />
Indian Ocean (Operation Buccaneer),<br />
Burma (Operation Bullfrog) and<br />
Sumatra (Operation Culverin), but<br />
those plans also required substantial<br />
ground forces, sea-lift capacity for<br />
amphibious invasion, and enormous<br />
stockpiles <strong>of</strong> supplies, none <strong>of</strong> which<br />
were available in India.<br />
In February 1944 <strong>the</strong> Japanese<br />
shifted much <strong>the</strong>ir remaining surface<br />
fleet—seven battleships, two fleet<br />
carriers, four heavy cruisers and accompanying<br />
destroyers—to Singapore<br />
from Truk to avoid American<br />
air attacks. That worried Somerville,<br />
and he requested and got an American<br />
carrier, Saratoga, to reinforce his naval<br />
airpower. Still, <strong>the</strong> Japanese made<br />
no <strong>of</strong>fensive move, nor did <strong>the</strong> Royal<br />
Navy.<br />
The new British fleet was slow to<br />
assemble. Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> veteran units<br />
had seen heavy duty in o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>aters.<br />
They required refits before beginning<br />
32 #238
For Your Information<br />
a new campaign, while <strong>the</strong> newer<br />
units were still training. Nearly all <strong>the</strong><br />
British carrier aircraft were replaced<br />
by new American models—Corsair<br />
and Hellcat fighters and Avenger<br />
torpedo bombers—and that involved<br />
retraining RN pilots.<br />
By late 1944 <strong>the</strong> British finally<br />
felt strong enough to move <strong>of</strong>fensively.<br />
In January 1945 <strong>the</strong> Far East Fleet<br />
was split into two commands. Left<br />
at Ceylon was <strong>the</strong> East Indies Fleet,<br />
built around two older battleships,<br />
Queen Elizabeth and Renown, four<br />
escort carriers, nine cruisers, and two<br />
dozen destroyers under Adm. Arthur<br />
Power. The bulk <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> force went to<br />
a second new command, <strong>the</strong> British<br />
Pacific Fleet (or BPF), under Adm.<br />
Bruce Fraser, which was to home-port<br />
in Australia with an intermediate support<br />
base at Manus in <strong>the</strong> Admiralty<br />
Islands.<br />
Initially <strong>the</strong> BPF was composed<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> battleship King George V,<br />
fleet carriers Indomitable, Victorious,<br />
Indefatigable and Illustrious, three<br />
cruisers and 10 destroyers. Admiralty<br />
plans called for <strong>the</strong> BPF to be reinforced<br />
over time with two more new<br />
fleet carriers, Implacable and Glorious,<br />
and five more battleships, Anson,<br />
Howe, Duke <strong>of</strong> York (all new), Nelson<br />
and <strong>the</strong> French Richelieu, along with<br />
several score light carriers, cruisers,<br />
destroyers and numerous o<strong>the</strong>r craft,<br />
amounting to over 200 ships.<br />
It had become clear <strong>the</strong> closing<br />
battles <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war would be fought<br />
in waters near <strong>the</strong> home islands <strong>of</strong><br />
Japan. Churchill was intent on demonstrating<br />
Britain was still a major<br />
power in <strong>the</strong> Pacific by having <strong>the</strong><br />
Royal Navy play an important role in<br />
that final campaign. London intended<br />
<strong>the</strong> BPF to be a full partner with <strong>the</strong><br />
Americans in <strong>the</strong> Pacific naval campaigns<br />
in 1945 if for no o<strong>the</strong>r reason<br />
than to restore <strong>the</strong> British Empire’s<br />
prestige in <strong>the</strong> Far East. After refueling<br />
and re-supplying <strong>the</strong> BPF in<br />
Australia, on 15 March 1945, secondin-command<br />
Adm. Phillip Rawlings<br />
formally reported his command <strong>of</strong><br />
two battleships, four fleet carriers,<br />
five cruisers and nine destroyers to<br />
Adm. Nimitz as ready for duty. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> 23 March he sailed north to join<br />
<strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong>f Okinawa as Task Force<br />
57 within <strong>the</strong> US Navy’s (USN) Third<br />
Fleet.<br />
The RN task force participated<br />
in <strong>the</strong> invasion <strong>of</strong> Okinawa and in<br />
air and surface gunfire attacks on <strong>the</strong><br />
Japanese home islands in <strong>the</strong> remaining<br />
six months <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war. The BPF<br />
lost no ships but did suffer numerous<br />
Kamikaze hits. British carriers had<br />
steel decks and so were better protected<br />
against <strong>the</strong> suicide airplanes.<br />
The BPF never exceeded four fleet<br />
carriers and two battleships on station<br />
at any one time, and maintaining even<br />
that force level proved difficult owing<br />
to logistics and o<strong>the</strong>r missions. The<br />
BPF did all US Adm. Halsey asked<br />
<strong>of</strong> it, but mostly performed support<br />
tasks. The <strong>of</strong>ficial history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> BPF<br />
states its most important contribution<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Pacific <strong>War</strong> might well have<br />
been <strong>the</strong> destruction by its carrier<br />
planes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> major Japanese oil<br />
refinery and depot at Palembang in<br />
<strong>the</strong> East Indies, carried out while <strong>the</strong><br />
fleet was still enroute from <strong>the</strong> Indian<br />
Ocean to Australia.<br />
That <strong>of</strong>ficial history also illustrates<br />
<strong>the</strong> difference in scale <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
two naval wars—<strong>the</strong> Pacific and<br />
everywhere else. Powerful as <strong>the</strong> BPF<br />
would have been in any o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>ater<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war, it amounted to just one<br />
<strong>of</strong> four tasks forces in Halsey’s fleet,<br />
which itself was but one <strong>of</strong> several<br />
US Pacific fleets. Even accepting <strong>the</strong><br />
BPF could never have been anything<br />
like an equal partner with <strong>the</strong> USN in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> numbers, <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial history<br />
also notes its performance left much<br />
to be desired.<br />
The BPF was responsible for its<br />
own logistical support, and <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />
history attributes many <strong>of</strong> its difficulties<br />
to that fact: “It is impossible<br />
to escape <strong>the</strong> obvious conclusion...<br />
<strong>the</strong> resources <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> British Empire<br />
were incapable <strong>of</strong> providing <strong>the</strong> ships,<br />
bases and facilities necessary to<br />
maintain adequately <strong>the</strong> Pacific Fleet<br />
operating as it was...at great distances<br />
from <strong>the</strong> main base.”<br />
A supply and support train, such<br />
as <strong>the</strong> US Navy had created to support<br />
fleet units on station, could not<br />
be put toge<strong>the</strong>r quickly, if indeed at<br />
all, given Britain’s depleted resources.<br />
The <strong>of</strong>ficial US Navy history says<br />
<strong>the</strong> British squadrons were “shortlegged,”<br />
meaning <strong>the</strong>y were unsuited<br />
to long cruises with no re-supply or<br />
refits for months. The Royal Navy<br />
had operated primarily in <strong>the</strong> North<br />
Atlantic and Mediterranean, where<br />
distances from bases didn’t begin<br />
to match <strong>the</strong> vastness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pacific.<br />
It hadn’t been necessary for <strong>the</strong> RN<br />
to develop an extensive fleet supply<br />
train, or master <strong>the</strong> tricky technology<br />
<strong>of</strong> refueling while underway at<br />
15 knots, and its ships lacked <strong>the</strong><br />
personnel and equipment needed to<br />
make major repairs at sea. The BPF<br />
could stay on station for three to four<br />
weeks at most, and individual ships<br />
were constantly dropping out sooner<br />
than that. It’s <strong>the</strong>refore inconceivable<br />
<strong>the</strong> much larger BPF <strong>the</strong> British had<br />
planned could have been supported<br />
logistically.<br />
There was an even more serious<br />
problem concerning BPF—carrier<br />
aviation. US carrier groups planned<br />
for a monthly loss <strong>of</strong> 20 percent <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir planes when heavily engaged,<br />
with <strong>the</strong> losses quickly made up with<br />
replacements flown in from supporting<br />
escort carriers. The BPF’s losses<br />
in <strong>the</strong> 24 strike days <strong>of</strong>f Okinawa<br />
(March-April 1945) amounted to<br />
over 80 percent <strong>of</strong> its entire aircraft<br />
establishment. Those heavy losses<br />
continued in later operations. For<br />
example, Implacable lost 28 percent<br />
strategy & tactics 33
For Your Information<br />
<strong>of</strong> her strike force on July 24-25,<br />
and some 20 percent conducting<br />
her last action on 10 August. Taken<br />
altoge<strong>the</strong>r, British aircraft losses were<br />
50 percent higher than comparable<br />
American ones.<br />
The <strong>of</strong>ficial history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> BPF<br />
attributes he loss rates partly to <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> “electronic counter-measures,<br />
stand-<strong>of</strong>f weapons and fragmentation<br />
bombs,” which <strong>the</strong> Americans used<br />
successfully to suppress Japanese<br />
radar and anti-aircraft defenses. It was<br />
also true many BPF pilots were new<br />
and lacked experience in attacking<br />
well defended ground targets. They<br />
had <strong>the</strong> bad luck to get <strong>the</strong>ir on-<strong>the</strong>job-training<br />
when <strong>the</strong> Japanese were<br />
fighting desperately in defense <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir home islands. More, <strong>the</strong> relative<br />
unfamiliarity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> British pilots<br />
and crews with <strong>the</strong>ir new Corsairs,<br />
Hellcats and Avengers made for<br />
frequent crashes on landing. The<br />
overarching truth probably is that <strong>the</strong><br />
BPF was rushed into combat without<br />
an adequate training and shake-down<br />
period.<br />
In sum, <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Royal Navy in World <strong>War</strong> II manages<br />
a positive ending note: “The<br />
renewal and streng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> mutual<br />
confidence between <strong>the</strong> sea services<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two principle maritime nations<br />
will stand as <strong>the</strong> greatest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> accomplishments<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> British Pacific<br />
Fleet.”<br />
That’s probably a fair claim, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> experience was also important for<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r reason: it marked <strong>the</strong> clear<br />
transition in global naval supremacy.<br />
The best fleet Britain could contribute<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Pacific <strong>War</strong> was only a supporting<br />
player to American naval power.<br />
The future <strong>of</strong> naval warfare would<br />
henceforth be dominated by <strong>the</strong> application<br />
<strong>of</strong> large-scale, expensive,<br />
high-technologies that were beyond<br />
Britain’s resource. So it was in 1945,<br />
and so it remained through <strong>the</strong> long<br />
decades <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> next global struggle,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Cold <strong>War</strong> with <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union.<br />
⎯ <strong>War</strong>ren C. Robinson<br />
TURKISH GETTYSBURG<br />
THE BATTLE OF THE SAKARYA RIVER<br />
Some battles decide not simply<br />
<strong>the</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> wars but <strong>the</strong> existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> nations, such as Hastings, Waterloo,<br />
Gettysburg and <strong>the</strong> Battle <strong>of</strong><br />
Britain. One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> least known such<br />
battles was fought from 23 August<br />
to 14 September 1921, along <strong>the</strong><br />
Sakarya River in west-central Turkey.<br />
Turkey was prostrate from its<br />
defeat in World <strong>War</strong> I, bankrupt,<br />
dismembered and with a quarter <strong>of</strong> its<br />
population dead from fighting, famine<br />
and disease. The capital city <strong>of</strong><br />
Constantinople was Allied-occupied.<br />
The victorious Allies imposed on <strong>the</strong><br />
Sultan and his client government a<br />
treaty that stripped Turkey itself <strong>of</strong> 75<br />
percent <strong>of</strong> its territory and effectively<br />
left <strong>the</strong> remainder under foreign control.<br />
“But,” as Winston Churchill<br />
would later write <strong>of</strong> this episode,<br />
“among <strong>the</strong> stern hills and valleys <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Turkish homeland in Anatolia,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re dwelt <strong>the</strong> company <strong>of</strong> poor<br />
men…who would not see it settled so;<br />
and at <strong>the</strong>ir bivouac fires at this moment<br />
sat in <strong>the</strong> rags <strong>of</strong> a refugee <strong>the</strong><br />
august Spirit <strong>of</strong> Fair Play.” Embodying<br />
that spirit was <strong>the</strong> man Churchill<br />
said, “ranks with <strong>the</strong> four or five<br />
outstanding figures <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cataclysm”:<br />
Mustafa Kemal, later known as<br />
Ataturk (Fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Turks, 1881-<br />
1938).<br />
A combination <strong>of</strong> patriot, soldier,<br />
statesman and libertine, Kemal<br />
organized a resistance movement and<br />
rival government in Anatolia, routed<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sultan’s forces in a brief civil war,<br />
and attacked British positions near<br />
Constantinople. The French and Italians<br />
were prepared to withdraw, but<br />
British Prime Minister David Lloyd<br />
George was determined to persevere,<br />
and found an ironic enforcer for<br />
Imperial policy in <strong>the</strong> King <strong>of</strong> Greece,<br />
Constantine I. Constantine had been<br />
ousted by <strong>the</strong> Allies during <strong>the</strong> war<br />
as pro-German, <strong>the</strong>n returned when<br />
his son and successor died <strong>of</strong> blood<br />
poisoning after being bit by his pet<br />
monkey. Churchill was to observe <strong>of</strong><br />
that: “It is perhaps no exaggeration<br />
to remark that a quarter <strong>of</strong> a million<br />
persons died <strong>of</strong> this monkey’s bite.”<br />
With ambitions for a new Hellenic<br />
empire in Asia Minor, <strong>the</strong> king<br />
escalated Greece’s occupation role<br />
into an invasion <strong>of</strong> Anatolia. After<br />
two failed <strong>of</strong>fensives, some 126,000<br />
Greeks—with superiorities <strong>of</strong> 410 to<br />
160 cannon and 4,000 machineguns<br />
to 700—broke through Turkish lines<br />
on 10 July 1921 to capture <strong>the</strong> strategic<br />
rail center <strong>of</strong> Eskishehir.<br />
In reaction, Kemal shot hundreds<br />
<strong>of</strong> deserters, ruthlessly requisitioned<br />
supplies from <strong>the</strong> civil population,<br />
and ordered his troops to dig in along<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sakarya River to make a final<br />
stand just 50 miles from his capital<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ankara. Halide Edip, who served<br />
in his headquarters during <strong>the</strong> battle,<br />
later said Kemal “was not quite sure<br />
that this would lead to victory, and he<br />
saw that he had to die with <strong>the</strong> rest if<br />
<strong>the</strong> disaster took place.”<br />
For 22 days <strong>the</strong> Greeks battled<br />
90,000 Turks in ridges and hills 60<br />
miles along <strong>the</strong> Sakarya River. “The<br />
fighting was fierce and murderous,”<br />
wrote Kemal’s biographer Lord<br />
Kinross. Kemal ordered: “Not one<br />
inch <strong>of</strong> Turkish soil will be surrendered<br />
until it is drenched in Turkish<br />
blood!” Bleeding most pr<strong>of</strong>usely was<br />
<strong>the</strong> 5,000-man <strong>of</strong>ficer corps Kemal<br />
had created. Of <strong>the</strong>m, 300 were killed<br />
and more than ano<strong>the</strong>r 1,000 were<br />
wounded. Kemal would later say it<br />
was indeed “an <strong>of</strong>ficer’s battle.”<br />
The Greeks crossed <strong>the</strong> river,<br />
taking <strong>the</strong> important heights <strong>of</strong> Mount<br />
Mangal <strong>the</strong> first night, <strong>the</strong>n advanced<br />
foot by bloody foot up <strong>the</strong> hills and<br />
ridge lines along <strong>the</strong> Sakarya a mile a<br />
day for 10 days toward <strong>the</strong> key Mount<br />
Chal. “Until <strong>the</strong>y occupy <strong>the</strong> Mount<br />
Chal <strong>the</strong>re is nothing to worry about,”<br />
said Kemal, “but if <strong>the</strong>y do that, we<br />
had better look out.”<br />
When <strong>the</strong> Greeks did take it,<br />
Halide Edip wrote: “There was grim<br />
silence everywhere, and <strong>the</strong> ugliest<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> fate seemed to hang over everyone<br />
in <strong>the</strong> headquarters…[Kemal]<br />
tormented himself with indecision as<br />
to whe<strong>the</strong>r he should order <strong>the</strong> retreat<br />
or not.”<br />
34 #238
In a speech a few weeks later, Kemal claimed: “For<br />
an army that keeps its head, a single position is <strong>of</strong> no<br />
importance…Accordingly, our army was not worried by<br />
<strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> Mount Chal.” Still, he ordered a counterattack.<br />
And so Chal Dag [“dag” = mountain. Ed.] was taken back<br />
six days later, and Kemal continued <strong>the</strong> counter<strong>of</strong>fensive.<br />
He later described how <strong>the</strong> hills were “lively with <strong>the</strong><br />
lugubrious intonation <strong>of</strong> artillery and <strong>the</strong> nervous tic-tac<br />
<strong>of</strong> machineguns. Through <strong>the</strong> field glass I could see men<br />
coming nearer and nearer and even <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> men in<br />
<strong>the</strong> front line, leaving it indented and broken, and <strong>the</strong> final<br />
onslaught with bayonets. Thus <strong>the</strong> ants take <strong>the</strong>ir exercises<br />
around <strong>the</strong> small yellow mounds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir nests.”<br />
The Greeks were by that time short <strong>of</strong> food, water and<br />
ammunition. Their supply lines, overextended and o<strong>the</strong>rwise<br />
inadequate, were repeatedly cut by Turkish cavalry<br />
raiders. Kemal’s deputy, Ismet, had fought <strong>the</strong> Greek commander,<br />
Gen. Anastasios Papoulas, in an earlier <strong>of</strong>fensive<br />
and knew <strong>the</strong> latter was prone to lose his nerve: “Papoulas<br />
avoided disaster. But he never won a battle.”<br />
And <strong>the</strong> Greek commander chose in <strong>the</strong> end to continue<br />
that record. He recommended withdrawal <strong>the</strong> day after he<br />
had taken Chal Dag. Turkish losses were 3,700 dead and<br />
18,000 wounded, against 4,000 Greek dead and 19,000<br />
wounded. Traveling with <strong>the</strong> Greeks as a correspondent,<br />
historian Arnold Toynbee wondered: “Would a Greek army<br />
penetrate that distance into Anatolia again?”<br />
The answer was “no.” After several more defeats, <strong>the</strong><br />
Greek army entirely evacuated Anatolia via <strong>the</strong> port <strong>of</strong><br />
Smyrna a year later. Kemal’s forces ei<strong>the</strong>r torched, or let<br />
fires consume, <strong>the</strong> Greek and Armenian quarters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
town and slaughtered thousands <strong>of</strong> its inhabitants. The<br />
debacle brought down Lloyd George in Britain. It also led<br />
to a revolution in A<strong>the</strong>ns that sent <strong>the</strong> king into final exile<br />
while his prime minister and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong>ficials faced a firing<br />
squad. In Lausanne, Switzerland, Ismet negotiated a new<br />
peace treaty, no doubt one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> best ever secured by a<br />
defeated nation, which restored Turkey’s independence and<br />
secured its modern boundaries.<br />
Years later, when he was President <strong>of</strong> Turkey, Kemal<br />
was presented a heroic-scale painting <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Battle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sakarya River, but angrily rejected it: “All those who took<br />
part in <strong>the</strong> battle know very well that our horses were all<br />
skin and bone and that we were hardly any better ourselves.<br />
Skeletons all <strong>of</strong> us. In painting those fine warriors<br />
and sleek horses, you dishonor Sakarya, my friend.”<br />
⎯ John W. Osborn, Jr.<br />
DATA FILE:<br />
American Ships <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Line<br />
For two centuries—from 1650 to 1850—a nation’s<br />
naval prestige was measured by its ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line.<br />
Ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line were wooden sailing vessels with at least<br />
two full gun decks and mounting a total <strong>of</strong> 64 or more<br />
cannon. They were capable <strong>of</strong> standing in a line-<strong>of</strong>-battle<br />
and contending for command <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sea. The United States<br />
became an independent country only in <strong>the</strong> latter half <strong>of</strong><br />
this era, and had a real navy only in <strong>the</strong> last half-century <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> fighting sail.<br />
Still, between 1776 and 1850 various US administrations<br />
authorized construction <strong>of</strong> 23 ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong> line, and<br />
continues next page<br />
The Long Tradition:<br />
50 issues ago, S&T 188:<br />
Army Group South. The issue game<br />
was a reprint <strong>of</strong> two scenarios from <strong>the</strong><br />
halcyon days <strong>of</strong> SPI, Kiev and Rostov,<br />
with <strong>the</strong> lead article being Joseph<br />
Miranda’s analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Eastern Front.<br />
Elsewhere in <strong>the</strong> Big One, Arnold Blumberg<br />
wrote about Anvil-Dragoon, <strong>the</strong><br />
invasion <strong>of</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn France. Britain Train<br />
made <strong>the</strong> long march with <strong>the</strong> Chinese<br />
civil wars, and Michael Holmes looked<br />
at German defensive doctrine in <strong>the</strong> 20 th<br />
century.<br />
100 Issues Ago, S&T 138:<br />
Eylau. Ken Broadhurst designed a quick and<br />
dirty wargame <strong>of</strong> Napoleon’s winter battle<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Russians that turned into <strong>the</strong><br />
Emperor’s first stalemate, while Raymond<br />
Bell wrote <strong>the</strong> article on <strong>the</strong> same topic.<br />
Then Stephen B. Patrick plunged into a<br />
millennia <strong>of</strong> war, treachery and civilization<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Byzantine Empire.<br />
150 Issues Ago, S&T 88:<br />
British Army <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rhine. The<br />
redoubtable Chuck Kamps contributed to<br />
S&T’s NATO series with <strong>the</strong> British sector<br />
in that great World <strong>War</strong> III that never<br />
quite broke out. The prolific Al N<strong>of</strong>i <strong>the</strong>n<br />
stood with Prince Hal and Joan <strong>of</strong> Arc in<br />
his article on <strong>the</strong> Hundred Years <strong>War</strong>. And<br />
FYI continued <strong>the</strong> tradition <strong>of</strong> military<br />
trivia.<br />
200 Issues Ago, S&T 38:<br />
CA. “CA” stands for heavy cruiser, and <strong>the</strong><br />
issue game was Dave Isby’s design <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
same name covering tactical level ship<br />
to ship combat in <strong>the</strong> Pacific Theater <strong>of</strong><br />
Operations, WWII. It was sort <strong>of</strong> like<br />
Panzerblitz on <strong>the</strong> high seas. Then Al N<strong>of</strong>i<br />
wrote about <strong>the</strong> Gettysburg campaign,<br />
putting <strong>the</strong> big battle into <strong>the</strong> bigger<br />
picture, while Sid Sackson reviewed nonwargame<br />
games out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> wrapper.<br />
strategy & tactics 35
For Your Information<br />
built 15. Some proved little more than<br />
“nice tries,” useful only as learning<br />
experiences in naval architecture.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs were examples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir type’s<br />
finest designs: heavily armed yet fast<br />
and maneuverable. All but two <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
US ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong> line, those two built<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Great Lakes, were designed by<br />
three men: Joshua Humphries, a selftaught<br />
naval architect who designed<br />
<strong>the</strong> frigates Constitution and Constellation,<br />
his son, Samuel Humphries,<br />
and John Doughty, a protégé <strong>of</strong><br />
Humphries. The American ships-<strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong>-line<br />
were as follows.<br />
America Class: three authorized, one<br />
built<br />
Designer: Joshua Humphries<br />
Tonnage: 1,982<br />
Dimensions: 183’6” x 50’6” x 23’<br />
Rating: 74 guns<br />
Intended Armament: 30 x 18-pound<br />
guns, 32 x 12-pound long guns,<br />
and 14 x 9-pound long guns.<br />
The Continental Congress authorized<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> three ships-<strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong>-line<br />
in November 1776, to be<br />
built in Portsmouth, Boston and<br />
Philadelphia. Only <strong>the</strong> Portsmouth<br />
ship was built.<br />
America<br />
Keel Laid: May 1777<br />
Launched: 5 November 1782<br />
John Paul Jones superintended construction.<br />
The ship was given to<br />
France to replace <strong>the</strong> Magnifique<br />
(74) wrecked at Boston. The ship<br />
sailed to France in 1783. Lighter<br />
than French 74s, built <strong>of</strong> inferior<br />
wood and a poor sailer, America<br />
was laid up at Brest until broken<br />
up in 1786.<br />
1799 Class: six authorized<br />
Designers: Joshua & Samuel<br />
Humphries<br />
Tonnage: 1,859<br />
Dimensions: 183 ’x 48’6” x 19’6”<br />
Rating: 74 guns<br />
Intended Armament: 74 x 32-pound<br />
long guns<br />
The quasi-war with France motivated<br />
Congress to authorize funding<br />
for six 74-gun ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line<br />
on 25 February 1799. Materials<br />
were assembled, but <strong>the</strong> war‘s end<br />
also ended <strong>the</strong> need to build <strong>the</strong>se<br />
ships. They were never begun.<br />
Their materials were eventually<br />
used in <strong>the</strong> Independence class<br />
ships.<br />
Independence Class: four authorized<br />
and built<br />
Designer: Samuel Humphries<br />
Tonnage: 2,243<br />
Dimensions: 190’10” x 54’7.5” x 25’<br />
Rating: 74 guns<br />
Intended Armament: 30 x long<br />
32-pound cannon, 33 x medium<br />
32-pound cannon, 24 x 32-pound<br />
carronades.<br />
Authorized: 2 January 1813, as a result<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>War</strong> <strong>of</strong> 1812. Only one<br />
completed before war’s end. Ships<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> class were as follows.<br />
Independence<br />
Keel Laid: August 1813<br />
Launched & Commissioned: 22 June<br />
1814<br />
Service as a ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line: 1814-22<br />
Converted 1836, <strong>the</strong>reafter a 54-gun<br />
frigate. Then a receiving ship:<br />
1854-1912. Disposed: 1913. The<br />
first ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line finished for<br />
<strong>the</strong> US Navy, a design flaw put<br />
its lower gun ports only three feet<br />
above <strong>the</strong> water. The lower deck<br />
had to be caulked shut when cruising.<br />
It was converted to a successful<br />
large frigate by removing <strong>the</strong><br />
upper gun deck.<br />
Washington<br />
Keel Laid: May 1813<br />
Launched: 1 October 1814<br />
Commissioned: 26 August 1815<br />
Service as ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line: August<br />
1815-20<br />
Broken Up: 1843<br />
Served as <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean flagship<br />
1816-18.<br />
Franklin<br />
Keel Laid: 1814<br />
Launched: 21 August 1815<br />
Commissioned: 20 October 1817<br />
Service as ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line: 1817-24<br />
A Receiving Ship: 1843-53<br />
Broken Up: 1853<br />
Franklin served on two foreign<br />
cruises: <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean, 1818-<br />
20; and <strong>the</strong> Pacific 1821-24.<br />
Columbus<br />
Keel Laid: May 1816<br />
Launched: 1 March 1819<br />
Commissioned: 29 November 1819<br />
Service as ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line: 1819-21 &<br />
1845-48<br />
Burned: April 1861.<br />
Delayed due to <strong>the</strong> destruction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Washington Navy Yard in 1814,<br />
Columbus’s design was <strong>the</strong>n<br />
modified to improve its buoyancy.<br />
Initial armament was 68 x<br />
long 32-pound cannon and 24 x<br />
42-pound carronades. Served as<br />
Mediterranean flagship 1820-21<br />
and on <strong>the</strong> 1846 expedition to<br />
Japan. Supported naval operations<br />
along <strong>the</strong> Pacific coast during <strong>the</strong><br />
Mexican-American <strong>War</strong>. Burned in<br />
Norfolk to prevent capture by <strong>the</strong><br />
Confederates during <strong>the</strong> Civil <strong>War</strong>.<br />
Great Lakes Class: two authorized and<br />
built<br />
Designers: Henry Eckford, Adam &<br />
Noah Brown<br />
Tonnage: 2,805<br />
Dimensions: 204’ x 56’ x 24’<br />
Rating: 74 guns<br />
Intended Armament: 63 x long 32-<br />
pound cannon, 24 x 32-pound<br />
carronades.<br />
Congress authorized construction <strong>of</strong><br />
ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line for <strong>the</strong> Great<br />
Lakes on 3 March 1813. Construction<br />
started in January 1815, and<br />
was completed in 42 days. The war<br />
<strong>the</strong>n ended, and nei<strong>the</strong>r ship was<br />
launched. Both sat on <strong>the</strong> stocks<br />
for many years.<br />
New Orleans<br />
Keel Laid: January 1815<br />
Hull Completed: March 1815<br />
Sold: 24 September 1883<br />
Chippewa<br />
Keel Laid: January 1815<br />
Hull Completed: March 1815<br />
Sold: 1 November 1833<br />
North Carolina Class: seven authorized<br />
and built<br />
Designer: William Doughty<br />
Tonnage: 2,633 (Ohio 2,757)<br />
Dimensions: 196’3 ”x 53’ x 21’6”<br />
(Ohio 197’ x 2”)<br />
36 #238
For Your Information<br />
Rating: 74 guns<br />
Intended Armament: 32 x 42-pound<br />
long guns, 32 x 32-pound long<br />
guns, 30 x 42-pound carronades.<br />
(In practice, each ship carried a<br />
different battery.)<br />
These were among “nine ships to rate<br />
not less than 74 guns” authorized<br />
by Congress on 29 April 1816<br />
(including reauthorizing <strong>the</strong><br />
Columbus). The Navy intended to<br />
complete <strong>the</strong> hulls and leave <strong>the</strong>m<br />
on <strong>the</strong> stocks as a reserve to be<br />
drawn on in <strong>the</strong> event <strong>of</strong> war. All<br />
hulls were completed before 1825,<br />
but some were not launched until<br />
<strong>the</strong> Civil <strong>War</strong>, and <strong>the</strong>n as store<br />
ships. Only three saw service as<br />
ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line.<br />
North Carolina<br />
Keel Laid: February 1818<br />
Launched: 7 September 1821<br />
Commissioned: 24 June 1824<br />
Service as ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line: 1824-27<br />
& 1836-39.<br />
Receiving ship: 1839-65<br />
Sold: October 1867.<br />
The North Carolina served as Mediterranean<br />
flagship in <strong>the</strong> 1820s and<br />
Pacific Squadron flagship in <strong>the</strong><br />
1830s, <strong>the</strong>n became <strong>the</strong> receiving<br />
ship <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> New York Naval Yard.<br />
Ohio<br />
Keel Laid: November 1817<br />
Launched: 30 May 1820<br />
Commissioned: 11 October 1838<br />
Service as a ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line: 1838-41<br />
& 1847-50<br />
Receiving Ship: 1850-75<br />
Sold: October 1883<br />
Served as Mediterranean flagship on<br />
first cruise; supported naval operations<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Gulf during <strong>the</strong> Mexican-American<br />
<strong>War</strong>, and flagship<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Brazil station on second<br />
cruise. Receiving ship at Boston<br />
Navy Yard <strong>the</strong>reafter. In 1847 <strong>the</strong><br />
armament was amended to 12 x<br />
8” shell guns (four per deck), 28 x<br />
long 42-pounders, 32 x 32-pound<br />
guns and a dozen x 32-pound<br />
gunnades (carronades mounted on<br />
rotating platforms).<br />
Delaware<br />
Keel Laid: August 1817<br />
Launched: 21 October 1820<br />
Commissioned: 27 March 1827<br />
Service as ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line: 1827-30<br />
& 1833-36 & 1841-44.<br />
Burned: Norfolk, 1861.<br />
Delaware served its first two cruises<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean Squadron,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> third as flagship <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Brazil Squadron.<br />
Vermont<br />
Keel Laid: September 1818<br />
Hull completed 1825<br />
Launched: 15 September 1848<br />
Recommissioned: 30 January 1862 as<br />
depot ship.<br />
Struck from Navy list 19 December<br />
1901.<br />
Vermont was commissioned to serve<br />
as <strong>the</strong> depot for <strong>the</strong> Union squadron<br />
at Port Royal, SC. Relieved<br />
July 1864, it <strong>the</strong>n served as a<br />
receiving ship at New York until<br />
October 1865, and again from<br />
1884 to 1901.<br />
Alabama (renamed New Hampshire<br />
1863, Granite State 1904)<br />
Keel Laid: June 1819<br />
Hull completed 1825<br />
Launched: 24 April 24 1864<br />
Commissioned: 13 May 1864 as a<br />
depot ship.<br />
Training Ship: 1866-1921<br />
Burned: 23 May 1921<br />
Relieved Vermont as depot ship <strong>of</strong>f<br />
Port Royal. After <strong>the</strong> Civil <strong>War</strong><br />
served as a navy depot a training<br />
ship until 1892, when it was<br />
assigned to <strong>the</strong> New York State<br />
Naval Militia, where it served as a<br />
training ship <strong>the</strong>reafter.<br />
New York<br />
Keel Laid: March 1820<br />
Hull Completed 1825<br />
Never launched. Burned on stocks,<br />
Norfolk Navy Yard, April 1861.<br />
Virginia<br />
Keel Laid: May 1822<br />
Hull Completed 1825<br />
Never launched. Broken-up on stocks,<br />
Boston Navy Yard, April 1884.<br />
Pennsylvania Class: one authorized<br />
and built<br />
Designer: Samuel Humphries<br />
Tonnage: 3,105<br />
Dimensions: 210’ x 56’9” x 24’<br />
Rating: 120<br />
Intended Armament: 16 x 8” shell<br />
guns and 80 x 32-pound long<br />
guns, 24 x 32-pound gunnades.<br />
Keel Laid: September 1821<br />
Launched: 18 July 18 1837<br />
Commissioned: 28 November 1837<br />
Service as ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line: 1837-38<br />
Receiving ship Norfolk Navy Yard<br />
1842-61<br />
Burned, Norfolk, 1861<br />
Built in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania<br />
was intended as a four-deck “super”<br />
ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line, but proved<br />
too expensive to operate and man.<br />
After a cruise from Philadelphia<br />
to Norfolk, <strong>the</strong> ship used only as a<br />
receiving ship <strong>the</strong>reafter.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> 15 ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line completed,<br />
11 were launched, and only<br />
eight served as ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line in <strong>the</strong><br />
United States Navy. Except for a brief<br />
period in 1819-20, when <strong>the</strong> USN<br />
had four ships-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line in commission,<br />
rarely were more than two at sea<br />
at any one time. The last cruise <strong>of</strong> a<br />
ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line as a warship ended in<br />
1850. Thereafter <strong>the</strong>y served as depot<br />
ships.<br />
Had a maritime war broken out<br />
between 1824 and 1836, <strong>the</strong> US Navy<br />
could have fielded a squadron <strong>of</strong> one<br />
120-gun and eleven 74-gun ships.<br />
Eight <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se could have individually<br />
matched any o<strong>the</strong>r warship in <strong>the</strong><br />
world. For those interested in what-if<br />
scenarios, a squadron action between<br />
<strong>the</strong> US and a European power during<br />
those years <strong>of</strong>fers tantalizing possibilities.<br />
After 1836, scrapping and<br />
conversion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> older ships, combined<br />
with <strong>the</strong> rise <strong>of</strong> steam powered<br />
vessels, made <strong>the</strong> appearance <strong>of</strong> an<br />
American ship-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-line squadron<br />
problematical.<br />
⎯ Mark N. Lardas<br />
strategy & tactics 37
Works In Progress<br />
Cold <strong>War</strong> Battles II:<br />
Battle for Kabul, 1979<br />
Cold <strong>War</strong> Battles II is <strong>the</strong> sequel to Cold <strong>War</strong> Battles,<br />
which appeared in S&T 235. CWB II will include two<br />
games, one <strong>of</strong> which will be a hypo<strong>the</strong>tical US vs <strong>War</strong>saw<br />
Pact title. I’m currently working on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r design: Battle<br />
for Kabul, 1979. It covers <strong>the</strong> Soviet seizure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Afghan<br />
capital in December <strong>of</strong> that year, and it presents an interesting<br />
study in <strong>the</strong> Soviet army’s rapid deployment capabilities.<br />
The Soviets launched a coup in <strong>the</strong> Afghan capital as <strong>the</strong> first<br />
stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir invasion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole country. Things generally<br />
went <strong>of</strong>f as planned, but <strong>the</strong>re was resistance. Quick action<br />
by Soviet commanders, and some skullduggery on <strong>the</strong><br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir advisers, neutralized much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Afghan opposition.<br />
Even so, <strong>the</strong>re was some hard fighting and things<br />
could have gone radically different.<br />
The Soviets have an interesting mix <strong>of</strong> forces. Leading<br />
<strong>the</strong> assault are elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 103 rd and 105 th Guards<br />
Airborne Divisions. They were actually quasi-mechanized<br />
formations; so <strong>the</strong> Soviets have some real <strong>of</strong>fensive power.<br />
Also in <strong>the</strong> fray are several special operations units, including<br />
<strong>the</strong> super-secret KGB Alpha Group. The Soviets have to<br />
seize critical government buildings and airfields within <strong>the</strong><br />
city <strong>of</strong> Kabul, <strong>the</strong>n hold <strong>the</strong>m until arrival <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir overland<br />
relief force.<br />
The Afghans have a variety <strong>of</strong> units, ranging from some<br />
effective Presidential Guard armored and airborne formations<br />
to totally ineffective line troops. If <strong>the</strong> Afghans can<br />
hold long enough, additional reinforcements march in from<br />
<strong>of</strong>f map. There are a couple divisions within range <strong>of</strong> Kabul<br />
that Soviet forces must block before <strong>the</strong>y get involved.<br />
To make life more difficult for Moscow, Afghan “uprising”<br />
units may be generated by random events, and <strong>the</strong>y can hamper<br />
Soviet lines <strong>of</strong> communication.<br />
The map will show all <strong>of</strong> Kabul, including an inset showing<br />
<strong>the</strong> critical Salang Tunnel north <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city. The Soviets<br />
have to seize <strong>the</strong> tunnel and hold it until <strong>the</strong> 108 th Motorized<br />
Rifle Division drives in from <strong>the</strong> USSR (<strong>the</strong> 108 th is also<br />
known as <strong>the</strong> 360 th MRD).<br />
Units are Soviet battalions, with <strong>the</strong> Afghans shown as<br />
regiments and brigades. Artillery can fire at range. There are<br />
some special rules for engineers and Spetsnaz troops; plus<br />
<strong>the</strong> Soviets get some airpower and helicopters.<br />
The game uses unknown unit strengths. All units are deployed<br />
face down with only <strong>the</strong>ir type and movement factor<br />
showing. Players don’t know <strong>the</strong>ir units’ actual combat<br />
strengths until <strong>the</strong> first time <strong>the</strong>y’re committed to combat.<br />
The Soviets have a good idea as to <strong>the</strong>ir unit strengths: <strong>the</strong><br />
airborne are generally effective, while <strong>the</strong> mechanized infantry<br />
are low quality reservists. The Afghans have a more<br />
extreme order or battle. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir units have combat<br />
strengths <strong>of</strong> “0,” meaning <strong>the</strong>y’re removed from play when<br />
revealed. O<strong>the</strong>rs fight fiercely.<br />
An optional rule brings in US intervention forces: anything<br />
from Delta Force to a brigade <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 82nd Airborne can<br />
drop in.<br />
All in all, Kabul ‘79 is a new look at <strong>the</strong> much wargamed<br />
Soviet army in action.<br />
—Joseph Miranda<br />
Correction for Best Articles <strong>of</strong> 2005:<br />
The second best article was: The Russian Navy in<br />
World <strong>War</strong> I by Stephen Thomas (not James Gordon as<br />
originally listed) that appeared in #229. We apologize<br />
for <strong>the</strong> error.<br />
Next Issue<br />
Winged Horse: The Vietnam <strong>War</strong>, 1965-66. The first 20 weeks <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> era <strong>of</strong> massive US intervention into <strong>the</strong> Second Indo-China <strong>War</strong>.<br />
This hobby edition wargame is a <strong>the</strong>ater-wide simulation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> US 1st Air Cavalry Division first arrived. Refight <strong>the</strong> Ia<br />
Drang and A Shau Valley campaigns, and much more.<br />
Future articles: Hannibal’s last stand at Zama; Taranto 1940, <strong>the</strong> air<br />
raid that laid <strong>the</strong> groundwork for Pearl Harbor; and <strong>the</strong> Israeli attack on<br />
Iraq’s nuclear plant in 1981.<br />
S&T Upcoming Features<br />
#239 Winged Horse: US airmobile forces take on <strong>the</strong> Viet Cong and NVA in Vietnam, 1965-66.<br />
#240 1066: Multi-player struggle for England in <strong>the</strong> turning point <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle Ages.<br />
#241 Twilight <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ottomans: The entire Great <strong>War</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Middle East.<br />
#242 They Died With Their Boots On 2: Pershing versus Pancho Villa and Mad Anthony Wayne<br />
against <strong>the</strong> Indians <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ohio Valley.<br />
#243 Manila ‘45: Stalingrad <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pacific, as <strong>the</strong> Japanese make a last stand in <strong>the</strong> Philippine capital.<br />
#244 Drive on Moscow: Special double-sized game.<br />
38 #238<br />
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strategy & tactics 39
The Chimurenga <strong>War</strong>:<br />
The Rhodesian Insurgency 1966-1980<br />
By James C. Gordon<br />
40 #238
The insurgency <strong>of</strong> Zimbabwean nationalist forces<br />
against <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian government began with <strong>the</strong><br />
struggle for power between a black majority and a<br />
white minority, <strong>the</strong> latter with disproportionate access<br />
to land, resources and political power. The Rhodesian<br />
insurgency proved to be one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> more enduring conflicts<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cold <strong>War</strong>, though it didn’t directly pit <strong>the</strong><br />
communist powers against <strong>the</strong> West.<br />
Rhodesia itself had been established as a British<br />
colony by none o<strong>the</strong>r than imperial magnate Cecil<br />
Rhodes in <strong>the</strong> 1890s. It became a self-governing<br />
colony in 1923, and supported <strong>the</strong> British Empire in<br />
two world wars. In 1953 <strong>the</strong> Federation <strong>of</strong> Rhodesia<br />
and Nyasaland was formed to include <strong>the</strong> territory that<br />
now makes up <strong>the</strong> countries <strong>of</strong> Zimbabwe, Zambia<br />
and Malawi. In <strong>the</strong> wake <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nationalism that swept<br />
Africa following World <strong>War</strong> II, <strong>the</strong> British government<br />
favored a transition to majority rule in all <strong>of</strong> its colonies.<br />
De-colonization didn’t sit well with Rhodesia’s<br />
white minority, who saw it as an invitation to chaos.<br />
After considerable debate and disagreement over <strong>the</strong><br />
future governance <strong>of</strong> Rhodesia, Ian Smith, leader <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> ruling conservative Rhodesian Front Party, published<br />
<strong>the</strong> Unilateral Declaration <strong>of</strong> Independence<br />
(UDI) on 11 November 1965. With Salisbury as its<br />
capital, Rhodesia would go it alone.<br />
UDI<br />
UDI was <strong>the</strong> first open rebellion by a British colonial<br />
administration since <strong>the</strong> American Revolution.<br />
Given <strong>the</strong> international opposition to <strong>the</strong> continuation<br />
<strong>of</strong> European imperialism in <strong>the</strong> 1960s, Rhodesia in effect<br />
became an outlaw nation. For a brief period Salisbury<br />
was concerned about <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> British<br />
military intervention. Instead, Britain imposed economic<br />
sanctions, with <strong>the</strong> United Nations doing <strong>the</strong><br />
same. Only <strong>the</strong> Republic <strong>of</strong> South Africa supported<br />
Rhodesia, mainly as a buffer against African nationalism—and<br />
even that support wavered whenever it<br />
suited South Africa’s interests. The success or failure<br />
<strong>of</strong> an independent Rhodesia <strong>the</strong>refore depended on <strong>the</strong><br />
commitment to fight on by 7,000 white farmers and<br />
270,000 urban whites and Asians, plus a number <strong>of</strong><br />
foreign volunteers.<br />
Between 3 and 4 million Africans lived by farming<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Tribal Trust Lands, and over 500,000 resided<br />
in townships abutting <strong>the</strong> urban areas. The African<br />
population supplied a majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> active duty police<br />
force, but those same tribesmen also presented <strong>the</strong><br />
greatest source <strong>of</strong> recruits for <strong>the</strong> insurgency.<br />
While Rhodesia was largely isolated, <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
also several factors working for Salisbury. The flanks<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country were well-covered: white-ruled South<br />
Africa was to <strong>the</strong> south; <strong>the</strong> Portuguese colony <strong>of</strong><br />
Mozambique lay to <strong>the</strong> east; and Botswana was to<br />
<strong>the</strong> west. The latter was sparsely populated and under<br />
domination by South Africa, and was <strong>the</strong>refore not an<br />
effective base for guerrillas. Julius Nyere’s Tanzania<br />
The last colonial rebellion: Rhodesian police waiting for <strong>the</strong><br />
announcement <strong>of</strong> UDI.<br />
gave support to <strong>the</strong> rebels, but it was not nearby. Only<br />
Zambia, to Rhodesia’s north and bordering directly on<br />
<strong>the</strong> country, was ruled by an African government sympa<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
to <strong>the</strong> insurgents.<br />
Militarily <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians had armed forces that<br />
were well suited to <strong>the</strong> task ahead. Among o<strong>the</strong>r things,<br />
Rhodesians had served with distinction alongside British<br />
forces in <strong>the</strong> successful counter-insurgency in Malaya.<br />
So <strong>the</strong>re was a pool <strong>of</strong> veterans with experience<br />
in small unit operations in <strong>the</strong> “bush.”<br />
Two Nationalist organizations confronted <strong>the</strong> Salisbury<br />
government. Joshua Nkomo formed <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwe<br />
African Peoples Union (ZAPU) after his National<br />
Democratic Party had been banned for rejecting <strong>the</strong><br />
1961 Rhodesian Constitution. ZAPU was supported<br />
mainly by <strong>the</strong> Ndebele and Kalanga peoples. Dissatisfaction<br />
with Nkomo’s leadership led Reverend<br />
Ndabaningi Sithole to split from ZAPU and form <strong>the</strong><br />
Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) in August<br />
1963, with Robert Mugabe as secretary. ZANU support<br />
was based on <strong>the</strong> Shona people.<br />
Throughout <strong>the</strong> insurgency, personal, tribal and<br />
ideological differences prevented a unified liberation<br />
front being formed against Smith’s government.<br />
ZAPU and ZANU mainly fought each o<strong>the</strong>r until July<br />
1964, when <strong>the</strong> first white farmer was killed. Soon<br />
after, Nkomo, Sithole and Mugabe were arrested and<br />
sent to jail. O<strong>the</strong>r leaders fled to Zambia, where <strong>the</strong><br />
Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZAN-<br />
LA) was created as <strong>the</strong> military branch <strong>of</strong> ZANU. The<br />
Zimbabwe Peoples Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) became<br />
<strong>the</strong> armed wing <strong>of</strong> ZAPU.<br />
“Chimurenga Day,” 28 April 1966, is commemorated<br />
by <strong>the</strong> nationalists as <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
insurgency. In a small skirmish know as <strong>the</strong> “Battle <strong>of</strong><br />
Sinoia,” seven insurgents were killed by Rhodesia’s<br />
strategy & tactics 41
42 #238<br />
British South African Police (BSAP). While a Rhodesian<br />
institution, <strong>the</strong> BSAP maintained its title from <strong>the</strong><br />
colonial period. The Nationalists called <strong>the</strong> new insurgency<br />
<strong>the</strong> “Chimurenga <strong>War</strong>” in order to associate <strong>the</strong><br />
conflict with <strong>the</strong> anti-British uprisings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1890s.<br />
Line-up<br />
Salisbury realized an armed insurgency would<br />
overburden even a well established police force, and<br />
so formed <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Security Force (RSF) to coordinate<br />
all military, police and paramilitary units. The<br />
Rhodesian field forces included <strong>the</strong> all-white Rhodesia<br />
Light Infantry (RLI) and Special Air Service (SAS)<br />
regiments, <strong>the</strong> mixed race Rhodesian African Rifles<br />
(RAR), plus engineers, artillery and armored cars.<br />
Most white reservists joined <strong>the</strong> mixed-race Rhodesia<br />
Regiment. As in British Army tradition, <strong>the</strong> Rhodesia<br />
Regiment consisted <strong>of</strong> several battalions that could be<br />
fielded at any time. The air force had an assortment <strong>of</strong><br />
planes and helicopters, and <strong>the</strong> BSAP was supported<br />
by additional paramilitary and volunteer police units.<br />
The white government couldn’t win <strong>the</strong> hearts and<br />
minds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Africans without conceding <strong>the</strong> majority<br />
rule that contradicted <strong>the</strong> premise <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> UDI. The<br />
counter-insurgency (or COIN) operations relied on<br />
well trained, highly motivated, mobile field forces, plus<br />
rural militias, to both suppress infiltration from outside<br />
<strong>the</strong> borders and deal with guerillas internally. The target<br />
<strong>of</strong> a global embargo, <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians didn’t have<br />
much in <strong>the</strong> way <strong>of</strong> armored fighting vehicles (AFVs),<br />
heavy artillery or an air force, but all that worked in<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir favor in one respect: a counter-insurgency is to a<br />
large degree a light infantryman’s war. The RSF, <strong>the</strong>n,<br />
wasn’t burdened with heavy equipment that would<br />
prove inefficient in fighting guerrillas. If nothing else,<br />
Rhodesian police reservists waiting to escort a convoy.<br />
reliance on infantry over massed artillery and aerial<br />
strikes avoided large-scale collateral damage to <strong>the</strong> civilian<br />
sector.<br />
Rhodesia had to purchase weapons and ammunition<br />
illegally through third parties, such as South Africa,<br />
or capture ordnance from <strong>the</strong> insurgents. It was<br />
imperative <strong>the</strong> RSF make efficient use <strong>of</strong> all its limited<br />
resources. Their best hope was a vigorous containment<br />
strategy would inflict enough losses on <strong>the</strong> insurgents<br />
<strong>the</strong>y would prove too much for <strong>the</strong>m to continue <strong>the</strong><br />
struggle. More, by holding out long enough, <strong>the</strong> Salisbury<br />
government could conceivably attain international<br />
recognition, and that would end <strong>the</strong> economic<br />
sanctions.<br />
ZANU received support from <strong>the</strong> People’s Republic<br />
<strong>of</strong> China, and focused on political indoctrination,<br />
infiltration and occupation <strong>of</strong> territory as <strong>the</strong> prerequisites<br />
for mounting a direct uprising. ZAPU was sponsored<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union, and aimed at building a<br />
conventional army for a final assault after <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian<br />
Security Forces had been worn down.<br />
While <strong>the</strong> balance <strong>of</strong> numbers seemed to favor<br />
<strong>the</strong> insurgents, throughout <strong>the</strong> war <strong>the</strong> anti-government<br />
forces were plagued by <strong>the</strong> competition between<br />
ZANU and ZAPU. Both groups lacked logistic support,<br />
communications equipment and medical supplies,<br />
which really <strong>the</strong>y lacked <strong>the</strong> wherewithal for<br />
protracted warfare. The Rhodesians could easily locate<br />
large rebel bands, while <strong>the</strong> smaller groups that<br />
infiltrated <strong>the</strong> rural areas achieved little.<br />
In one typical campaign, insurgents operated in <strong>the</strong><br />
farming area <strong>of</strong> Sipolilo for three months in 1968 until<br />
<strong>the</strong> RSF discovered <strong>the</strong>ir camps and <strong>the</strong>n killed or captured<br />
over 100 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir combatants. In July 1968, 91<br />
insurgents in three groups crossed <strong>the</strong> frontier, heading<br />
for Hartley and Lupane. The RSF carried out a series<br />
<strong>of</strong> mobile ambushes that killed or captured 80 <strong>of</strong> those<br />
invaders.<br />
On 15 August 1967, ZAPU announced a military<br />
alliance with <strong>the</strong> South African National Congress<br />
(SAANC). That alliance brought about <strong>the</strong> deployment<br />
<strong>of</strong> paramilitary police and reconnaissance (“Recce”)<br />
units from <strong>the</strong> South African Defense Force (SADF)<br />
into Rhodesia. The war seemed to be escalating, but<br />
<strong>the</strong> RSF’s mobile ambushes proved effective and, by<br />
1969, Salisbury believed <strong>the</strong> insurgents were defeated.<br />
Consequently, Salisbury didn’t mobilize additional<br />
African battalions, even though recruits were available<br />
and <strong>the</strong> call-ups could have lessened <strong>the</strong> burden<br />
on <strong>the</strong> whites.<br />
Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda pressured<br />
ZAPU and ZANU to settle <strong>the</strong>ir differences or leave<br />
his country. In 1971 he also deported 129 ZAPU<br />
members to Rhodesia in order to pre-empt a possible<br />
coup. James Chikerema, vice-president <strong>of</strong> ZAPU, established<br />
<strong>the</strong> Front for <strong>the</strong> Liberation <strong>of</strong> Zimbabwe<br />
(FROLIZI) in 1971 and attempted to unify <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r
Fire Forces, Selous Scouts & Mercs<br />
In <strong>the</strong> early 1970s <strong>the</strong> RSF developed a tactic for vertical<br />
envelopment called “Fire Force.” Mobile formations were<br />
based in camps and used Alouette III helicopters as transports<br />
and gunships. The basic unit was a four-man “stick”<br />
or half-section including a junior NCO, two riflemen (armed<br />
with FN 7.62 mm rifles) and a machinegunner (with a MAG<br />
7.62 mm machinegun). For <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians it was a “corporal’s<br />
war,” because junior NCOs exercised considerable<br />
responsibility in <strong>the</strong> bush.<br />
Typically, troopers from <strong>the</strong> RLI, RAR, Selous Scouts<br />
and SAS rotated through two-week or three-week tours with<br />
Fire Force. They were constantly on call and could expect<br />
almost daily action. Fire Force teams used rapid deployment<br />
and quick strikes for maximum impact. Often a group <strong>of</strong> helicopters<br />
deployed with one aircraft as an airborne command<br />
post, one or two more equipped as gunships, and o<strong>the</strong>rs carrying<br />
troopers to track down <strong>the</strong> insurgents. Even against<br />
superior numbers Fire Force was never defeated in battle, a<br />
record <strong>of</strong> success attributable to <strong>the</strong>ir superior training, mobility<br />
and firepower.<br />
During that same period <strong>the</strong> RSF created two new specialized<br />
units. The Selous Scouts (named after a famous<br />
game hunter, Frederick Courtney Selous) began as <strong>the</strong><br />
Tracker Combat Unit, and was <strong>the</strong>n expanded to a full battalion<br />
<strong>of</strong> volunteers. It was raised from combat veterans, most<br />
<strong>of</strong> whom were black. Only one in seven applicants passed<br />
<strong>the</strong> demanding indoctrination program. The unit conducted<br />
a successful clandestine war by operating disguised as insurgents.<br />
Small teams <strong>of</strong> troopers would live <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> land<br />
while <strong>the</strong>y located and stalked guerrillas, <strong>the</strong>n attacked at an<br />
opportune time. The Selous Scouts accounted for 68 percent<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> insurgents killed in Rhodesia.<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>r new outfit was <strong>the</strong> Grey Scouts, a horse cavalry<br />
formation that could pursue insurgents into less accessible areas.<br />
While cavalry might be considered anachronistic, <strong>the</strong> animals<br />
had advantages <strong>of</strong>f-road and, if nothing else, <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
good for <strong>the</strong> troopers’ morale.<br />
A steady stream <strong>of</strong> foreigners traveled to Rhodesia to join<br />
its armed forces. The Rhodesian Light Infantry included up to<br />
30 percent foreigners, primarily from Britain, South Africa and<br />
<strong>the</strong> US. To avoid <strong>the</strong> indiscipline sometimes associated with<br />
mercenaries (or “mercs,” to use <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>n-popular term), <strong>the</strong><br />
RSF required all foreigners to enlist formally in <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian<br />
Army. Many received commissions as <strong>of</strong>ficers, but <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
all subordinate to <strong>the</strong> same training and discipline as Rhodesian<br />
citizens.<br />
Throughout <strong>the</strong> Chimurenga war, <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Security<br />
Forces maintained a high kill ratio against <strong>the</strong> insurgents (or<br />
“terrs” as <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians termed <strong>the</strong>m, slang for “terrorists”).<br />
That was in large part due to superior RSF training and planning.<br />
For example, insurgent guerillas were <strong>of</strong>ten not trained<br />
to employ aimed fire with <strong>the</strong>ir weapons. Unprepared guerrillas<br />
were no match for veteran RSF bush fighters. There were<br />
also unquantifiable morale factors, with <strong>the</strong> RSF having <strong>the</strong><br />
edge owing to <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> superiority originally engendered<br />
during colonial rule. While <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians may have held <strong>the</strong><br />
tactical edge, <strong>the</strong> insurgents could outlast <strong>the</strong>m on <strong>the</strong> political<br />
front and, in <strong>the</strong> end, that was what mattered.<br />
Bush warfare: Selous Scouts patrol<br />
ford a stream.<br />
strategy & tactics 43
44 #238<br />
groups. Meanwhile, Bishop Abel Muzorewa created<br />
<strong>the</strong> Zimbabwean African National Council (ZANC)<br />
inside Rhodesia to try to unite <strong>the</strong> disparate elements<br />
within <strong>the</strong> overall nationalist cause under one moderate<br />
leadership. Muzorewa was relatively favored<br />
by <strong>the</strong> white regime, but he lacked any real strength<br />
among <strong>the</strong> dissidents.<br />
Hearts & Minds<br />
A more intense phase <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Chimurenga <strong>War</strong> began<br />
on 23 December 1972, when ZANLA forces attacked<br />
Altena Farm from bases in <strong>the</strong> Tribal Trust<br />
Lands. The Rhodesian government responded by<br />
implementing a new strategy to deny support for <strong>the</strong><br />
insurgents. Salisbury began moving <strong>the</strong> rural populace<br />
into protected villages (PV), reminiscent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> strategic<br />
hamlet program attempted in Vietnam by <strong>the</strong> US.<br />
The PV program, though, only inconvenienced <strong>the</strong><br />
African population without providing much protection,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> government lacked sufficient resources<br />
to fulfill <strong>the</strong> promise <strong>of</strong> economic aid to <strong>the</strong> more than<br />
500,000 civilians who were relocated. ZANLA forces<br />
also infiltrated <strong>the</strong> PVs and used <strong>the</strong>m as impromptu<br />
bases.<br />
The standard insurgent tactic was a quick hit-andrun<br />
strike, which ZANLA insurgents used to launch<br />
several attacks against farms in <strong>the</strong> Mangula, Centenary<br />
and Shamva areas. White casualties were rare,<br />
though, and <strong>the</strong> primary victims were <strong>the</strong> Africans who<br />
lived near white-owned farms, particularly those who<br />
didn’t support <strong>the</strong> insurgency. Most black Rhodesians<br />
never took up arms, but nei<strong>the</strong>r were <strong>the</strong>y strong supporters<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> white government. They were caught in<br />
<strong>the</strong> middle. Mistreatment by <strong>the</strong> insurgents increased<br />
sympathy for <strong>the</strong> government, but it also demonstrated<br />
<strong>the</strong> RSF couldn’t protect <strong>the</strong> general populace. At<br />
times during <strong>the</strong> conflict, <strong>the</strong> African populace was<br />
also terrorized by government forces for aiding <strong>the</strong> nationalists.<br />
On 23 March 1973, ZAPU and ZANU established<br />
a joint military command. Both insurgent organizations<br />
recognized <strong>the</strong> folly <strong>of</strong> confronting well<br />
equipped Rhodesian and South African troops. Accordingly,<br />
ZIPRA resorted to a strategy <strong>of</strong> laying landmines<br />
along <strong>the</strong> border with Zambia. Between 1972<br />
and 1980 <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians suffered 2,504 vehicle detonations<br />
<strong>of</strong> landmines that killed 632 and injured 4,410.<br />
The Rhodesians and South Africans also developed<br />
ingenious ways to protect vehicles. Tires were filled<br />
with water to absorb <strong>the</strong> blast and reduce <strong>the</strong> heat.<br />
Steel deflector plates, sandbags, mine conveyor belting,<br />
and “V” shaped vehicle bodies deflected explosions.<br />
Before long, <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Army began laying<br />
its own minefields to deter insurgent infiltration. After<br />
<strong>the</strong> war, ZANLA estimated its forces had suffered<br />
8,000 casualties from mines alone.<br />
In December 1974, Nkomo, Sithole and Mugabe<br />
were released after a decade in detention. Nkomo<br />
wanted to talk with <strong>the</strong> Smith government; Sithole<br />
maintained that negotiations were hopeless. There<br />
were <strong>the</strong>n only about 400 insurgents in Rhodesia with<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r 5,500 outside <strong>the</strong> country. Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> armed<br />
guerillas followed Mugabe, who claimed he was <strong>the</strong><br />
“true leader” <strong>of</strong> ZANU. In fact, he was <strong>the</strong> only insurgent<br />
leader who lived in <strong>the</strong> field with his troops.<br />
In 1974 a coup in Portugal led to <strong>the</strong> dissolution <strong>of</strong><br />
that nation’s centuries-old African empire. The Front<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Liberation <strong>of</strong> Mozambique (FRELIMO) <strong>the</strong>n<br />
quickly seized power in that neighboring country.<br />
Rhodesia’s eastern border was suddenly open to infiltration.<br />
Then, after failed peace talks and a cease-fire<br />
in December, South Africa bowed to pressure from<br />
<strong>the</strong> US and withdrew its forces from Rhodesia. With<br />
greater Chinese and Soviet support, company sized<br />
insurgent units began to enter <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn and eastern<br />
regions. The Rhodesians were forced to institute<br />
greater mobilization, which disrupted <strong>the</strong> economy<br />
and undermined <strong>the</strong> morale <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> white population.<br />
Talk & Fight<br />
Early in 1975 <strong>the</strong>re were secret talks among Smith,<br />
Muzorewa, Sithole and Nkomo. Later, Sithole was<br />
arrested for plotting to kill his rivals. After being released,<br />
Sithole formed an ano<strong>the</strong>r wing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwean<br />
African National Council (ANC) called <strong>the</strong><br />
Zimbabwe Liberation Council (ZLC). Muzorewa <strong>the</strong>n<br />
formed yet ano<strong>the</strong>r wing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ANC outside Rhodesia.<br />
Then Sithole returned to Rhodesia and announced<br />
he had become a moderate and was opposed to fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
terrorism. Muzorewa also returned and renamed his
faction <strong>the</strong> United African National Council (UANC).<br />
Mugabe denounced both <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m and formed <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwe<br />
Reformed African National Council. Indirectly,<br />
through all <strong>the</strong> shifting <strong>of</strong> names and alliances, <strong>the</strong> idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> compromise between <strong>the</strong> forces <strong>of</strong> nationalism and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Salisbury government began to emerge.<br />
In June 1976, Rhodesian intelligence determined<br />
insurgents would concentrate around a village near <strong>the</strong><br />
Mozambique border. Twelve infantry companies from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Rhodesia Regiment, two engineer squadrons, a<br />
mortar platoon, and 16 helicopters carried out Operation<br />
Newton. They cordoned <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> area and, in a series<br />
<strong>of</strong> ambushes, killed or captured 39 insurgents. The<br />
operational area proved too large to keep contained,<br />
however; so most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> insurgents escaped.<br />
By 1976, insurgent attacks, now from Botswana,<br />
threatened <strong>the</strong> main railway from Rhodesia to South<br />
Africa and prompted <strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Beit<br />
Bridge-Rutenga Railway, which became Rhodesia’s<br />
only outside transportation artery. Responding to <strong>the</strong><br />
threat from all sides, <strong>the</strong> security forces divided <strong>the</strong><br />
country into five primary Joint Operational Commands<br />
(JOC), named Hurricane (nor<strong>the</strong>ast), Thrasher<br />
(east), Repulse (south), Tangent (west), and Grapple in<br />
<strong>the</strong> center. In addition, <strong>the</strong>re were 17 smaller sub-JOC<br />
commands, such as Splinter along Lake Kariba and<br />
Salops in <strong>the</strong> Salisbury area. Operations by <strong>the</strong> RSF<br />
were aimed at reducing <strong>the</strong> insurgent forces already<br />
inside Rhodesia while also limiting <strong>the</strong> arrival <strong>of</strong> new<br />
forces into <strong>the</strong> country.<br />
White emigration began to work to counter successes<br />
in <strong>the</strong> field, draining <strong>the</strong> country <strong>of</strong> is manpower<br />
pool. Among o<strong>the</strong>r things, <strong>the</strong> government was<br />
forced to increase <strong>the</strong> term <strong>of</strong> active duty from nine to<br />
12 months in order to sustain <strong>the</strong> ranks <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> security<br />
forces.<br />
Still, all was not well on <strong>the</strong> insurgent side. The<br />
persistent rivalry between <strong>the</strong> guerrilla factions led<br />
to open fighting in <strong>the</strong>ir training camps in Tanzania,<br />
with over 600 deaths being <strong>the</strong> result. Then ZAPU,<br />
ZANU and FROLIZI formed <strong>the</strong> Patriotic Front, finally<br />
creating <strong>the</strong> first semblance <strong>of</strong> a truly unified nationalist<br />
movement. Angola, Botswana, Mozambique,<br />
Tanzania and Zambia voiced <strong>the</strong>ir support for <strong>the</strong> coalition.<br />
Nkomo, Mugabe and Muzorewa were invited<br />
by <strong>the</strong> British government to London for talks. Sithole<br />
demanded to be included, claiming he, not Mugabe,<br />
headed ZANU. Back in Rhodesia, Smith negotiated<br />
with Sithole, Muzorewa and some tribal chiefs to join<br />
<strong>the</strong> government, but <strong>the</strong> Patriotic Front accused those<br />
leaders <strong>of</strong> collaboration and <strong>the</strong> effort was futile.<br />
The Rhodesian Security Forces could still claim<br />
<strong>the</strong>y were winning in <strong>the</strong> field. The guerrillas had yet<br />
to score anything resembling a major military victory,<br />
nor was <strong>the</strong>re had <strong>the</strong>re been <strong>the</strong> equivalent <strong>of</strong> a “Tet”<br />
style general <strong>of</strong>fensive. By mid-1976 <strong>the</strong>re were but<br />
1,000 insurgents operating in Rhodesia. The bulk <strong>of</strong><br />
Great Zimbabwe?<br />
While “Rhodesia” comes from <strong>the</strong> British colonial empire<br />
builder Cecil Rhodes, “Zimbabwe” had its origins in <strong>the</strong> name for<br />
<strong>the</strong> remains <strong>of</strong> an ancient city located within <strong>the</strong> country. This city<br />
was <strong>the</strong> center <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Monomotapa Empire which dominated much<br />
<strong>of</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa during <strong>the</strong> European Middle Ages. The city was<br />
a center for trade, gold-working and civilization, though it later<br />
was abandoned. European explorers marveled at <strong>the</strong> complexity<br />
<strong>of</strong> Zimbabwe’s ruins, and to a generation <strong>of</strong> African nationalists,<br />
“Zimbabwe” became a symbol <strong>of</strong> national pride.<br />
<strong>the</strong> guerrillas, some 6,000 to 10,000, were in training<br />
or base camps in Mozambique and Tanzania. And <strong>the</strong><br />
RSF was determined to keep <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong>re.<br />
Border <strong>War</strong><br />
Operation Long John began a campaign by <strong>the</strong><br />
security forces to take <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>fensive and disrupt <strong>the</strong><br />
insurgents before <strong>the</strong>y entered Rhodesia. The “flying<br />
column” attack became <strong>the</strong> standard tactic for crossborder<br />
operations against <strong>the</strong> camps. Fifty-five soldiers<br />
in armored cars, trucks and buses crossed <strong>the</strong> border<br />
and hit an arsenal at Mapai. Several Rhodesians were<br />
killed, but a large quantity <strong>of</strong> arms was captured. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> return trip <strong>the</strong> column attacked <strong>the</strong> insurgent camp<br />
at Chicualacuala and killed or wounded 37 more. For<br />
Operation Eland, in August, ano<strong>the</strong>r flying-column <strong>of</strong><br />
85 men from <strong>the</strong> RLI, RAC, SAS, Selous Scouts, and<br />
Territorial units in 10 trucks and four armored cars attacked<br />
<strong>the</strong> Nyadzonya camp in Mozambique. There<br />
were 4,000 insurgents in <strong>the</strong> camp, and <strong>the</strong> RSF’s<br />
surprise attack inflicted an estimated 2,000 casualties,<br />
including non-combatants.<br />
In March 1977 <strong>the</strong> Ministry <strong>of</strong> Combined Operations<br />
was created under Lt. Gen. Peter Walls to control<br />
all aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war effort. Operation Aztec, in May,<br />
demonstrated how Rhodesia coped with <strong>the</strong> shortage<br />
<strong>of</strong> military resources. Over 700 men crossed into Mozambique<br />
at Gona-Re-Zhou. The 2 nd Battalion, Rhodesia<br />
Regiment, struck a ZANLA camp as a diversion,<br />
while two RLI companies assaulted bases at Rio and<br />
Madulo Pan. On 28 May a flying-column with 110<br />
men and an 81 mm mortar group entered Mozambique.<br />
That force was commanded by Capt. John Murphy, a<br />
US Marine Corps Vietnam veteran. The Rhodesians<br />
destroyed ZANLA camps at Jorge Do Limpopo before<br />
advancing to Mapai. There <strong>the</strong>y captured <strong>the</strong> airport as<br />
well as arms, ammunition and vehicles.<br />
Dakota aircraft were flown in to carry out <strong>the</strong><br />
weapons and bring in mechanics and drivers to recover<br />
<strong>the</strong> vehicles and drive <strong>the</strong>m back to Rhodesia. One<br />
departing Dakota was shot down by an RPG-7 rocket,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> column halted until <strong>the</strong> next morning when a<br />
salvage team arrived by helicopter to retrieve all serviceable<br />
equipment. Before retreating, Murphy led his<br />
force 125 miles to Mabalane and <strong>the</strong>re destroyed railroad<br />
bridges and stations.<br />
strategy & tactics 45
46 #238<br />
The negative publicity and <strong>the</strong> private protests<br />
made by South Africa—which feared provoking a<br />
wider war—curtailed fur<strong>the</strong>r strikes across <strong>the</strong> border.<br />
Among o<strong>the</strong>r things, South Africa withdrew its 50 helicopter<br />
pilots that had been flying for <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians.<br />
Despite all <strong>the</strong> victories, <strong>the</strong>n, Rhodesia’s military<br />
edge was slipping.<br />
The Balance Turns<br />
By <strong>the</strong> late 1970s, <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian intelligence service<br />
determined <strong>the</strong> kill ratio inside Rhodesia was<br />
significantly less than <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> infiltration. Consequently<br />
<strong>the</strong> guerrillas were on <strong>the</strong> way to gradually<br />
building up a force that could openly challenge <strong>the</strong><br />
government. So Salisbury developed a new strategy<br />
with four components: 1) protect mines, factories, key<br />
farming areas, bridges and railways; 2) deny <strong>the</strong> Tribal<br />
Lands to <strong>the</strong> insurgents by deploying auxiliaries and<br />
using Fire Force, <strong>the</strong> latter now also using Dakota air<br />
transports to parachute in teams; 3) increase border<br />
control; and 4) raid Mozambique and Zambia to disrupt<br />
insurgent bases, supplies and troop movements.<br />
To make matters worse, whites were emigrating at<br />
<strong>the</strong> rate <strong>of</strong> 2,000 per month. Belatedly, additional African<br />
battalions were mobilized by Salisbury, but <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were not put into <strong>the</strong> field fast enough nor trained well<br />
enough to meet <strong>the</strong> growing need. Despite renewed<br />
South African support, <strong>the</strong> RSF was becoming outnumbered<br />
and ineffective. Large areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country<br />
could still be patrolled but could no longer actually be<br />
controlled. Fire Force paratroopers <strong>of</strong>ten had to jump<br />
into combat on a daily basis. Some units were conducting<br />
up to three operational jumps in a single day, a<br />
record unequalled by any o<strong>the</strong>r airborne force.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r new development was <strong>the</strong> creation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Security Force Auxiliaries (SFA) by <strong>the</strong> Special<br />
Branch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> BSAP. In that arrangement, <strong>the</strong> government<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered amnesty to former insurgents, and 3,000<br />
men enlisted in <strong>the</strong> SFA. There was one European junior<br />
NCO liaison for every 150 auxiliaries, but training<br />
was minimal and leadership was lax. The SFA operated<br />
as a self-defense militia, living with <strong>the</strong> locals and<br />
denying <strong>the</strong> Tribal Trust Lands as safe haven for <strong>the</strong><br />
insurgents. The Rhodesian security establishment remained<br />
skeptical about <strong>the</strong> auxiliaries, seeing <strong>the</strong>m as<br />
unreliable and ill-disciplined. Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> force<br />
continued on page 48
Leaders <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Chimurenga <strong>War</strong><br />
The Nationalists<br />
Robert Mugabe (1924-): After teaching at several schools<br />
and two colleges in Zambia and Ghana, Mugabe co-founded<br />
<strong>the</strong> Zimbabwe African People’s Union in 1961. Later, he and<br />
Reverend Sithole broke with Nkomo and formed <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwe<br />
African National Union, with Mugabe becaming its<br />
secretary general. He<br />
spent 1964 to 1974 in jail,<br />
imprisoned by <strong>the</strong> white<br />
government, and during<br />
that time he earned BA,<br />
BS and LLB degrees by<br />
correspondence from <strong>the</strong><br />
University <strong>of</strong> London.<br />
After his release, Mugabe<br />
fled to Mozambique and<br />
became <strong>the</strong> most active<br />
leader <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> insurgency<br />
against white minority<br />
rule. Among <strong>the</strong> nationalist<br />
leaders, Mugabe was<br />
<strong>the</strong> only one who lived in<br />
<strong>the</strong> field with his troops<br />
for any length <strong>of</strong> time.<br />
By 1977 he was president<br />
<strong>of</strong> ZANU. Returning to<br />
Zimbabwe-Rhodesia in<br />
late 1979, he was elected<br />
prime minister in 1980.<br />
An avowed Marxist<br />
with a dictatorial style,<br />
Mugabe has retained tight<br />
control over <strong>the</strong> government to this day.<br />
Bishop Abel Muzorewa (1925-): A high ranking <strong>of</strong>ficial in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Methodist Church, Muzorewa was favored<br />
by Rhodesian whites as a moderate alternative to <strong>the</strong> radical<br />
nationalists. He lacked <strong>the</strong> charisma <strong>of</strong> Nkomo and Mugabe<br />
and, more importantly, he also lacked an army during <strong>the</strong><br />
final scramble for power. The African National Council was<br />
created in October 1971 with Muzorewa as leader. He attempted<br />
to organize centrist opposition inside Rhodesia, but<br />
leaders <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> insurgent forces were disaffected by his efforts<br />
at compromise.<br />
Joshua Nkomo (1917-1999): As a young man, Nkomo traveled<br />
to South Africa where he met <strong>the</strong> leaders <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> African<br />
National Congress. In 1947, as a social worker employed by<br />
Rhodesia Railways, he campaigned for better pay and working<br />
conditions. He studied for a BA degree in economics and<br />
sociology from <strong>the</strong> University <strong>of</strong> South Africa. Nkomo became<br />
president <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> African National Congress in Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Rhodesia in 1952. A state <strong>of</strong> emergency was declared<br />
<strong>the</strong>re in 1959, and Nkomo <strong>the</strong>n had to operate in exile for<br />
18 months. Soon after, he helped form and lead <strong>the</strong> National<br />
Democratic Party and, later, <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwe African People’s<br />
Union. Nkomo was arrested in April 1964 and spent 10 years<br />
in detention. On his release he went to Zambia from where<br />
he continued <strong>the</strong> struggle for Zimbabwean independence.<br />
Nkomo was included in <strong>the</strong> Mugabe government in 1980,<br />
but <strong>the</strong>ir differences led to his exile. Later he returned and<br />
rejoined <strong>the</strong> government, remaining an important political<br />
figure until his death.<br />
Rev. Ndabaningi Sithole (1920-): Remembered as one <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> founding fa<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwean nation, Reverend<br />
Sithole, a Methodist minister, formed <strong>the</strong> Zimbabwe African<br />
National Union and became <strong>the</strong> first president. As a<br />
parliamentarian and political moderate, Sithole came close<br />
to achieving <strong>the</strong> democratic hopes <strong>of</strong> many Zimbabweans.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> mid-1970s he lost control <strong>of</strong> ZANU to <strong>the</strong> more radical<br />
Mugabe. Sithole was branded a political sell-out for repudiating<br />
armed struggle and accepting <strong>the</strong> 1978 Internal<br />
Settlement with <strong>the</strong> white regime.<br />
The Government<br />
Lt. Gen. Peter Walls (?-): After service in World <strong>War</strong> II, Walls<br />
received a commission in <strong>the</strong> Black Watch. He resigned to<br />
enlist as a corporal in <strong>the</strong> Rhodesia Army, was re-commissioned<br />
and given command <strong>of</strong> C Squadron <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SAS in<br />
Malaya. In November 1964 he assumed command <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
1st Rhodesia Light Infantry. He was given command <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
entire Rhodesian Army in 1972. He became commander <strong>of</strong><br />
combined operations in 1977, holding <strong>the</strong> rank <strong>of</strong> lieutenant<br />
general and with responsibility for all Rhodesian military,<br />
police, air and intelligence services.<br />
Ian Smith (1919-): A hero to some for confronting <strong>the</strong> British<br />
labor government, Smith was a villain to o<strong>the</strong>rs for delaying<br />
majority rule. Educated at Chaplin High School, Gwelo, and<br />
Rhodes University, South Africa, he served with 237 Squadron<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> RAF during World <strong>War</strong> II. Afterward he entered Parliament,<br />
moved from <strong>the</strong> Liberal Party to <strong>the</strong> United Federal<br />
Party, and <strong>the</strong>n helped found <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Front Party. He<br />
became Prime Minister in April 1964, and issued <strong>the</strong> Unilateral<br />
Declaration <strong>of</strong> Independence in 1965. He reached an agreement<br />
with <strong>the</strong> African nationalists for democratic elections<br />
in April 1979. He remained as minister without portfolio in<br />
Muzorewa’s government and served <strong>the</strong> Mugabe administration<br />
until being expelled from <strong>of</strong>fice in 1986.<br />
Last <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonials: Ian Smith.<br />
strategy & tactics 47
had grown to 10,000 by <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1979 election<br />
and to 16,000 by <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> full majority rule. SFA<br />
provided <strong>the</strong> ground troops to occupy territory after<br />
Fire Force teams cleared an area <strong>of</strong> insurgents.<br />
Zimbabwe-Rhodesia<br />
Two <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most sensational episodes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Chimurenga <strong>War</strong> took place in 1979. On 9 February<br />
a SAM-7 missile shot down a Rhodesian airliner carrying<br />
54 passengers, and 18 survived <strong>the</strong> crash. Then<br />
ZIPRA insurgents slaughtered 10 <strong>of</strong> those survivors.<br />
In retaliation, 25 SAS troopers undertook Operation<br />
Assassination, in which <strong>the</strong>y drove to Lusaka and attacked<br />
Nkomo’s home. They killed numerous insurgents<br />
in a brief firefight <strong>the</strong>re, but Nkomo himself<br />
turned out not to be present.<br />
In April 1979, <strong>the</strong> Smith government allowed free<br />
elections in order to pacify its critics in <strong>the</strong> West and to<br />
try to relieve some pressure from <strong>the</strong> insurgents. The<br />
security forces mobilized over 60,000 men to protect<br />
<strong>the</strong> voters. About 650 insurgents were killed, and many<br />
more ei<strong>the</strong>r surrendered or went into hiding. With 62<br />
percent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> African population voting, Bishop Muzorewa<br />
was elected prime minister <strong>of</strong> newly named<br />
Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. If Britain had acknowledged<br />
<strong>the</strong> new government and lifted sanctions, Zimbabwe-<br />
Rhodesia might have held out against <strong>the</strong> insurgents.<br />
The international community refused to recognize <strong>the</strong><br />
election, however, because Mugabe and Nkomo had<br />
been excluded. Muzorewa <strong>of</strong>fered amnesty for all insurgents<br />
and invited Mugabe and Nkomo to form a<br />
coalition government. His <strong>of</strong>fer was rejected, and <strong>the</strong><br />
war continued, as did <strong>the</strong> negotiations, <strong>the</strong> Lancaster<br />
House Peace Talks, with Britain’s involvement.<br />
By <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>re were 11,000 ZANLA fighters in Rhodesia,<br />
primarily in <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>ast region known as <strong>the</strong><br />
“Russian Front.” Ano<strong>the</strong>r 15,000 were in training. And<br />
ZANLA was backed by 1,000 FRELIMO regulars <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Mozambique 2 nd Brigade at Mapai. They posed a<br />
threat to <strong>the</strong> Beit Bridge-Rutenga rail line.<br />
Operation Uric was a heliborne assault intended<br />
to disrupt <strong>the</strong> ZANLA/FRELIMO line <strong>of</strong> communication<br />
as far as Aldeia De Barragem, 200 miles from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Rhodesian border. URIC involved 360 troops from<br />
<strong>the</strong> SAS, RLI and engineers, plus numerous aircraft<br />
and helicopters. On 5 September 1979, four Hunters<br />
hit Barragem with golf bombs, a Rhodesian invention<br />
that burst into 80,000 fragments and were lethal out to<br />
50 yards. Helicopters deployed 48 SAS troopers along<br />
with demolition teams to destroy <strong>the</strong> Aldeia De Barragem<br />
bridges and four o<strong>the</strong>r targets. The remaining<br />
18 helicopters flew to Mapai, where one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m was<br />
shot down with all 14 on board killed. The remaining<br />
178 troopers met strong FPLM resistance. For <strong>the</strong> first<br />
time <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians had to abandon an objective. Uric<br />
tallied over 300 enemy dead, but <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians were<br />
also unable to recover <strong>the</strong> bodies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir fallen comrades<br />
for <strong>the</strong> first time.<br />
In Zambia, ZIPRA was assembling 20,000 men<br />
along with 200 armored vehicles, including Soviet T-<br />
34, T-54 and T-62 tanks, BTR-152 armored personnel<br />
carries plus bridging equipment, artillery and mortars.<br />
Nkomo’s Soviet and Cuban advisors developed a plan<br />
to train and equip five ZIPRA battalions modeled on<br />
Soviet motorized infantry battalions. ZIPRA insurgents<br />
would create bridgeheads for <strong>the</strong> mechanized<br />
forces to cross <strong>the</strong> Zambezi River and capture <strong>the</strong> airfields<br />
at Kariba and Wankie. Libyan transport aircraft<br />
would <strong>the</strong>n bring <strong>the</strong> remainder <strong>of</strong> ZIPRA troops into<br />
Rhodesia. The attack would be covered from <strong>the</strong> air by<br />
MiG-17, MiG-19, and MiG-21 fighters. From Wankie<br />
and Kariba, one armored column would move directly<br />
to Salisbury. A second column would attack via <strong>the</strong><br />
city <strong>of</strong> Que Que. A third element would consolidate<br />
<strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn area before also advancing on <strong>the</strong> capital.<br />
Five mechanized battalions were considered <strong>the</strong> minimum<br />
force needed to defeat <strong>the</strong> RSF and ZANLA by<br />
delivering a maximum effort at <strong>the</strong> decisive moment.<br />
Nkomo’s grand strategy to use most <strong>of</strong> his Soviet<br />
arms to equip his conventional forces left <strong>the</strong> ZIPRA<br />
and SAANC guerillas fighting on a shoestring against<br />
both <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Security Forces and elements<br />
<strong>of</strong> ZANLA inside Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. The 3,000<br />
ZIPRA insurgents resented <strong>the</strong>ir role as an expendable<br />
vanguard for <strong>the</strong> main forces in Zambia. It was<br />
supposed to be a war <strong>of</strong> liberation, not an open invasion.<br />
Many disenchanted guerillas deserted, and some<br />
joined <strong>the</strong> SFA. Realizing his error, Nkomo sent some<br />
conventional formations to operate under <strong>the</strong> command<br />
<strong>of</strong> disgruntled insurgent leaders. He had few<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r options. If <strong>the</strong> Lancaster Talks failed, he needed<br />
to bolster his mechanized battalions for conventional<br />
assault. If <strong>the</strong> talks produced a settlement, Nkomo<br />
needed as many fighters as possible inside <strong>the</strong> country<br />
in order to certify his political presence.<br />
48 #238<br />
continued on page 51
RHODESIAN SECURITY FORCES<br />
(10,800 regulars; 15,000 active reservists)<br />
Lt. Gen. Peter Walls, Combined Operations HQ<br />
RHODESIAN AIR FORCE (2,300 men, 150 pilots)<br />
one light bomber squadron<br />
6 B2 “Canberra”<br />
two fighter-attack squadrons<br />
9 FGA9 “Hunter”<br />
12 RB9 “Vampire”<br />
4 OV-10 “Bronco”<br />
one reconnaissance squadron<br />
8 T-52 “Provost”<br />
11 T-55 “Vampire”<br />
one counter-insurgency squadron<br />
12 AL-60 “Trojan”<br />
18 Ce-337 “Lynx”<br />
one transport squadron<br />
1 Be-55 “Baron”<br />
6 BN-2 “Islanders”<br />
10 C-47 “Dakotas”<br />
two helicopter squadrons<br />
66 SA-316/-318 “Alouette III”<br />
11 Bell 205 “Huey” (aka “Cheetah”)<br />
RHODESIAN LIGHT INFANTRY (1,000 men)<br />
3 Commando Companies (100 to 150 men each)<br />
Support Commando (heavy weapons)<br />
Base Group (HQ and Support)<br />
Note: unit members generally were parachute qualified<br />
RHODESIAN AFRICAN RIFLES<br />
4 Battalions (700 men each) <strong>of</strong> 3 Rifle companies each<br />
RHODESIAN ARTILLERY REGIMENT<br />
1 Battery (active duty) six M101 105mm Howitzers<br />
1 Battery (reservists) six 25 pounders<br />
10 ZPU-4/20mm anti-aircraft guns (captured from<br />
ZANLA/FPLM)<br />
RHODESIAN ARMOURED CAR REGIMENT<br />
4 Armored Car Squadrons (1 regular, 3 reservists) <strong>of</strong> 4<br />
troops each<br />
60 Eland, 54 S/90 Scout Cars<br />
50 UR-416 Armored Personnel Carriers<br />
20 Ferret Armored Cars<br />
1 Tank Squadron<br />
8 T-55 Tanks (obtained through South Africa)<br />
SPECIAL AIR SERVICE<br />
1 Regiment <strong>of</strong> 4 Squadrons (several hundred men)<br />
GREY’S SCOUTS<br />
3 Combat Squadrons (160 men)<br />
3 Troops <strong>of</strong> four sections<br />
Support Squadron<br />
60mm and 81mm mortar section<br />
Reconnaissance troop<br />
Tracking Troop (with trained dogs)<br />
SELOUS SCOUTS<br />
1 Battalion<br />
(1,800 men, <strong>of</strong>ten deployed in small teams)<br />
3 Troops<br />
Support Troop<br />
RHODESIA REGIMENT (Bn nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10)<br />
4 Territorial Force battalions<br />
4 Territorial Reserve battalions<br />
Six Independent Companies (for local patrols in remote areas)<br />
Four Engineer Squadrons<br />
BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN POLICE*<br />
(8,000 active, 19,000 reserve)<br />
Regular Police: two-thirds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> police force was black.<br />
Police Support Units (“Blackboots”): an integrated unit with permanent<br />
black troops and temporary service by white police or servicemen.<br />
Each troop <strong>of</strong> 5 to 7 men was assigned to a particular area.<br />
Special Reserve: paramilitary volunteers in “Dad’s Army” (average<br />
age was 55 to 65 years) provided security in European and Asian<br />
residential areas.<br />
Police Anti-Terrorist Units: security for municipal infrastructure and<br />
population centers.<br />
Urban Emergency Unit: SWAT team used in urban areas.<br />
Police Mounted Unit: small unit, used with limited effectiveness.<br />
Special Branch: for investigation, intelligence and interrogation.<br />
* “British South African Police” was <strong>the</strong> formal name for <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian<br />
national police, which also had a paramilitary role. It was, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, manned by Rhodesians, both white and black.<br />
SECURITY FORCE AUXILIARIES (3,000 to 16,000)<br />
SOUTH AFRICAN DEFENSE FORCES<br />
From 1967-1974 <strong>the</strong> South Africans deployed <strong>the</strong> equivalent <strong>of</strong><br />
a battalion <strong>of</strong> paramilitary police as well as helicopters and pilots to<br />
Rhodesia. SADF “Recce” commandos and paratroopers also conducted<br />
operations.<br />
strategy & tactics 49
Making Do<br />
Due to <strong>the</strong>ir isolation from <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world, <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians became masters <strong>of</strong> improvisation. One threat<br />
<strong>the</strong>y had to deal with was anti-vehicular mines, which <strong>the</strong> guerrillas planted on roads and spread liberally around<br />
<strong>the</strong> countryside. Vehicles were modified by adding various types <strong>of</strong> armor and filling <strong>the</strong> tires with water, which<br />
would better absorb <strong>the</strong> shock <strong>of</strong> detonations. Bizarre looking vehicles were built using “V” shapes to deflect blast<br />
effects. Civilian traffic near <strong>the</strong> borders would be escorted by anti-mine vehicles and gun-trucks. There was also<br />
<strong>the</strong> “Pookie” mine detection vehicle, which used electronic metal detectors. As a result, casualties from mines<br />
were few and far between.<br />
An example <strong>of</strong> how <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Security Forces circumvented <strong>the</strong> international embargo is <strong>the</strong> circuitous<br />
route by which <strong>the</strong>y came to possess eight Soviet-designed tanks. In 1979 a French ship was carrying weapons<br />
that had been sold by Libya to Uganda. The vessel docked in Mombasa, Kenya. Then Idi Amin’s regime collapsed<br />
and <strong>the</strong> ship was redirected to Angola, stopping along <strong>the</strong> way in Durban, South Africa. South Africa was <strong>the</strong>n<br />
conducting military operations in Angola, so authorities seized <strong>the</strong> 10 Polish-built T-55 tanks on board as contraband.<br />
The SADF retained two <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tanks for evaluation and eventually gave <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r eight to Rhodesia.<br />
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE RHODESIAN ARMY<br />
The Rhodesian Army had its origins in October <strong>of</strong> 1889 when a British Royal Charter authorized <strong>the</strong> British South Africa<br />
CoThe Rhodesian Army had its origins in October 1889, when a royal charter authorized <strong>the</strong> British South Africa Company to<br />
raise a police force for <strong>the</strong> territories north <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Limpopo River. That force was called <strong>the</strong> British South Africa Company Police<br />
(BSACP), and it accompanied <strong>the</strong> pioneer column that established a colony in what later became Rhodesia. The police had a<br />
paramilitary role from <strong>the</strong> start. Aside from enforcing <strong>the</strong> law, <strong>the</strong>y battled <strong>the</strong> local tribes, who proved less than pleased with <strong>the</strong><br />
European intrusion. They also performed a range <strong>of</strong> what today would be considered government services.<br />
An influx <strong>of</strong> British settlers as well administrators led to an expansion <strong>of</strong> those forces. The BSACP was soon supplemented<br />
by several o<strong>the</strong>r colonial formations, such as <strong>the</strong> Salisbury Horse and Victoria Rangers. In 1909 various colonial formations were<br />
consolidated into <strong>the</strong> British South Africa Police (BSAP), a name retained up until 1980.<br />
Meanwhile, in 1898, a regular military unit was formed called <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Rhodesia Volunteers (SRV). The SRV served in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Boer <strong>War</strong>, taking part in <strong>the</strong> relief <strong>of</strong> Mafeking. The Rhodesia Regiment was also formed for service in <strong>the</strong> Boer <strong>War</strong>. It was<br />
expanded and fought in <strong>the</strong> grueling campaigns against <strong>the</strong> Germans in Africa during World <strong>War</strong> I.<br />
The Defence Act <strong>of</strong> 1927 created a Permanent Force (regular) and a Territorial Force (reserves). World <strong>War</strong> II saw <strong>the</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
expansion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian military, including <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1st Battalion RAR, composed mainly <strong>of</strong> black Africans. Rhodesians<br />
also provided three squadrons to <strong>the</strong> Royal Air Force. Following World <strong>War</strong> II, many British Army veterans were given<br />
land in Rhodesia as a reward for service, a move that caused resentment on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> many Africans.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> 1950s units <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Army served with <strong>the</strong> Commonwealth troops in Malaya, participating in <strong>the</strong> successful<br />
counterinsurgency against Communist guerrillas <strong>the</strong>re. In 1961 <strong>the</strong> 1st Battalion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Light Infantry was formed,<br />
along with C Squadron <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment. The SAS was patterned after <strong>the</strong> elite British unconventional<br />
warfare unit.<br />
The Lancaster accords called for <strong>the</strong> integration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> former nationalist guerrillas into <strong>the</strong> regular army. That was accomplished,<br />
but not without friction between <strong>the</strong> former ZANU and ZAPU forces. Mugabe dismissed Lt. Gen. Walls, and in <strong>the</strong> 1980s<br />
many units were disbanded or suffered from lack <strong>of</strong> discipline. Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> soldiers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> old Rhodesian Army, both white and<br />
black, emigrated to South Africa and joined <strong>the</strong> SADF—and continued <strong>the</strong>ir own struggle.<br />
50 #238
While <strong>the</strong> Muzorewa government anticipated a<br />
transfer <strong>of</strong> power to <strong>the</strong> nationalists, <strong>the</strong> security force<br />
strategy was to delay <strong>the</strong> insurgents long enough to<br />
persuade Nkomo and Mugabe to accept moderate<br />
terms with some future for <strong>the</strong> white minority. To disrupt<br />
<strong>the</strong> ZIPRA invasion plan, <strong>the</strong> SAS, RLI and Selous<br />
Scouts carried out Operation Dice, during which<br />
<strong>the</strong>y destroyed <strong>the</strong> bridges in Zambia leading to <strong>the</strong><br />
border and linking Zambia to Tanzania. The damage<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Zambian economy and infrastructure was<br />
monumental, and caused President Kaunda to pressure<br />
Nkomo into working toward an agreement.<br />
In mid-1979, Mozambique’s government actively<br />
supported ZANLA by sending 300 FRELIMO troops<br />
into Rhodesia. The Rhodesians responded with more<br />
cross-border attacks to destroy armories, mine roads<br />
and interrupt <strong>the</strong> flow <strong>of</strong> supplies and reinforcements.<br />
By September <strong>the</strong> external raids had projected <strong>the</strong><br />
war into Mozambique and caused friction between<br />
Mugabe’s faction and his FRELIMO host. Fire Force<br />
operations were killing his leaders and trained fighters<br />
faster than he could replace <strong>the</strong>m. And <strong>the</strong> SFA forces<br />
were sometimes displacing <strong>the</strong> ZANLA forces in <strong>the</strong><br />
tribal territories.<br />
At Lancaster House an agreement was finally<br />
reached for a ceasefire. The insurgents were to ga<strong>the</strong>r<br />
at assembly points, and <strong>the</strong> British would appoint a<br />
governor to oversee <strong>the</strong> transition from colonial rule.<br />
(London had still not <strong>of</strong>ficially recognized Rhodesia<br />
as an independent state.) ZIPRA used <strong>the</strong> ceasefire as<br />
cover to establish bridgeheads for its planned assault.<br />
ZANLA kept a large proportion <strong>of</strong> its forces outside<br />
<strong>the</strong> assembly points while infiltrating ano<strong>the</strong>r 8,000<br />
insurgents into <strong>the</strong> country. The ceasefire forced <strong>the</strong><br />
Rhodesians to suspend <strong>the</strong>ir cross-border raids, which<br />
were <strong>the</strong> only things still working to keep insurgent<br />
forces at bay.<br />
On 12 December 1979, Lord Christopher Soames<br />
entered Salisbury as British governor, <strong>the</strong>reby certifying<br />
<strong>the</strong> political return <strong>of</strong> Rhodesia to colonial status.<br />
Nkomo overruled his Soviet and Cuban advisors, who<br />
wanted him to continue <strong>the</strong> fight for more favorable<br />
concessions, and signed <strong>the</strong> Lancaster Peace Settlement.<br />
Smith predicted Mugabe would win <strong>the</strong> election,<br />
though most whites hoped for a coalition <strong>of</strong> Nkomo,<br />
Muzorewa and Smith. The general belief was that if<br />
Mugabe lost he might attempt a coup. To forestall such<br />
a power grab, <strong>the</strong> RSF planned two more operations.<br />
Operation Quartz was to be a pre-emptive strike<br />
against insurgent assembly points with <strong>the</strong> RLI and<br />
Selous Scouts in <strong>the</strong> lead. At <strong>the</strong> same time, Operation<br />
Hectic was to be an attack by <strong>the</strong> SAS to kill<br />
Mugabe and his key subordinates. The South Africans<br />
would support <strong>the</strong> attack with some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1,000<br />
troops who’d taken up positions in sou<strong>the</strong>rn Rhodesia<br />
to secure an escape route for <strong>the</strong> whites if <strong>the</strong> situation<br />
warranted evacuation. Those final actions never took<br />
place. Quartz and Hectic were cancelled three hours<br />
before <strong>the</strong> code word launching <strong>the</strong>m was to have been<br />
given.<br />
Zimbabwe at Last<br />
Through 15 years <strong>of</strong> intermittent and at times intensive<br />
fighting, <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Army established itself<br />
as a well trained, integrated and efficient armed force.<br />
The white population endured taxation and conscription<br />
in <strong>the</strong> vain hope <strong>of</strong> maintaining its political power,<br />
but that cause was doomed from <strong>the</strong> beginning. The<br />
RSF could strike quickly over significant distances,<br />
but <strong>the</strong> war couldn’t really be won by holding terrain<br />
and running up kill ratios.<br />
As usual, politics dominated. Given <strong>the</strong> anti-colonial<br />
feeling common in that era, it was impossible for<br />
<strong>the</strong> Rhodesian government to gain recognition from<br />
<strong>the</strong> international community and, without that support,<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir options were increasingly limited. While Rhodesia<br />
could conceivably have operated within a greater<br />
framework <strong>of</strong> a white-ruled sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa, alongside<br />
<strong>the</strong> Portuguese empire and South Africa, that possibility<br />
was scotched with <strong>the</strong> independence <strong>of</strong> Mozambique<br />
and Angola.<br />
Rising white emigration <strong>the</strong>n depleted <strong>the</strong> pool <strong>of</strong><br />
manpower available for call-up, leaving some infantry<br />
companies with fewer than 30 white soldiers. As<br />
<strong>the</strong> insurgents increased in numbers, <strong>the</strong> Rhodesians<br />
retrenched to more defensive operations punctuated<br />
by fierce cross-border attacks. By <strong>the</strong> late 1970s, Rhodesian<br />
losses were increasing, eventually reaching a<br />
total <strong>of</strong> 1,735 dead. In contrast, insurgent losses were<br />
estimated at 40,000, but <strong>the</strong>ir supply <strong>of</strong> recruits and<br />
equipment was endless. The RSF couldn’t bring <strong>the</strong><br />
war to an end even though <strong>the</strong>ir troops were won virtually<br />
every fight.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> elections <strong>of</strong> 14-29 February 1980, Mugabe’s<br />
party won 57 seats in <strong>the</strong> new government, Nkomo<br />
took 20, Muzorewa three, and Sithole none. Thus <strong>the</strong><br />
struggle ended, and Mugabe became <strong>the</strong> elected prime<br />
minister <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> new nation <strong>of</strong> Zimbabwe. Within a few<br />
years, most whites had left <strong>the</strong> country. The 15-yearlong<br />
Chimurenga <strong>War</strong> was over. A new struggle, this<br />
time in South Africa, was about to begin.<br />
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Bond, Ge<strong>of</strong>frey. The Incredibles: <strong>the</strong> story <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1 st Battalion, <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian<br />
Light Infantry. Salisbury: Sarum Imprint, 1977.<br />
Cilliers, J. K. Counter-insurgency in Rhodesia. London: C. Helm, c1985.<br />
Cocks, C. J. Fireforce: One Man’s <strong>War</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Rhodesian Light Infantry. Roodepoort,<br />
South Africa: Covos Books, 1997.<br />
Ellert, H. The Rhodesian front war: Counter-insurgency & guerrilla war in<br />
Rhodesia, 1962-1980. Gweru: Mambo Press, c1989.<br />
Martin, David. The struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga <strong>War</strong>. London:<br />
Faber and Faber, 1981.<br />
Moorcraft, Paul L. Chimurenga! The war in Rhodesia, 1965-1980: A military<br />
history. Marshalltown: Sygma/Collins, c1982<br />
Nesbit, Roy Conyers. Britain’s rebel air force: The <strong>War</strong> from <strong>the</strong> air in Rhodesia,<br />
1965-1980. London: Grub Street, c1998.<br />
strategy & tactics 51
SPI Classic Games<br />
Wacht Am Rhein<br />
The Battle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bulge, 16 Dec 44 – 2 Jan 45<br />
On 16 December 16 1944, Hitler’s armies suddenly seemed to regain<br />
<strong>the</strong> insurmountable skill that brought <strong>the</strong>m victory in <strong>the</strong> first years <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> war. For months, Hitler had worked to reorganize and re-equip <strong>the</strong><br />
beaten divisions streaming back toward Germany. A massive surprise<br />
counterattack—code-named “Wacht am Rhein”—against <strong>the</strong> weak<br />
Ardennes sector <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American front was prepared.<br />
Wacht am Rhein, is a tactical simulation <strong>of</strong> that enormous battle.<br />
The 2,380 counters represent every formation, at company and battalion<br />
levels, which fought in both armies. Infantry, armor, anti-tank, recon,<br />
engineer, assault gun, howitzer, rocket, parachute, ranger, glider and<br />
headquarters are all included. The four maps are an accurate representation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ardennes. Compiled from 1944 German staff maps and <strong>the</strong><br />
1943-1944 1:50,000 US Army maps, <strong>the</strong>y show primary and secondary<br />
roads, trails and o<strong>the</strong>r terrains in relation to <strong>the</strong>ir suitability for armor and infantry. Towns and villages, bastions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American defense,<br />
as well as creeks and rivers, which can’t be crossed by vehicles without a bridge, are accurately positioned.<br />
Players use single maps for small scenarios, or fight a campaign game that utilizes all four maps and portrays all three weeks. In it,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Germans race attack in <strong>the</strong> face <strong>of</strong> ever-increasing concentrations <strong>of</strong> Allied infantry, armor and air power. Extensive supply, wea<strong>the</strong>r<br />
and air power rules are included.<br />
WaR has undergone modification to its combat, artillery and supply subsystems<br />
to accurately depict tactical warfare. An exploitation mode has been<br />
created for mechanized units to take advantage <strong>of</strong> breakthroughs in <strong>the</strong> enemy<br />
line during <strong>the</strong> combat phase. That movement is mixed with <strong>the</strong> opponent’s<br />
to recreate <strong>the</strong> fluidity that existed during <strong>the</strong> first week. Fur<strong>the</strong>r changes include<br />
<strong>the</strong> addition <strong>of</strong> high-ground vantage points, which enable units to more<br />
effectively spot for artillery, as well as constricted terrain, which represents<br />
steep gullies and ravines.<br />
The order <strong>of</strong> battle has also been revamped to provide an accurate depiction<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> armies. Units are in <strong>the</strong> organizations within which <strong>the</strong>y actually<br />
fought, not <strong>the</strong> administrative formations that were quickly discarded due to<br />
<strong>the</strong> demands <strong>of</strong> battle.<br />
Contents: (4) 22x34 inch maps, 2,380 die-cut counters, rule booklet, scenario<br />
booklet, player aid cards and displays, dice and storage bags.<br />
Title<br />
QTY Price TOTAL<br />
$150.00*<br />
*ships as 3 units on ship chart.<br />
SUB To ta l<br />
Shipping Charges<br />
1st item Adt’l Units Type <strong>of</strong> Service<br />
$8 $2 UPS Ground/US Mail Domestic Priority<br />
15(20) 4 UPS 2nd Day Air (Metro AK & HI)<br />
14(10) 2(7) Canada, Mexico (Express)<br />
17(25) 7(10) Europe (Express)<br />
20(25) 9(10) Asia, Africa, Australia (Express)<br />
52 #238<br />
TAX (CA. RES.)<br />
$<br />
S&H<br />
$<br />
TOTAL ORDER<br />
$<br />
PO Box 21598, Bakersfield CA 93390-1598<br />
• (661) 587-9633 •fax 661/587-5031<br />
www.decisiongames.com
from Decision Games<br />
Empires <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle Ages<br />
Between <strong>the</strong> glories <strong>of</strong> Rome and <strong>the</strong> rise <strong>of</strong> national states came an age in which<br />
each land was defined by <strong>the</strong> virtue and failings <strong>of</strong> its monarch. Empires <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle<br />
Ages is a multi-player game <strong>of</strong> diplomacy in which up to six may act as dynasts and<br />
attempt to build <strong>the</strong>ir historic kingdoms into vast realms. The period covered in <strong>the</strong><br />
game spans from AD 771, <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> Charlemagne’s reign, to 1465, <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
final collapse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Byzantine Empire. The game is played on a map <strong>of</strong> medieval<br />
Europe on which <strong>the</strong> players record <strong>the</strong> power <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir kingdoms. Playing cards<br />
resolve <strong>the</strong> basic actions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> game, while random<br />
event cards add period<br />
flavor, such as plagues, crusades and<br />
heresy. Six scenarios are included,<br />
from a solitaire game to a grand scenario<br />
covering <strong>the</strong> entire Middle Ages.<br />
Components: 1,120 counters,<br />
(2) 22" x 34" mapsheets, 220 full<br />
color playing cards, 40-page rule book,<br />
and player aid cards.<br />
$100.00*<br />
*ships as 3 units on ship chart.<br />
<strong>War</strong> Between <strong>the</strong> States, 1861-1865<br />
<strong>War</strong> Between <strong>the</strong> States, 1861-1865, simulates <strong>the</strong> American Civil <strong>War</strong> from <strong>the</strong><br />
opening shot at Fort Sumter to Lee’s surrender at Appomattox, using three maps to<br />
cover <strong>the</strong> major <strong>the</strong>aters <strong>of</strong> operation from Galveston, Texas, to St. Joseph, Missouri,<br />
and from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Jacksonville, Florida.<br />
Game turns represent <strong>the</strong> passage <strong>of</strong> a week, with intervening “cycles” during which<br />
players carry out such routines as production, blockade, construction and politics. Each<br />
game turn is divided into two player turns,<br />
during which one player or <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r may<br />
move his ground and naval units on <strong>the</strong><br />
map and attack his opponent.<br />
The game can be played as a<br />
campaign using all three maps and simulating <strong>the</strong> entire war from beginning to end. Alternatively,<br />
six scenarios are also <strong>of</strong>fered, covering <strong>the</strong> eastern campaigns <strong>of</strong> 1862, 1863 and<br />
1864, along with three o<strong>the</strong>rs covering <strong>the</strong> western campaigns <strong>of</strong> those same years. The<br />
scenarios vary in length from eight to 24 game turns. The scenarios are played on just one<br />
Name<br />
Address<br />
City, State<br />
Phone<br />
VISA/Mc (ONLY)#<br />
EMAIL<br />
or two maps. Expanded and optional rules have been added to this new edition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> game,<br />
which work to enhance <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> headquarters, allow for variable<br />
leader entry into play, give more detail to naval and riverine combat,<br />
as well as more fully integrating <strong>the</strong> era’s politics into play.<br />
more accurate representation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> actual terrain fought over and<br />
<strong>the</strong> addition <strong>of</strong> more counters including set <strong>of</strong> counters for <strong>the</strong><br />
variant leaders.<br />
Contents: 3 22x34 inch maps, 1400 die-cut counters, rule book<br />
and player aid cards. $110.00*<br />
Zip<br />
Expiration Date<br />
Signature<br />
*ships as 3 units on ship chart.<br />
strategy & tactics 53
Civil <strong>War</strong> Submarine Operations<br />
By Carl Otis Schuster<br />
54 #238<br />
Well-known painting <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> CSS Hunley.<br />
At 8:45 p.m. on 17 February 1864, lookouts on <strong>the</strong> Union<br />
sloop <strong>of</strong> war USS Housatonic spotted a dark shape approaching<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir ship’s starboard side. Calling <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> deck,<br />
who sent <strong>the</strong> ship to action stations, <strong>the</strong>y opened fire with<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir rifles. They were engaging <strong>the</strong> Confederate “screw submarine”<br />
CSS Hunley, which had surfaced 300 yards away.<br />
Almost invisible, with only a few inches <strong>of</strong> deck and its two<br />
hatches showing and its black hull blending into <strong>the</strong> dark water,<br />
it had covered half <strong>the</strong> distance to <strong>the</strong> ship before it was<br />
detected. Moving at its top speed <strong>of</strong> four knots, it reached <strong>the</strong><br />
Housatonic less than two minutes later, drove its explosive<br />
“torpedo” into <strong>the</strong> ship’s hull and pulled away. The torpedo<br />
detonated, blowing a 15-foot hole and making <strong>the</strong> Housatonic<br />
<strong>the</strong> first surface ship to be sunk by a submarine.<br />
The Hunley survived long enough to signal its success<br />
ashore, and <strong>the</strong>n went down with all hands. Though its wreck<br />
was recovered in 2001, <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> its loss remains a subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> debate to this day. Despite is place in history, however, <strong>the</strong><br />
Hunley was nei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> first nor <strong>the</strong> only submarine to see<br />
service in <strong>the</strong> Civil <strong>War</strong>. The Union commissioned at least<br />
one, <strong>the</strong> USS Alligator while three, possibly more, Confederate<br />
submarines preceded <strong>the</strong> Hunley in service. The Civil<br />
<strong>War</strong>, <strong>the</strong>n, was <strong>the</strong> first conflict in which both sides planned,<br />
built and employed submarines.<br />
The war’s start generated ideas on both sides <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mason-Dixon<br />
line. Submarine advocates and inventors sent <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
schemes to <strong>the</strong>ir respective capitols and argued <strong>the</strong>ir case in<br />
<strong>the</strong> newspapers. The two navies’ significantly different missions<br />
and strategic circumstances gave <strong>the</strong>m divergent ideas<br />
on submarines employment. For <strong>the</strong> South, submarines <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
a potential solution to <strong>the</strong> Union naval threat to <strong>the</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn coast and <strong>the</strong> forming blockade. Facing <strong>the</strong> need<br />
to seize Confederate ports, Nor<strong>the</strong>rn naval leaders believed<br />
submarines <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>the</strong> best means for removing underwater<br />
obstacles and penetrating sou<strong>the</strong>rn coastal defenses to<br />
ga<strong>the</strong>r intelligence. Political and economic considerations<br />
also drove how <strong>the</strong> two sides’ funded, built and manned <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
subs.<br />
With limited financial resources, <strong>the</strong> South decided to<br />
rely on private enterprise, <strong>of</strong>fering a $500 bounty for every<br />
Union warship sunk by submarine. The policy made economic<br />
sense: it saved <strong>the</strong> expense <strong>of</strong> funding research, development<br />
and manning an unproven weapon system. The<br />
only fiscal outlays would come when <strong>the</strong> submarines successfully<br />
sank Union warships. The bounty <strong>of</strong>fer generated<br />
tremendous interest. Several disparate efforts were begun in<br />
order to build submarines throughout <strong>the</strong> South, but investors<br />
in Norfolk, New Orleans, and later Mobile, Alabama, were<br />
<strong>the</strong> only ones known to have completed operating models.<br />
Claims <strong>of</strong> submarines built and <strong>the</strong>n somehow sabotaged in<br />
Tennessee remain unproven.<br />
Enjoying far greater financial and industrial resources, as<br />
well as a much larger shipbuilding capacity, Union leaders<br />
could finance <strong>the</strong>ir entire submarine development effort and<br />
had strong geo-political reasons for not relying on private<br />
efforts for <strong>the</strong>ir operations: <strong>the</strong> 1856 Declaration <strong>of</strong> Paris.<br />
That little known convention prohibited privately owned<br />
warships from conducting attacks on a belligerent’s behalf<br />
as well as <strong>the</strong> “collection <strong>of</strong> prize monies” by ships’ captains<br />
and crews (essentially government-sponsored piracy).<br />
Traditionally, <strong>the</strong> US had employed privateering to raid enemy<br />
shipping in its conflicts with larger powers (Britain and<br />
France).<br />
Washington had <strong>the</strong>refore refused both <strong>the</strong> invitation to<br />
attend <strong>the</strong> negotiations for <strong>the</strong> treaty and to sign it. Wanting<br />
to prevent Confederate privateering, US leaders suddenly<br />
saw <strong>the</strong> declaration’s benefits. They <strong>the</strong>refore announced<br />
we would comply with <strong>the</strong> treaty and asked <strong>the</strong> European<br />
countries to enforce its provisions against Confederate privateers.<br />
As part <strong>of</strong> that larger effort, <strong>the</strong> Union Navy placed<br />
all submarine construction under <strong>the</strong> control <strong>of</strong> its Bureau <strong>of</strong><br />
Construction, Equipment and Repair.<br />
Ironically, <strong>the</strong>n, <strong>the</strong> Union gained an early lead in <strong>the</strong><br />
submarine development effort. A Frenchman, Brutus de Villeroi,<br />
demonstrated a 33-foot, man-powered screw-propelled<br />
vessel in <strong>the</strong> Delaware River near Philadelphia on 16 May<br />
1861. Initially intended for underwater salvage work and exploration,<br />
<strong>the</strong> boat had a “divers lock” to enable swimmers<br />
to enter and depart safely underwater. The Philadelphia Naval<br />
Shipyard Commander, Capt. (later Rear Adm.) Samuel<br />
Du Pont recommended fur<strong>the</strong>r study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vessel and its potential<br />
for employment in <strong>the</strong> war. The Navy Department accepted<br />
his recommendation and awarded de Villeroi $14,000<br />
to construct a submarine “for <strong>of</strong>fensive operations.” It took<br />
six months to build and was commissioned on 1 May 1862<br />
as <strong>the</strong> USS Alligator, under command <strong>of</strong> Lt. Thomas O. Selfridge,<br />
Jr. He holds <strong>the</strong> distinction <strong>of</strong> being <strong>the</strong> first US naval<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficer to command a submarine and <strong>the</strong> only one to do so<br />
during <strong>the</strong> Civil <strong>War</strong>.
Unfortunately, for reasons still unexplained, de Villeroi<br />
modified <strong>the</strong> submarine he built for <strong>the</strong> navy in ways that<br />
both delayed its construction and negatively affected its performance.<br />
The worst <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> changes was <strong>the</strong> shift in propulsion.<br />
His initial plan had been good. Enlarging <strong>the</strong> submarine<br />
to 45 feet to accommodate eight extra men should have<br />
raised its speed and endurance. He hoped having 18 men<br />
propel <strong>the</strong> submarine would more than double its cruising<br />
and maximum speeds <strong>of</strong> one and two knots, respectively.<br />
He defeated his own purpose, however, by replacing <strong>the</strong><br />
simple crankshaft-to-propeller system with a complex series<br />
<strong>of</strong> gears that drove oars outside <strong>the</strong> hull. The submarine’s<br />
speed remained unchanged, and <strong>the</strong> oars created turbulence<br />
underwater that made <strong>the</strong> submarine difficult to control submerged.<br />
It proved nearly impossible to maintain trim underwater,<br />
and its internal air supply was insufficient to support<br />
submerged operations <strong>of</strong> more than 10 minutes.<br />
Despite those problems, Secretary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Navy Welles<br />
pushed hard to have <strong>the</strong> USS Alligator employed in combat.<br />
They deployed it to Fort Monroe in Hampton Roads in early<br />
June 1862 in hopes <strong>of</strong> using it to: 1) remove obstructions<br />
blocking <strong>the</strong> James River; 2) destroy <strong>the</strong> Confederate bridges<br />
over <strong>the</strong> Appamattox River; and 3) sink <strong>the</strong> Confederate<br />
ironclad CSS Virginia. The first two attacks were cancelled<br />
when those rivers proved too shallow for <strong>the</strong> Alligator to<br />
dive. Attention <strong>the</strong>n shifted to <strong>the</strong> Virginia. The plan was to<br />
have <strong>the</strong> Alligator towed to within a few miles <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> target’s<br />
position and <strong>the</strong>n release <strong>the</strong> submarine make a submerged<br />
approach. Once within 20-40 yards <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ironclad, a swimmer<br />
was to leave <strong>the</strong> submarine via <strong>the</strong> diving lock and plant<br />
explosives against or under its hull. The submarine would<br />
<strong>the</strong>n withdraw, detonating <strong>the</strong> “torpedo” once it was a safe<br />
distance away. The river currents in and around Hampton<br />
Roads, combined with <strong>the</strong> Alligator’s limited speed and poor<br />
handling characteristics, defeated <strong>the</strong> mission.<br />
The sub was withdrawn to Fort Monroe and underwent<br />
a major modification that replaced <strong>the</strong> oars with screw pro-<br />
Union Anti-Submarine Operations<br />
Forewarned by his spies <strong>of</strong> Confederate submarine developments,<br />
Comm. Louis Goldsborough, commander <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> North Atlantic<br />
Blockading Squadron in Hampton Roads, ordered his ships<br />
to be alert to potential attacks by those “infernal machines.” He<br />
realized submarines posed a threat only to ships at anchor, but coal<br />
consumption considerations precluded his keeping his ships underway<br />
at all times. The spies’ reports also convinced him submarines<br />
would have difficulty operating in windy conditions or<br />
rough seas. Reasoning <strong>the</strong>ir tactics from <strong>the</strong> available information,<br />
he also decided dusk and dawn were <strong>the</strong> most likely periods for a<br />
submarine attack provided wind and tidal conditions were optimal.<br />
His September 1861 directive to his squadron were history’s first<br />
anti-submarine warfare tactics and led to its first anti-submarine<br />
warfare (ASW) prosecution.<br />
He directed ships take several precautions when at anchor.<br />
First, <strong>the</strong>y were to deploy netting from <strong>the</strong>ir fenders. The netting<br />
was to be weighted with shot, extend <strong>the</strong> full length <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ship,<br />
and reach to <strong>the</strong> harbor bottom. The intent was to prevent a submarine<br />
passing under <strong>the</strong> ship with a towed torpedo or getting close<br />
enough to have swimmers attach explosives to <strong>the</strong> hull. Ships were<br />
to double <strong>the</strong>ir lookouts, particularly at dusk and before dawn, with<br />
at least a portion <strong>of</strong> those men specifically designated to search for<br />
low-lying objects moving toward <strong>the</strong> ship. Carronades loaded with<br />
canister were to be manned for instant action in case a submarine<br />
Period engraving <strong>of</strong> USS Alligator.<br />
pulsion. That kept it out <strong>of</strong> service until late 1862. In late<br />
February 1863, it was ordered to join <strong>the</strong> force preparing to<br />
attack Charleston harbor, but sank under tow in a gale on 31<br />
March. No lives were lost, but <strong>the</strong> Alligator’s loss eliminated<br />
<strong>the</strong> Union Navy’s submarine force.<br />
Facing <strong>the</strong> greater need, and inspired by <strong>the</strong> prospects<br />
<strong>of</strong> bounty money, <strong>the</strong> Confederacy ultimately created a<br />
broader and more aggressive submarine development program,<br />
which compensated in part for its later start and fewer<br />
resources. All were private ventures. As with many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
South’s ‘private’ naval activities, historians have only <strong>the</strong><br />
Union naval logs, newspaper articles and spy reports to describe<br />
submarine developments and operations. (The sponsors<br />
destroyed <strong>the</strong>ir records to avoid post-war prosecution<br />
as pirates – a hanging <strong>of</strong>fense.) Reliable records exist only<br />
for those projects military authorities took over, usually out<br />
<strong>of</strong> frustration with <strong>the</strong> civilian designers’ lack <strong>of</strong> progress.<br />
None<strong>the</strong>less, as mentioned above, it’s apparent private inventors<br />
in New Orleans, Mobile, Savannah, Norfolk and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r places had submarine projects under development by<br />
<strong>the</strong> summer <strong>of</strong> 1861.<br />
A Rev. Franklin Smith <strong>of</strong> Tennessee reportedly built<br />
a four-man submarine in <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> 1861, but records are<br />
was spotted. He modified his directive after <strong>the</strong> failed 1861 submarine<br />
attack on <strong>the</strong> USS Minnesota; ships were <strong>the</strong>reafter ordered to maintain<br />
picket boats in and around <strong>the</strong>ir anchorages whenever seas were<br />
calm.<br />
The Minnesota had all those precautions in place on 19 October,<br />
when <strong>the</strong> a submarine made its second attack on <strong>the</strong> squadron flagship.<br />
A picket-boat spotted <strong>the</strong> submarine’s “India rubber” snorkel<br />
when <strong>the</strong> sub was still about 400 yards from <strong>the</strong> flagship. Rowing<br />
quickly, <strong>the</strong>y closed on <strong>the</strong> snorkel. Seeing <strong>the</strong> futility <strong>of</strong> trying to<br />
damage <strong>the</strong> submarine’s hull by firing into <strong>the</strong> water, <strong>the</strong> boat <strong>of</strong>ficer<br />
directed his coxswain to come alongside <strong>the</strong> snorkel. The boatswain<br />
reached out, grabbed <strong>the</strong> snorkel hose just below <strong>the</strong> surface and cut<br />
through it. They watched <strong>the</strong> bubbles trailing out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sinking hose<br />
for a few minutes, and <strong>the</strong>n signaled <strong>the</strong> flagship <strong>the</strong>y had engaged a<br />
Confederate underwater craft. They believed <strong>the</strong>y had sunk it, but accurately<br />
reported <strong>the</strong>y weren’t sure. History’s first ASW prosecution<br />
was thus at least partially successful. News <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> engagement was<br />
reported in Harper’s Gazette on 21 October 1861.<br />
Adm. Dahlgren directed his Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Blockading Squadron to<br />
take similar precautions <strong>of</strong>f Charleston Harbor shortly after he took<br />
command <strong>the</strong>re in July 1863. He modified <strong>the</strong> guidance on 7 January<br />
1864, shortly after receiving reports <strong>the</strong> Confederates were preparing<br />
to make ano<strong>the</strong>r attack on one <strong>of</strong> his ironclads. That effort,<br />
against <strong>the</strong> USS New Ironsides, was conducted by a semi-submersible<br />
strategy & tactics 55
sparse. The reverend claimed his vessel was sabotaged and<br />
destroyed shortly after its first trial. A second Confederate<br />
submersible was built and tested in Norfolk, Virginia,<br />
in September 1861. Designed by <strong>the</strong> acclaimed Confederate<br />
engineer William Cheeney, it had a three-man crew who<br />
turned a single propeller and used a compass to navigate. A<br />
primitive rubber snorkel enabled operating submerged until<br />
crew exhaustion forced it to surface. Like all submarines <strong>of</strong><br />
that era, it was to deliver an underwater explosive against its<br />
target’s hull. Cheeney’s idea was to pass under <strong>the</strong> target and<br />
deploy a swimmer who used a hand drill and small “grappling<br />
hooks” to attach an explosive to <strong>the</strong> hull. The submarine<br />
would <strong>the</strong>n withdraw a safe distance and detonate <strong>the</strong><br />
torpedo electronically. Union spies regularly reported on its<br />
progress, including its sea trials <strong>of</strong>f Sewell’s Point, <strong>the</strong> location<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> present-day Norfolk Naval Base.<br />
Cheeney’s unnamed submarine attempted two attacks<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Union’s Hampton Roads flagship, USS Minnesota;<br />
however, its primitive snorkel and reliance on attaching<br />
its explosives to <strong>the</strong> target proved its undoing. <strong>War</strong>ned by<br />
Union spies, <strong>the</strong> naval squadron quickly developed and<br />
deployed anti-submarine nets. It became tangled in one <strong>of</strong><br />
those nets during its first attack against <strong>the</strong> USS Minnesota<br />
on 12 October 1861. After struggling for nearly a quarter <strong>of</strong><br />
an hour, <strong>the</strong> submarine withdrew. Three weeks later, Union<br />
lookouts again spotted <strong>the</strong> submarine’s air hose, and an alert<br />
picket-boat crew rowed alongside and cut its, nearly sinking<br />
it. The submarine’s fate is not clear: <strong>the</strong>re’s disagreement<br />
on whe<strong>the</strong>r it was lost in early November 1861 or simply<br />
broken up for scrap. What is known, however, is that ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
three years passed before Virginia’s Confederate authorities<br />
employed ano<strong>the</strong>r submarine. Two months later, <strong>the</strong> submarine<br />
built in Savannah sank during trials and, though <strong>the</strong><br />
crew was saved, <strong>the</strong> sub wasn’t recovered and its builders<br />
gave up on <strong>the</strong> idea. The prospects for a Sou<strong>the</strong>rn submarine<br />
force appeared bleak.<br />
The impetus that finally led to <strong>the</strong> CSS Hunley’s construction<br />
and employment began in New Orleans in October<br />
1861, when several entrepreneurs starting building submarines<br />
to attack <strong>the</strong> Union squadron blockading that port. One<br />
team built a 20 foot, two-man sub that Union spies first sighted<br />
in February 1862. The most significant <strong>of</strong> those private<br />
ventures was launched by two local businessmen, Baxter<br />
Watson and James McClintock, in partnership with Horace<br />
Lawson Hunley, They successfully test-dived and operated<br />
<strong>the</strong> 34 foot long, two-man Pioneer on Lake Pontchartrain in<br />
April 1862. Adm. Farragut’s capture <strong>of</strong> New Orleans <strong>the</strong>n<br />
forced Hunley and his team to destroy that boat and move<br />
to Mobile, Alabama, where <strong>the</strong>y built <strong>the</strong> 36 foot Pioneer II<br />
(later renamed American Diver).<br />
The Pioneer II sank during its first trial when a wave<br />
flooded an open hatch. Its four-man crew weren’t able to<br />
maintain movement in rough seas or a fast current. Recognizing<br />
<strong>the</strong> limitations <strong>of</strong> “hand-powered” propulsion, and<br />
seeing no practical means <strong>of</strong> using steam propulsion, Hunley<br />
and his team tried unsuccessfully to buy an electric motor<br />
using batteries from a broker in New York.<br />
Forced to abandon electric motors for propulsion, Hunley<br />
next settled on a design that used eight men turning a<br />
screw propeller when he built <strong>the</strong> 40 foot long Hunley in<br />
July 1862. Using “boiler plate iron” for its hull, he deepened<br />
<strong>the</strong> interior, adding tapered bow and stern sections to make<br />
for a roomier and more streamlined design. It had a four foot<br />
beam and an interior height <strong>of</strong> five feet. Two small 10-inch<br />
viewing mounts with hatches, and eight one inch circumference<br />
glass ports, provided light and visibility for <strong>the</strong> captain,<br />
who steered <strong>the</strong> submarine forward. The second-in-command<br />
was stationed aft and was responsible for maintaining<br />
trim, operating <strong>the</strong> ballast tanks, and air distribution. All but<br />
<strong>the</strong> captain turned <strong>the</strong> hand cranks that drove a single 34 inch<br />
propeller. Ten small glass viewing ports were installed along<br />
<strong>the</strong> hull to provide interior lighting.<br />
steam-driven boat. Though it didn’t sink <strong>the</strong> ironclad, it inflicted<br />
enough damage to force its temporary withdrawal for repairs. A<br />
Confederate deserter also informed Union authorities Charleston’s<br />
“diver” (<strong>the</strong> CSS Hunley) was operationally ready, and its<br />
captain was only waiting for <strong>the</strong> right sea and light conditions to<br />
attack.<br />
Dahlgren also ordered each ironclad to rig additional lighting<br />
(calcium lights) and make <strong>the</strong>m available to lookouts and<br />
gunners to illuminate any craft or objects approaching <strong>the</strong><br />
ship. He also directed his ironclads space out <strong>the</strong>ir anchorages<br />
so <strong>the</strong>y could engage any approaching craft, both surface and<br />
submerged, without concern about hitting a friendly unit. He<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r ordered his units not to anchor in <strong>the</strong> deepest parts <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> channel, as those areas <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>the</strong> greatest potential for <strong>the</strong><br />
submarine to pass below <strong>the</strong> nets and <strong>the</strong> ships’ hulls. Ironclads<br />
were to deploy picket-boats around <strong>the</strong>ir anchorages any time<br />
seas were calm, regardless <strong>of</strong> rain or visibility conditions.<br />
Alerted by <strong>the</strong> squadron flagship <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> “torpedo<br />
boat attack,” <strong>the</strong> USS Housatonic had <strong>the</strong> requisite number<br />
<strong>of</strong> armed lookouts posted and her cannon crews were also ready.<br />
Unfortunately <strong>the</strong> Hunley didn’t have a snorkel to give away its<br />
presence, and it surfaced inside <strong>the</strong> picket boat line, preventing<br />
its early detection and engagement. The cannon couldn’t<br />
be depressed enough to fire on it. Three o<strong>the</strong>r factors prevented<br />
<strong>the</strong> Housatonic defending itself successfully: 1) <strong>the</strong> Hunley<br />
was a more powerful craft than <strong>the</strong> earlier submarine <strong>of</strong> 1861;<br />
2) Charleston’s ebb tide had pushed <strong>the</strong> ship’s nets several feet<br />
closer to its hull; and 3) perhaps most importantly, <strong>the</strong> Hunley’s<br />
33 foot spar enabled it to deliver its torpedo without becoming in<br />
any way entangled in those nets.<br />
Thus two simple improvements and <strong>the</strong> local environment<br />
come toge<strong>the</strong>r to ensure <strong>the</strong> Hunley’s success against a<br />
forewarned ship that was prepared, at least nominally, for <strong>the</strong><br />
submarine’s attack. As later wars also demonstrated, commanders<br />
can’t defeat a determined submarine unless <strong>the</strong>y detect and<br />
engage it before it reaches its attack position. Though not mentioned<br />
specifically in <strong>the</strong>ir directives, Union commanders had<br />
recognized that requirement in <strong>the</strong>ir instructions to <strong>the</strong> fleet.<br />
Given <strong>the</strong> conditions on 17 February 1864, and <strong>the</strong> limitations<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir equipment, <strong>the</strong> Housatonic’s crew lacked <strong>the</strong> capacity<br />
to defend <strong>the</strong>ir vessel successfully. Their quick response to <strong>the</strong><br />
attack did, however, limit Union casualties to <strong>the</strong> five killed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> torpedo’s explosion. The detection-to-engagement cycle remains<br />
<strong>the</strong> dominant factor governing <strong>the</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> submarine<br />
versus anti-submarine engagements today.<br />
56 #238
A trained crew could propel it through <strong>the</strong> water at four<br />
knots in a calm sea, and it handled better in rough seas than<br />
did ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> its predecessors. It had fore and aft ballast<br />
tanks, which were emptied by hand pumps and, like all Civil<br />
<strong>War</strong> submarines, it had iron ballast weights that <strong>the</strong>oretically<br />
could be released via screw bolts during an emergency. (In<br />
reality, <strong>the</strong>y never worked as intended.) Using a water-level<br />
to determine depth, <strong>the</strong> captain filled <strong>the</strong> ballast tanks until<br />
<strong>the</strong> submarine was submerged to a depth <strong>of</strong> one to three feet.<br />
Occasionally <strong>the</strong>y went deeper during <strong>the</strong> tests, but <strong>the</strong>y decided<br />
early on not to go below 15 feet. The normal operating<br />
depth employed was held to three feet, so <strong>the</strong>y could maintain<br />
visual contact with <strong>the</strong> surface and regain it quickly.<br />
Bow planes mounted along <strong>the</strong> hull were used to control trim<br />
while submerged and facilitate depth changes.<br />
Hunley conducted two successful trials in Mobile that<br />
year as <strong>the</strong> Confederate Army took over sponsorship <strong>of</strong> his<br />
effort. Lt. George Dixon, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 23 rd Alabama Volunteers,<br />
became <strong>the</strong> project manager. Initially, <strong>the</strong> Hunley was to<br />
tow its torpedo behind it and drag it under <strong>the</strong> target to be<br />
detonated by contact. It successfully sank a coal barge that<br />
way during a test on 30 July 1863. They discovered in later<br />
tests, however, that towing <strong>the</strong> torpedo was impractical and<br />
dangerous if <strong>the</strong>re was any current, wind, or wave action.<br />
They <strong>the</strong>refore decided to go with a spar torpedo, which had<br />
proven successful when used by surface craft. That change<br />
was made in August 1863. With Union forces building up <strong>of</strong>f<br />
Charleston Harbor, <strong>the</strong> Hunley was loaded aboard rail cars<br />
and shipped <strong>the</strong>re in late September 1863.<br />
While in Charleston <strong>the</strong> Hunley suffered three deadly<br />
dives during training operations that claimed 15 lives, including<br />
that <strong>of</strong> its designer and namesake. Despite those<br />
setbacks, Dixon retained his faith in <strong>the</strong> boat and got permission<br />
to employ it against <strong>the</strong> blockade.<br />
Originally he’d planned to attack <strong>the</strong> ironclad New Ironsides,<br />
but he had to settle on <strong>the</strong> sloop <strong>of</strong> war Housatonic<br />
after an attack by a semi-submersible vessel damaged <strong>the</strong><br />
ironclad, forcing its withdrawal for repairs.<br />
He’d also hoped to conduct his first operation on a moonless<br />
night, but <strong>the</strong> submarine’s speed and endurance limits<br />
necessitated near perfect sea and tide conditions. Those conditions<br />
proved so rare he made <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> key determinants in<br />
his decision to attack.<br />
Visibility was outstanding that night as <strong>the</strong> Hunley surfaced<br />
to make its attack, and <strong>the</strong> rest is history. The Housatonic<br />
sank with little loss <strong>of</strong> life, but <strong>the</strong> Hunley and its entire<br />
crew were lost some time after it pulled away. It survived<br />
just long enough to signal its success. It was recovered a<br />
few years ago by a team <strong>of</strong> marine archeologists, and is now<br />
preserved at <strong>the</strong> Confederate Museum in Charleston South<br />
Carolina.<br />
In 1864 <strong>the</strong> South commissioned <strong>the</strong> Singer Construction<br />
Company to build submarines along <strong>the</strong> Arkansas River,<br />
but it isn’t clear if any were completed or employed. If so,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y and any records <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m were destroyed to prevent <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
capture by Union forces advancing into that area.<br />
The South’s final submarine project was <strong>the</strong> dual-propulsion<br />
CSS Saint Patrick, which was built in Selma, Alabama.<br />
Using steam when surfaced, it shifted to manpower<br />
once submerged. Given <strong>the</strong> problems <strong>of</strong> shutting down <strong>the</strong><br />
steam plant before submerging, diving must have been a<br />
time consuming and daunting experience. The 30 foot vessel<br />
reportedly had just a six-man crew. Little is known <strong>of</strong> its<br />
Union Civil <strong>War</strong> torpedo boat at dock.<br />
operations, except its one attack, against <strong>the</strong> USS Octorora on 27<br />
January 1865, was conducted on <strong>the</strong> surface. Its spar torpedo failed<br />
to detonate, but still forced <strong>the</strong> St. Patrick to withdraw. The Saint<br />
Patrick finished out <strong>the</strong> war ferrying supplies to isolated Confederate<br />
garrisons <strong>of</strong>fshore.<br />
Perhaps as many as 30 submarines were built and tested during<br />
<strong>the</strong> Civil <strong>War</strong>, and such vessels were employed operationally<br />
at least four times. The primitive technology <strong>of</strong> those times all but<br />
precluded submarines playing a significant role in <strong>the</strong> war’s naval<br />
operations. The typical submarine <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Civil <strong>War</strong> measured 34 to<br />
50 feet in length and had a beam <strong>of</strong> four to eight feet. Steam propulsion<br />
was considered for surface propulsion, and both sides considered<br />
electric-powered motors for underwater propulsion. In <strong>the</strong> end,<br />
though, steam power proved impractical, and <strong>the</strong> electric motors<br />
and <strong>the</strong> batteries <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time brought with <strong>the</strong>m o<strong>the</strong>r engineering<br />
challenges <strong>the</strong> builders couldn’t meet. So all Civil <strong>War</strong> submarines<br />
used men turning hand cranks to rotate screw propellers, effectively<br />
limited <strong>the</strong>ir range and speed to a few miles and knots, respectively.<br />
With manpower as <strong>the</strong> only reliable propulsion, and possessing<br />
only spar or towed explosive charges to strike <strong>the</strong>ir targets, <strong>the</strong><br />
Civil <strong>War</strong>’s submersibles were incapable <strong>of</strong> achieving <strong>the</strong> significant<br />
role submarines would eventually come to have in 20 th century<br />
naval operations. None<strong>the</strong>less, naval leaders on both sides saw <strong>the</strong><br />
potential use <strong>of</strong> submersibles in operations. Union Adms. Du Pont<br />
and Dahlgren both believed submarines would be essential to any<br />
attack on Charleston’s defenses, while Confederate leaders saw <strong>the</strong><br />
submersibles’ stealth as <strong>the</strong> only solution to <strong>the</strong> Union blockade.<br />
Civil <strong>War</strong> submarine operations had little impact on European<br />
naval leaders. The nature <strong>of</strong> Civil <strong>War</strong> naval operations, with<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir focus on coastal blockade and rivers, ensured European naval<br />
observers saw little potential for submarine operations in <strong>the</strong><br />
open ocean. Only navies with a significant coastal defense mission<br />
– those <strong>of</strong> Austria, Germany, and France – saw utility in a type <strong>of</strong><br />
naval combatant that couldn’t operate far from shore.<br />
Private research dominated submarine development over <strong>the</strong><br />
next 40 years but, as torpedoes and propulsion systems improved,<br />
so too did naval interest in submarines return. The American Civil<br />
<strong>War</strong> had demonstrated <strong>the</strong> submarine’s utility in coastal operations,<br />
and those lessons would dominate naval visions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> submarine’s<br />
primary mission until well into <strong>the</strong> First World <strong>War</strong>.<br />
strategy & tactics 57
Games for publication in late 2006: The<br />
Conquerors, A Mighty Fortress, Ancient<br />
Conquest, and Battle for Stalingrad.<br />
QTY<br />
Trajan: Ancient <strong>War</strong>s Series expansion<br />
Prepare to march with a special edition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ancient <strong>War</strong>s series:<br />
Trajan, Roman Civil <strong>War</strong>, Caesar in Gallia and Germania, which<br />
appeared in various issues <strong>of</strong> <strong>Strategy</strong> & <strong>Tactics</strong> over <strong>the</strong> years. Trajan:<br />
Ancient <strong>War</strong>s Series Expansion includes special rules to combine all<br />
four maps into campaigns covering <strong>the</strong> entire Roman Empire. There<br />
is also a set <strong>of</strong> additional counters which provides every legion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
early Empire, plus assorted foes such as Spartacus and Boadicea. New<br />
scenarios include <strong>the</strong> Crisis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Republic, Year <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Four Emperors,<br />
Marcus Aurelius versus <strong>the</strong> Germans, Septimus Severus versus<br />
everyone, and “what if” Julius Caesar had not been assassinated? The<br />
game includes <strong>the</strong> campaign scenario along with three shorter ones.<br />
This requires <strong>the</strong> player to have <strong>the</strong> original map/counter sets that<br />
appeared in S&T.<br />
The Expansion Kit includes 180 new counters, new standard rules &<br />
scenario booklets, and 20 assorted player aid cards plus one map/counter<br />
set (Gallia or Germania); in a beautifully illustrated box. $50<br />
Title<br />
Price TOTAL<br />
Kaiserschlacht 1918<br />
$85.00<br />
Game components include four original<br />
style maps, over 500 die cut counters, a rules<br />
book and player aid card; ziplock.<br />
This classic game covers <strong>the</strong> climactic<br />
campaigns <strong>of</strong> 1918 on World <strong>War</strong> I’s western<br />
front, and was designed by Richard Spence.<br />
After <strong>the</strong> surrender <strong>of</strong> Russia, Germany massed its elite assault Stoss<br />
(shock) divisions in <strong>the</strong> west in order to seek a final, decisive victory. The<br />
question <strong>the</strong>refore became: could <strong>the</strong> Allies hold until fresh American units<br />
and <strong>the</strong> new tank weapon turned <strong>the</strong> tide in <strong>the</strong>ir favor?<br />
The game includes <strong>the</strong> campaign scenario along with three shorter<br />
ones. Special rules cover morale, air superiority, artillery, tanks, cavalry,<br />
trenches, rail nets, supply, replacement pools and much more.<br />
To <strong>the</strong> Green Fields Beyond<br />
Contents: Rules booklet, 400 Die cut counters, (1) 34” x 22”<br />
Map.<br />
To <strong>the</strong> Green Fields Beyond<br />
is an operational level simulation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Battle <strong>of</strong> Cambrai which<br />
lasted from 20 November to 7<br />
December, 1917. There are two<br />
players, one commanding <strong>the</strong><br />
British and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> German<br />
forces. The game consists <strong>of</strong> three<br />
scenarios and a campaign game.<br />
The players should start with a<br />
scenario- <strong>the</strong> British Breakthrough is best- before attempting <strong>the</strong> full 17<br />
turns <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> campaign game. The campaign game provides opportunities<br />
for both sides to attack. The British Breakthrough and Battle for Bourlon<br />
scenarios have <strong>the</strong> British attacking, while <strong>the</strong> German Counterattack<br />
scenario obviously has <strong>the</strong>m as defenders, although <strong>the</strong>y can still <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
mount attacks as well.<br />
Each hex on <strong>the</strong> mapsheet represents 1250 yards from side to<br />
side. Each Game Turn is equivalent to 24 hours. $44<br />
3<br />
2<br />
XX<br />
15Co<br />
6<br />
2<br />
6<br />
2<br />
4<br />
1<br />
XX<br />
77<br />
XX<br />
6<br />
6<br />
1<br />
4<br />
2<br />
1<br />
2<br />
XX<br />
5<br />
5<br />
2<br />
6<br />
2<br />
1<br />
2<br />
XX<br />
5A<br />
XX<br />
23<br />
5<br />
1<br />
4<br />
2<br />
15<br />
1 3 0<br />
4<br />
2<br />
6<br />
2<br />
XX<br />
3<br />
XX<br />
25<br />
4<br />
1<br />
4<br />
2<br />
6<br />
2<br />
XX<br />
10<br />
6<br />
1<br />
Shipping Charges<br />
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58 #238<br />
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Each issue is packed full <strong>of</strong>:<br />
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Future issues will feature articles on:<br />
Caesar in Gaul<br />
Battle <strong>of</strong> Long Tan<br />
Up Front at Zama<br />
Asante <strong>War</strong> — 1873<br />
China Rules <strong>the</strong> Seas<br />
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strategy & tactics 59
A Place to Start<br />
Rebels & Redcoats,<br />
Battle Cry <strong>of</strong> Freedom<br />
Complete Set <strong>of</strong><br />
vol. 1, 2 and 3<br />
American Revolutionary battles. The game<br />
system simply but accurately recreates <strong>the</strong><br />
battlefield conditions with a move-fight-rally<br />
play sequence to simulate <strong>the</strong> grand tactics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American Revolution.<br />
Additional rules cover command control, morale, artillery, light infantry<br />
and dragoons. Each battle is represented by its own units and map along<br />
with exclusive rules to recreate <strong>the</strong> unique conditions <strong>of</strong> each battle. Units<br />
are generally regiments rated for combat strength, morale and march capabilities.<br />
Rebels & Redcoats, Vol. I<br />
Battles <strong>of</strong> Bunker Hill, Brandywine, Germantown and Monmouth.<br />
Components: 440 counters, (2) 22" x 34" mapsheets, 2 player aid cards,<br />
16-page rule book.<br />
Rebels & Redcoats, Vol. II<br />
Battles <strong>of</strong> Bennington, Freeman’s Farm, Bemis Heights, Camdn, Cowpens,<br />
Guilford Courthouse, Hobkirk’s Hill and Eutaw Springs. Components: 360<br />
counters, (2) 22" x 34" mapsheets, 2 player aid cards, 16-page rule book.<br />
Rebels & Redcoats, Vol. III<br />
Battles from <strong>the</strong> New York Campaign: Brooklyn, Harlem Heights and White<br />
Plains; from <strong>the</strong> New Jersey campaign: Trenton, Princeton plus two bonus<br />
scenarios, Stony Point and King's Mountain. Components: 560 counters,<br />
(2) 22" x 34" mapsheets, player aid cards, 16-page rule book. $80. 00<br />
Title<br />
QTY Price TOTAL<br />
This two-player card game represents <strong>the</strong> American Civil <strong>War</strong>, 1861-65,<br />
in <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>aters <strong>of</strong> war east <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mississippi<br />
River. Each player has his own Play Deck that<br />
he will use to draw from in order to play cards.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> game, each player will go through his<br />
Play Deck twice, with each deck representing<br />
roughly two years <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war. Command Points<br />
in <strong>the</strong> game represent <strong>the</strong> economic, military,<br />
political and social factors that influenced <strong>the</strong><br />
campaigns <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war.<br />
Components: 300 full color playing cards,<br />
player aid card, rule book. $39. 95<br />
The Alamo<br />
This two-player tactical game simulates <strong>the</strong> assault made at dawn, 6<br />
March 1836, by 2,200 Mexican soldiers against a garrison <strong>of</strong> 183 frontiersmen<br />
inside <strong>the</strong> Alamo mission in what is now San Antonio, Texas. Each<br />
Fire Strength Point <strong>of</strong> a Texas unit represents one man, and each Mexican<br />
battalion represents between 45 and 55 men. A hexagon represents 10 yards<br />
from hexside to hexside, and each game turn represents five minutes. In<br />
<strong>the</strong> game, <strong>the</strong> players take turn moving <strong>the</strong>ir forces and conducting attacks.<br />
The game ends when <strong>the</strong> Texas player has eliminated a decisive number <strong>of</strong><br />
Mexican troops or when <strong>the</strong> Mexicans have eliminated <strong>the</strong> entire Texan<br />
force. Components: 100 counters, 22" x 34" mapsheet, 8-page rule book.<br />
$15. 00<br />
The Sun Never Sets<br />
The Sun Never Sets covers <strong>the</strong> campaigns <strong>of</strong> March to Peking, Zulu<br />
<strong>War</strong> and Sudan: The River <strong>War</strong>. Players can march to <strong>the</strong> far flung frontiers<br />
EMPEROR HSIEN<br />
<strong>of</strong> British civilization, engage vast hordes<br />
WOLSELEY<br />
KHARTOUM<br />
FENG<br />
3<br />
0<br />
R<br />
<strong>of</strong> “natives,” and plant <strong>the</strong> British flag in<br />
2 10 0 10 (4)n - 4<br />
Khartoum, Peking and Ulundi. The game<br />
emphasizes leadership, with commanders C<br />
HUNAN<br />
1/CC<br />
having a major role in marches and battles<br />
V<br />
l<br />
l<br />
(Gordon, Kitchener, Wolseley, and <strong>the</strong> Mahdi<br />
1 F - 6 4 M -6 1 F -10<br />
are included). Battles are resolved through ANSAR<br />
USMC<br />
CETSHWAYO<br />
a multi-phase system with units (regiment/<br />
battalion/battery) rated for strength, type <strong>of</strong><br />
F<br />
10 S - 6<br />
l<br />
3 R -6<br />
1<br />
2 8<br />
weapon and elan. Leader counters will influence<br />
tactical and strategic situations. There are rules for relief forces being<br />
NGWEKWE<br />
V<br />
5 S - 8<br />
dispatched, riverine gunboats and <strong>the</strong> building <strong>of</strong> railroads.<br />
Components: 620 counters, (2) 22" x 34" mapsheets, 16-page rule book,<br />
and player aid cards. $40. 00<br />
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An Evening <strong>of</strong> Fun!<br />
i i<br />
20<br />
22 18<br />
2 (6) 7<br />
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1<br />
Napoleon’s Last Battles<br />
Over The Top!<br />
2<br />
June 1815 finds a triumphant, but beleaguered<br />
Napoleon again on <strong>the</strong> throne.<br />
Riga 1917; St. Mihiel, 1918 and Damascus, 5 (4) 121918)<br />
from <strong>the</strong> First World<br />
Over The Top! includes four great battles HQ<br />
1(Brusilov Offensive, 1916;<br />
Napoleon is outnumbered and virtually<br />
<strong>War</strong>. These battles simulate WW1 warfare from attritional trench fighting<br />
i i<br />
1A 1<br />
surrounded; his only chance to maintain<br />
to maneuver, tank assaults, and infiltration tactics. Units are regimentalbrigade<br />
level with corps level headquarters and support. Rules account 2 (3) 10for<br />
1 mar<br />
<strong>the</strong> throne and <strong>the</strong> position <strong>of</strong> France is<br />
to gain a significant military victory. To<br />
command control, air support, poison gas, fog <strong>of</strong> war, and much more.<br />
succeed against <strong>the</strong>se overwhelming odds,<br />
Components: 560 counters, (2) 34" x 22" 3 mapsheets, 16-page rule book<br />
Napoleon boldly decides on an <strong>of</strong>fensive<br />
designed to destroy two <strong>of</strong> his opponents<br />
and player aid cards. $38. 2 00 and drive <strong>the</strong> English from <strong>the</strong> continent. The games include Ligny, Quatre<br />
Pacific Battles, volume 1: mAW<br />
Bras, Wavre, and La Belle Alliance. The game system uses leaders and<br />
1<br />
i i i<br />
brigade level units, with cavalry, infantry and artillery. There are three The Rising Sun 3 (3) 0<br />
21 21<br />
new scenarios in addition to <strong>the</strong> four scenarios and <strong>the</strong> campaign game<br />
Pacific Battles is a wargame series covering <strong>the</strong> great land<br />
published in <strong>the</strong> SPI original.<br />
2 (3) 6<br />
battles <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pacific <strong>the</strong>ater in WWII. Units are battalions,<br />
Components: 340 counters, 24-page rule book, (2) 22" x 34" mapsheets.<br />
with companies and regiments. Most games in <strong>the</strong> series have<br />
$35. 00<br />
i i<br />
players commanding anywhere from a division to a corps worth<br />
92<br />
CA<br />
<strong>of</strong> forces, and employment <strong>of</strong> combined arms tactics becomes 3<br />
Emperor’s First Battles &<br />
(3) 8<br />
critical. The system shows <strong>the</strong> evolution <strong>of</strong> tactical doctrine<br />
in both <strong>the</strong> Japanese and Allied armies with HQ<br />
Banzai 21 charges,<br />
Napoleon’s First Battles<br />
superior U.S. fire coordination, naval bombardment, airpower, i i<br />
2 (2) 6<br />
SPA<br />
Includes Austerlitz and Jena-Auerstadt,<br />
amphibious landings, and engineer operations. Games in this<br />
B<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> French Emperor, Napoleon<br />
volume include: The Fall <strong>of</strong> Singapore, Struggle for Bataan 3 7 (4) 12<br />
Bonaparte, won smashing victories<br />
and Guadalcanal.<br />
against <strong>the</strong> armies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> old regime <strong>of</strong><br />
Components: 2 22 x 34 inch mapsheet, 460 die cut counters, rules booklet,<br />
Europe. Emperor’s First Battles game<br />
system is based on <strong>the</strong> Decision Games’<br />
player aid cards, storage bags and 1 die. $48. 00<br />
release Napoleon’s First Battles which<br />
is now included in this special combo<br />
Battles for <strong>the</strong> Ardennes<br />
pack. It includes rules for elan, command<br />
control, and functional differences between<br />
paigns that marked <strong>the</strong> first breath and last gasp<br />
Battles for <strong>the</strong> Ardennes simulates <strong>the</strong> cam-<br />
infantry, cavalry, artillery and field engineers. The<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nazi war machine in <strong>the</strong> west on four<br />
game also includes updated cavalry rules, allowing<br />
it to perform historical screening functions.<br />
for individual battles, or linked toge<strong>the</strong>r to re-enact<br />
comprehensively illustrated maps, used separately<br />
Units are regiments and brigades, with historical<br />
<strong>the</strong> entire campaigns <strong>of</strong> 1940 to 1944. Colorful<br />
leaders. Napoleon’s First Battles covers four<br />
cardboard playing pieces accurately reflect <strong>the</strong> size<br />
<strong>of</strong> Napoleon’s earliest battles—Montenotte, The<br />
and strength <strong>of</strong> military units actually involved<br />
Pyramids, Arcola, and Marengo. Advanced rules<br />
in <strong>the</strong>se battles. These counters also represent<br />
include Command, Friction, and Fog <strong>of</strong> <strong>War</strong>.<br />
march modes, blown bridges, improved positions,<br />
Components EFB: 480 counters, 16-page rule<br />
air power and supply. Their movement, positioning and engagement for<br />
book, 1 player aid card, (2) 22" x 34" mapsheets.<br />
battle are regulated by a superimposed hexagonal grid. These four games<br />
(St. Vith, Clervaux, Celles and Sedan 1940) can be played individually or<br />
Components NFB: 400 counters, (2) 22" x 34" mapsheets, player aid<br />
card, 16-page rule book. $40. 00 as two campaign games (1940 Blitzkrieg to <strong>the</strong> Meuse and 1944 Battle <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Bulge).Components: 600 counters, (4) 17" x 22" mapsheets, player<br />
aid card, 32-page rule book. $38. 00<br />
Drive on Stalingrad<br />
Name<br />
This two-player strategic-level simulation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Fall Blau (Operation Blue), <strong>the</strong><br />
Address<br />
German attempt to conquer Stalingrad<br />
City, State<br />
Zip<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Caucasus area <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> southwest<br />
Soviet Union in 1942. Each hex represents<br />
approximately 16 miles and units<br />
Phone<br />
email<br />
are primarily division along with Soviet<br />
VISA/Mc (ONLY)#<br />
tank and mechanized corps. Each game<br />
turn represents one week.<br />
Expiration Date<br />
Components: 420 counters, (2) 22" x 34" mapsheets, rule book, die and<br />
storage bags. $48. 00<br />
Signature<br />
uSAAF<br />
strategy & tactics 61
Ano<strong>the</strong>r Classic Game from Decision Games<br />
<strong>War</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Pacific<br />
On Sunday, 7 December 1941, <strong>the</strong> US naval<br />
base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, was attacked by<br />
Japanese aircraft. For <strong>the</strong> next four years, Allied<br />
task forces engaged elements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Imperial<br />
Japanese fleet throughout <strong>the</strong> ocean. Marines<br />
and army units began <strong>the</strong>ir program <strong>of</strong> islandhopping,<br />
wresting from <strong>the</strong> Japanese <strong>the</strong> empire<br />
that <strong>the</strong>y had expanded in every direction.<br />
<strong>War</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Pacific is a multi-level simulation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pacific <strong>the</strong>ater <strong>of</strong> operations during<br />
World <strong>War</strong> II. The game enables players to recreate<br />
<strong>the</strong> entire course <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war, form <strong>the</strong> opening<br />
Japanese attack on 7 December, 1941 to <strong>the</strong><br />
climatic Allied assaults in <strong>the</strong> closing days <strong>of</strong> 1945. Representing some 30%<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> globe, <strong>the</strong> strategic maps let players move and engage in combat on all<br />
levels: air, ground and naval. <strong>War</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Pacific is <strong>the</strong> most detailed board<br />
game <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pacific Theater ever created. There are a number <strong>of</strong> rules and<br />
concepts that will, at first, be unfamiliar to a majority <strong>of</strong> players. But playing<br />
through smaller map sections and scenarios enables <strong>the</strong> player to become<br />
familiar with <strong>the</strong> mechanincs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> game.<br />
Components: 7 full size strategic maps in full color, new tactical maps with<br />
nearly 340 individual islands for new ground units to fight over, 32 die-cut<br />
counter sheets, nearly 9,000 counters showing all types <strong>of</strong> units from <strong>the</strong><br />
Pacific Theater, rule books and assorted displays and player aid charts. Projected<br />
release date is Fall 2006. Ships as 10 units.<br />
$420. 00<br />
Name<br />
Address<br />
City, State<br />
Phone<br />
EMAIL<br />
Zip<br />
Shipping Charges<br />
PO Box 21598<br />
Bakersfield CA 93390<br />
661/587-9633 • fax 661/587-5031 • www.decisiongames.com<br />
VISA/Mc (ONLY)#<br />
Expiration Date<br />
Signature<br />
62 #238<br />
1st unit Adt’l units Type <strong>of</strong> Service<br />
$8 $2 UPS Ground/US Mail Domestic Priority<br />
15(20) 4 UPS 2nd Day Air (Metro AK & HI)<br />
14(10) 2(7) Canada, Mexico (Express)<br />
17(25) 7(10) Europe (Express)<br />
20(25) 9(10) Asia, Africa, Australia (Express)
A game so big—it’s a tsunami in a box.<br />
Tactical<br />
Map<br />
Strategic Map<br />
strategy & tactics 63
New Miniatures Rules from Decision Games<br />
Battles Stations! Battle Stations!<br />
Simulate major fleet actions during WWII using <strong>the</strong>se miniatures rules. The swiftness<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> combat resolution ensures a game <strong>of</strong> 30 ships will take no longer than three<br />
hours. The intense game system keeps you focused on <strong>the</strong> battle. The streamlined and<br />
intuitive game system is player friendly, allowing players to concentrate on tactics ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
than minutia. While designed for 1/2400 scale miniatures, players using a larger scale<br />
can easily modify ranges. Ship statistics are included for eight nations: Britain, France,<br />
Germany, Japan, Italy, <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands, <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union and <strong>the</strong> United States, and<br />
cover everything from battleships to torpedo boats. Markers track each ship’s damage,<br />
speed, torpedoes fired, aircraft and submarine depth levels to eliminate <strong>the</strong> necessity <strong>of</strong><br />
bookkeeping. Ten scenarios featuring WWII fleet actions from <strong>the</strong> Barents Sea to Pacific<br />
Ocean are included as well as instructions for creating your own scenarios. Includes this<br />
80 page rule book, player aid cards and 120 die cut markers.<br />
$29.95<br />
Scenarios include <strong>the</strong> following battles:<br />
River Plate, 13 December 1939<br />
Montevideo, 17 December 1939<br />
Punta Stilo, 9 July 1940<br />
Cape Spartivento, 27 November 1940<br />
Sinking <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hood, 24 May 1941<br />
Sinking <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bismarck, 24 May 1941<br />
Java Sea , 27 February 1942<br />
Cape Esperance, 11 October 1942<br />
Guadalcanal, 13 November 1942<br />
The Komandorski Islands, 26 March 1943<br />
Surigao Strait, 25 October1944<br />
Name<br />
Address<br />
City, State<br />
Phone<br />
EMAIL<br />
Zip<br />
Shipping Charges<br />
PO Box 21598<br />
Bakersfield CA 93390<br />
661/587-9633 • fax 661/587-5031 • www.decisiongames.com<br />
VISA/Mc (ONLY)#<br />
Expiration Date<br />
Signature<br />
64 #238<br />
1st unit Adt’l units Type <strong>of</strong> Service<br />
$8 $2 UPS Ground/US Mail Domestic Priority<br />
15(20) 4 UPS 2nd Day Air (Metro AK & HI)<br />
14(10) 2(7) Canada, Mexico (Express)<br />
17(25) 7(10) Europe (Express)<br />
20(25) 9(10) Asia, Africa, Australia (Express)