City of Light: The Story of Fiber Optics

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TRYING TO SELL A DREAM 129 ‘‘In series,’’ replied Sandbank cautiously. ‘‘Why not in parallel?’’ Cookson asked. ‘‘That will cost a lot of money,’’ replied a startled Sandbank. ‘‘Yes, but it will speed up the program,’’ was the response. That night, Sandbank revised his plan, doubling or tripling the budget, but fully expecting the number to be cut. He was amazed the next day when Cookson said: ‘‘That looks like a good program, Charlie.’’ Later Sandbank learned the impetus for the expansion came from the very top. Harold Geneen, the legendary businessman who built ITT into a global conglomerate, had read an article predicting fiber optics would become the most important advance in telecommunications since the transistor. Noting the development came from ‘‘STL in Harlow,’’ Geneen asked, ‘‘Is that our STL in Harlow?’’ Told it was, he asked pointedly, ‘‘Well, how is this optical fiber program?’’ That greased the wheels for a budget increase. 58 Signs of Slow Progress The technological boom of the 1960s, fueled most visibly by the space race and less obviously by Cold War military programs, began to wind down after Neil Armstrong walked on the moon in the summer of 1969. The sustaining forces of money, mind-set, and momentum began to dissipate. The space program lost direction. America’s love affair with technology faded as the curtains were stripped away from the ugly realities of pollution and the machinery of nuclear Armageddon. The economy sputtered and slowed. Telecommunications had it easy in comparison. Slower growth left more time for semiconductors to approach the frequencies needed to build millimeter waveguides linking the world’s great cities in the 1970s. AT&T had high hopes to revive demand with its Picturephone system, a highlight of the 1964 World’s Fair in New York. Bell Labs was working on laser communications to deliver a new generation of even higher capacity systems in the 1980s and beyond. Miller and Kompfner still expected the beams to go through gas lenses or confocal lens waveguides, but fiber optics had joined the race as a dark horse. Charles Kao had eloquently sold his dream. His success came partly from offering the attractive prospect of a flexible waveguide, and partly from his experimental tour de force in measuring the incredible clarity of fused silica. A small cadre of other key scientists and engineers around the world were convinced that fiber loss could be reduced. While the Post Office, STL, Pearson at Bell Labs, and the Japanese stood in the forefront, others labored quietly, including Bob Maurer, who had built a little team of young scientists at Corning. However, by the spring of 1970 others were coming to suspect fiber attenuation was inevitably high. Theorists suggested minor irregularities in the core-cladding interface might scatter light into modes that leaked out of the cladding. 59 Miller emphasized gas lenses and hollow waveguides when he
130 CITY OF LIGHT reviewed optical communications for the prestigious Science magazine. With typical managerial caution, he wrote: ‘‘Glass fibers are expected to be useful over distances of tens of meters, certainly, and over distances of kilometers if the material purification work proves fruitful.’’ 60 To most people involved, that was a big ‘‘if.’’
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City of Light: The Story of Fiber O
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THE SLOAN TECHNOLOGY SERIES Dark Su
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3 Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok
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THE SLOAN TECHNOLOGY SERIES Technol
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viii PREFACE TO THE PAPERBACK EDITI
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x PREFACE bright and beautiful idea
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xii CONTENTS 13 A Demonstration for
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4 CITY OF LIGHT reach across the wo
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6 CITY OF LIGHT Laser Focus. It was
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8 CITY OF LIGHT speech—300 to 300
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10 CITY OF LIGHT patients’ throat
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2 Guiding Light and Luminous Founta
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14 CITY OF LIGHT Figure 2-1: Collad
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16 CITY OF LIGHT Special Effects fo
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18 CITY OF LIGHT the British exhibi
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Figure 2-3: A mirror aimed light fr
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Figure 2-4: William Wheeler’s lig
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24 CITY OF LIGHT Total Internal Ref
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26 CITY OF LIGHT into glass bend in
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3 Fibers of Glass I do not believe,
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30 CITY OF LIGHT sington district o
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32 CITY OF LIGHT made: ‘‘All th
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4 The Quest for Remote Viewing Tele
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36 CITY OF LIGHT An Array of Light
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38 CITY OF LIGHT He never got that
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40 CITY OF LIGHT reading to a dista
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42 CITY OF LIGHT Lamm decided a bun
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44 CITY OF LIGHT He hurried to the
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5 A Critical Insight The Birth of t
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48 CITY OF LIGHT Figure 5-1: Total
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50 CITY OF LIGHT Corning Glass Work
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52 CITY OF LIGHT in 1925. He was a
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54 CITY OF LIGHT in single fibers.
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56 CITY OF LIGHT little known outsi
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58 CITY OF LIGHT Hopkins knew he ne
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A good 6 99 Percent Perspiration Th
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62 CITY OF LIGHT school building eq
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64 CITY OF LIGHT dle, the longest y
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66 CITY OF LIGHT some weeks later,
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68 CITY OF LIGHT A Problem with Ima
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70 CITY OF LIGHT ble—among other
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72 CITY OF LIGHT bundles into facep
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74 CITY OF LIGHT Some applications
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A t 7 A Vision of the Future Commun
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Page 93 and 94: 80 CITY OF LIGHT Figure 7-1: Modula
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Page 99 and 100: 86 CITY OF LIGHT long distance. The
Page 101 and 102: 88 CITY OF LIGHT ways to modulate a
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Page 105 and 106: 8 The Laser Stimulates the Emission
Page 107 and 108: 94 CITY OF LIGHT Maiman used ruby b
Page 109 and 110: 96 CITY OF LIGHT Waveguides for Lig
Page 111 and 112: 98 CITY OF LIGHT the potential of c
Page 113 and 114: 100 CITY OF LIGHT profits. Nor were
Page 115 and 116: 102 CITY OF LIGHT could not carry i
Page 117 and 118: 104 CITY OF LIGHT costs, particular
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Page 121 and 122: 108 CITY OF LIGHT date the fiber gu
Page 123 and 124: 110 CITY OF LIGHT combination of wo
Page 125 and 126: 112 CITY OF LIGHT lindrical claddin
Page 127 and 128: 114 CITY OF LIGHT that fiber-optic
Page 129 and 130: 116 CITY OF LIGHT Table 9-1 What De
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Page 133 and 134: 120 CITY OF LIGHT Military Support
Page 135 and 136: 122 CITY OF LIGHT A Budgetary Windf
Page 137 and 138: 124 CITY OF LIGHT It’s a big chal
Page 139 and 140: 126 CITY OF LIGHT it made eminent s
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Page 145 and 146: 132 CITY OF LIGHT silica stared him
Page 147 and 148: 134 CITY OF LIGHT Fused silica was
Page 149 and 150: 136 CITY OF LIGHT University of Wat
Page 151 and 152: 138 CITY OF LIGHT pulling about 160
Page 153 and 154: 140 CITY OF LIGHT worry about compe
Page 155 and 156: 142 CITY OF LIGHT The few other fib
Page 157 and 158: 144 CITY OF LIGHT Maurer also lost
Page 159 and 160: 146 CITY OF LIGHT these nice low lo
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Page 163 and 164: 150 CITY OF LIGHT Figure 12-1: The
Page 165 and 166: 152 CITY OF LIGHT much that the las
Page 167 and 168: 154 CITY OF LIGHT Figure 12-2: The
Page 169 and 170: 156 CITY OF LIGHT Nick Holonyak, Jr
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Page 173 and 174: 13 A Demonstration for the Queen (1
Page 175 and 176: 162 CITY OF LIGHT Marsh saw the pro
Page 177 and 178: 164 CITY OF LIGHT A pair of wires c
Page 179 and 180: 166 CITY OF LIGHT proposed, Bell co
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Page 185 and 186: 172 CITY OF LIGHT variation, althou
Page 187 and 188: 174 CITY OF LIGHT bels. 93 All syst
Page 189 and 190: 14 Three Generations in Five Years
Page 191 and 192: 178 CITY OF LIGHT modest increase i
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180 CITY OF LIGHT The Rise of Irvin
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182 CITY OF LIGHT British Field Tri
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184 CITY OF LIGHT On March 27 Horig
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186 CITY OF LIGHT millions of bits
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188 CITY OF LIGHT Opening the 1.3-m
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190 CITY OF LIGHT pack of beer. The
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192 CITY OF LIGHT The Chinese also
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194 CITY OF LIGHT but the infusion
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196 CITY OF LIGHT In January 1980,
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198 CITY OF LIGHT contracts for sin
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200 CITY OF LIGHT munications was a
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202 CITY OF LIGHT elements. A call
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204 CITY OF LIGHT between them, and
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206 CITY OF LIGHT 1978, when they b
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208 CITY OF LIGHT of fiber together
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210 CITY OF LIGHT bles, and the Fre
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212 CITY OF LIGHT reaching the wate
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214 CITY OF LIGHT microwave counter
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16 The Last Mile An Elusive Vision
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218 CITY OF LIGHT rebuilding to pro
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220 CITY OF LIGHT transmission dist
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222 CITY OF LIGHT puter that showed
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224 CITY OF LIGHT Aftermaths of Ear
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226 CITY OF LIGHT Although fibers w
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228 CITY OF LIGHT it was time for h
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230 CITY OF LIGHT was selling fiber
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232 CITY OF LIGHT part of Lucent Te
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234 CITY OF LIGHT miles. Racks of e
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236 CITY OF LIGHT Today’s Technol
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238 CITY OF LIGHT on the overhead c
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240 CITY OF LIGHT innovators were c
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242 CITY OF LIGHT The erbium amplif
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244 CITY OF LIGHT sent signals at f
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246 CITY OF LIGHT the same type of
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248 CITY OF LIGHT ments. Nor could
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250 CITY OF LIGHT passed 10,000 for
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252 CITY OF LIGHT space. Anyone who
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254 CITY OF LIGHT they didn’t nee
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256 CITY OF LIGHT Like the fiber bu
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258 CITY OF LIGHT Bergano, Neal: Be
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260 CITY OF LIGHT Holonyak, Nick, J
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262 CITY OF LIGHT Norton, Frederick
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264 CITY OF LIGHT proposal for fibe
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266 CITY OF LIGHT 1887: Charles Ver
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268 CITY OF LIGHT 1956: First trans
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270 CITY OF LIGHT abandon thin-film
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272 CITY OF LIGHT 1971-1972: Focus
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274 CITY OF LIGHT September 1978: F
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276 CITY OF LIGHT February 1993: Mo
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280 NOTES TO PAGES 13-17 6. Daniel
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282 NOTES TO PAGES 23-27 37. It was
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284 NOTES TO PAGES 35-39 4. H. C. S
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286 NOTES TO PAGES 44-50 of Munich
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288 NOTES TO PAGES 54-59 47. Lee Du
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290 NOTES TO PAGES 65-70 18. Court
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292 NOTES TO PAGES 74-80 way taken
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294 NOTES TO PAGES 88-91 35. Antoni
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296 NOTES TO PAGES 95-99 on Lasers
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298 NOTES TO PAGES 103-110 Chapter
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300 NOTES TO PAGES 119-123 that pro
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302 NOTES TO PAGES 129-140 59. See
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304 NOTES TO PAGES 147-151 of atten
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306 NOTES TO PAGES 155-159 1970); p
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308 NOTES TO PAGES 163-166 broadcas
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310 NOTES TO PAGES 168-171 51. Reev
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312 NOTES TO PAGES 174-178 95. A. G
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314 NOTES TO PAGES 183-186 37. Keck
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316 NOTES TO PAGES 192-197 76. Inte
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318 NOTES TO PAGES 202-208 3. Arthu
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320 NOTES TO PAGES 213-220 54. Davi
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322 NOTES TO PAGES 223-229 Sandbank
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324 NOTES TO PAGES 236-242 29. Tom
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326 NOTES TO PAGES 246-253 31. Kazu
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330 INDEX Barlow, Harold 86, 110, 1
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332 INDEX Endoscopes 41-44, 51, 57-
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334 INDEX Index of refraction 24-26
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336 INDEX Møller Hansen, Holger 50
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338 INDEX Rocky Point Laboratory (R
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340 INDEX ULE glass 133-134 Ulexite
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City of Light: The Story of Fiber Optics

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