analele universităţii - Facultatea de Limbi Straine - Dimitrie Cantemir
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UNIVERSITATEA CREŞTINĂ “DIMITRIE CANTEMIR”<br />
FACULTATEA DE LIMBI ŞI LITERATURI STRĂINE<br />
ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII<br />
Seria ŞTIINŢELE LIMBII, LITERATURII ŞI DIDACTICA PREDĂRII<br />
Vol. XI<br />
Nr.1/2012<br />
ANNALS OF “DIMITRIE CANTEMIR” CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY<br />
LINGUISTICS, LITERATURE AND METHODOLOGY OF TEACHING<br />
VOLUME XI<br />
No.1/2012<br />
1
2<br />
http://analeflls.ucdc.ro<br />
analeflls@ucdc.ro
UNIVERSITATEA CREŞTINĂ “DIMITRIE CANTEMIR”<br />
FACULTATEA DE LIMBI ŞI LITERATURI STRĂINE<br />
ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII<br />
Seria ŞTIINŢELE LIMBII, LITERATURII ŞI DIDACTICA<br />
PREDĂRII<br />
Vol. XI<br />
Nr. 1/2012<br />
3
4<br />
ISSN 2065 - 0868
CUPRINS<br />
COMUNICĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE PREZENTATE LA<br />
CONFERINŢA ANUALĂ A FACULTĂŢII DE LIMBI ŞI<br />
LITERATURI STRĂINE, CU TEMA<br />
„COMUNICARE INTERCULTURALĂ – SOLUŢIE<br />
COMPLEMENTARĂ A IEŞIRII DIN CRIZĂ“<br />
8 APRILIE 2011<br />
ZUM NUTZEN DES SPRACHVERGLEICHS UND DER<br />
FEHLERANALYSE FUR EINEN ERFOLGREICHEN<br />
FREMDSPRACHENUNTERRICHT ........................................... 11<br />
Maria Ileana Moise<br />
BORROWINGS IN THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD ............... 21<br />
Mirela Copcă<br />
IS THERE AN END TO BEGIN WITH? ..................................... 34<br />
Fabiola Hosu<br />
THE PROCESS OF METAPHORIZATION IN NEWSPAPER<br />
TITLES .................................................................................... 44<br />
Adriana Dănilă<br />
THE OTHER`S (RE)WRITING OF THE NARRATIVE(S) IN JEAN<br />
RHYS` WIDE SARGASSO SEA ................................................. 58<br />
Aurora Goia<br />
COMUNICĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE PREZENTATE LA<br />
CONFERINŢA INTERNAŢIONALĂ A UNIVERSITĂŢII<br />
CREŞTINE DIMITRIE CANTEMIR, CU TEMA<br />
„INTERCULTURALITATE ŞI STRATEGII COMPETIŢIONALE“<br />
Sesiunea I<br />
24-26 MAI 2012<br />
CULTURAL DIFFICULTIES IN TRANSLATIONS FROM<br />
ENGLISH INTO ARABIC ......................................................... 69<br />
Roxana Mareş<br />
5
YOUNG PEOPLE’S LANGUAGE IN ROMANIA:<br />
FROM MARGINALIZATION TO INTERNATIONALISATION .... 78<br />
Aida Ferencz<br />
CREATIVE TOOLS FOR ADDRESSING INTERCULTURAL<br />
CONFLICTS ............................................................................ 89<br />
Ioana Tinela Huza<br />
THE NOH THEATRE AS INTERCULTURAL<br />
PERFORMANCE - A CASE STUDY ........................................... 95<br />
Iulia Waniek<br />
6<br />
ALTE LUCRĂRI<br />
LA SCRIITURA DEI MESSAGGI e-mail: ASPETTI TESTUALI E<br />
LINGUISTICI ........................................................................ 105<br />
Frosina Qyr<strong>de</strong>ti<br />
POETRY AS EXISTENTIAL CONDITION-THE VOYAGE OF<br />
ANGELO MANITTA AMONG THE STARS ............................... 115<br />
Otilia Doroteea Borcia<br />
ADVERTISING LANGUAGE – THE REVOLUTION OF<br />
“CAROUSEL” ........................................................................ 123<br />
Andreea Boariu<br />
COUNTER CULTURE INCLUDES TRADITION ...................... 130<br />
Felix Nicolau<br />
TEXTUL ANTICHITĂŢII ÎN RE- LECTURA POSTMODERNĂ,<br />
CA TENSIUNE ŞI ECHILIBRU<br />
ÎNTRE CENTRAL ŞI MARGINAL ........................................... 137<br />
Răzvan Staicu<br />
CAT IMAGERY IN HARUKI MURAKAMI'S FICTION ............. 159<br />
A<strong>de</strong>lina Vasile
CONTENTS<br />
RESEARCH PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL<br />
CONFERENCE OF THE FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND<br />
LITERATURES FACULTY, WITH THE TITLE:<br />
„INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION – A COMPLEMENTARY<br />
SOLUTION FOR THE CRISIS“<br />
8 th APRIL 2011<br />
THE USE OF CROSS-LANGUAGE COMPARISON AND MISTAKE<br />
ANALYSIS IN SUCCESSFUL TEACHING OF FOREIGN<br />
LANGUAGES ............................................................................ 11<br />
Maria Ileana Moise<br />
BORROWINGS IN THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD ............... 21<br />
Mirela Copcă<br />
IS THERE AN END TO BEGIN WITH? ..................................... 34<br />
Fabiola Hosu<br />
THE PROCESS OF METAPHORIZATION IN NEWSPAPER<br />
TITLES .................................................................................... 44<br />
Adriana Dănilă<br />
THE OTHER`S (RE)WRITING OF THE NARRATIVE(S) IN JEAN<br />
RHYS` WIDE SARGASSO SEA ................................................. 58<br />
Aurora Goia<br />
RESEARCH PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE INTERNATIONAL<br />
CONFERENCE OF DIMITRIE CANTEMIR CHRISTIAN<br />
UNIVERSITY, WITH THE TITLE:<br />
„INTERCULTURALITY AND COMPETITIONAL STRATEGY“<br />
Session I<br />
24-26 MAY 2012<br />
CULTURAL DIFFICULTIES IN TRANSLATIONS FROM<br />
ENGLISH INTO ARABIC ......................................................... 69<br />
Roxana Mareş<br />
7
YOUNG PEOPLE’S LANGUAGE IN ROMANIA:<br />
FROM MARGINALIZATION TO INTERNATIONALISATION .... 78<br />
Aida Ferencz<br />
CREATIVE TOOLS FOR ADDRESSING INTERCULTURAL<br />
CONFLICTS ............................................................................ 89<br />
Ioana Tinela Huza<br />
THE NOH THEATRE AS INTERCULTURAL<br />
PERFORMANCE - A CASE STUDY ........................................... 95<br />
Iulia Waniek<br />
8<br />
OTHER WORKS<br />
THE WRITING OF E-MAIL MESSAGES: TEXTUAL AND<br />
LINGUISTIC ASPECTS .......................................................... 105<br />
Frosina Qyr<strong>de</strong>ti<br />
POETRY AS EXISTENTIAL CONDITION-THE VOYAGE OF<br />
ANGELO MANITTA AMONG THE STARS ............................... 115<br />
Otilia Doroteea Borcia<br />
ADVERTISING LANGUAGE – THE REVOLUTION OF<br />
“CAROUSEL” ........................................................................ 123<br />
Andreea Boariu<br />
COUNTER CULTURE INCLUDES TRADITION ...................... 130<br />
Felix Nicolau<br />
THE TEXT OF ANTIQUITY IN A POSTMODERN RE-READING,<br />
AS OPPOSITION AND BALANCE BETWEEN CENTER AND<br />
PERIPHERY .......................................................................... 137<br />
Răzvan Staicu<br />
CAT IMAGERY IN HARUKI MURAKAMI'S FICTION ............. 159<br />
A<strong>de</strong>lina Vasile
COMUNICĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE PREZENTATE LA<br />
CONFERINŢA ANUALĂ A FACULTĂŢII DE LIMBI ŞI<br />
LITERATURI STRĂINE, CU TEMA<br />
„COMUNICARE INTERCULTURALĂ – SOLUŢIE<br />
COMPLEMENTARĂ A IEŞIRII DIN CRIZĂ“<br />
8 APRILIE 2011<br />
RESEARCH PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL<br />
CONFERENCE OF THE FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND<br />
LITERATURES FACULTY, WITH THE TITLE:<br />
„INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION – A COMPLEMENTARY<br />
SOLUTION FOR THE CRISIS“<br />
8th APRIL 2011<br />
9
ZUM NUTZEN DES SPRACHVERGLEICHS UND DER<br />
FEHLERANALYSE FUR EINEN ERFOLGREICHEN<br />
FREMDSPRACHENUNTERRICHT<br />
Maria Ileana Moise <br />
ileana.moise@sbcglobalnet.net<br />
Abstract: The starting point of the article is the fact that languages are<br />
more or less concurrent linguistic phenomena although each individual<br />
language system presents different structures and features. Typological<br />
proximity and connections, genetic relationship of the investigated languages<br />
represent on no account an assumption for confrontation; a fundamental<br />
assumption is the comparability of the size. We also cannot confront two<br />
languages as a whole, because a global comparison of languages would be too<br />
much for itself. Consequently, the main theoretical <strong>de</strong>mand is a clear<br />
differentiation of the investigated object. The researcher needs an over<br />
individual language reference, a “tertium comparationis” for the establishment<br />
of the interlingual correlates, which is not i<strong>de</strong>ntical with the languages to<br />
compare, but contains statements on the particular languages. In comparative<br />
linguistics there are conflicting opinions on the applicability of confrontations.<br />
This article also <strong>de</strong>als with the limits as well as the unmistakable advantages of<br />
this research method in the teaching of foreign languages.<br />
Keywords: comparison of languages, error analysis, interlinguistic<br />
common features, interlingual correlates, interlinguistic and intralinguistic<br />
interferences, system and norm infringement, internal language control system<br />
1. Allgemeines<br />
Die natürlichen Sprachen sind mehr o<strong>de</strong>r weniger übereinstimmen<strong>de</strong><br />
linguistische Erscheinungen. Alle Sprachen besitzen ein Phonem- und<br />
Morphemsystem, ein bestimmtes Korpus von Lexemen, eine Syntax, ein<br />
Intonationssystem. Häufige Korrespon<strong>de</strong>nzen zwischen <strong>de</strong>n Sprachen<br />
Senior Lecturer, PhD., “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest<br />
11
können in <strong>de</strong>r Wortfolge, in <strong>de</strong>r Syntax, in <strong>de</strong>r Thema-Rhema-Glie<strong>de</strong>rung<br />
vorliegen. Im Allgemeinen weisen aber die einzelnen Sprachsysteme<br />
voneinan<strong>de</strong>r abweichen<strong>de</strong> Strukturen und Merkmale auf. STERNEMANN<br />
(1983: 27ff.) 1 spricht in diesem Sinne von a. totaler, b. partieller und c.<br />
Nulläquivalenz.<br />
Die neueren Sprachgleiche basieren weniger auf in <strong>de</strong>r Ausgangs- und<br />
Zielsprache „Vorhan<strong>de</strong>nem“ son<strong>de</strong>rn auf einem „Mehr“ o<strong>de</strong>r „Weniger“ im<br />
Verhältnis zwischen bei<strong>de</strong>n Sprachen. Typologische Nähe und<br />
Beziehungen, genetische Verwandschaft <strong>de</strong>r Untersuchungssprachen<br />
stellen dabei keinesfalls eine Voraussetzung für Konfrontationen dar, eine<br />
Grundvoraussetzung ist die Vergleichbarkeit <strong>de</strong>r Größen.<br />
Zwei Sprachen können auch nicht in ihrer Gesamtheit konfrontiert<br />
wer<strong>de</strong>n, <strong>de</strong>nn ein globaler Sprachvergleich wür<strong>de</strong> sich selbst überfor<strong>de</strong>rn<br />
(vgl. PUTZER 1994: 27; MOISE 2004: 21). Infolge<strong>de</strong>ssen erweist sich die<br />
klare Abgrenzung <strong>de</strong>s Untersuchungsgegenstan<strong>de</strong>s als prinzipiell<br />
theoretische For<strong>de</strong>rung (vgl. STERNEMANN 1983: 39f; HELBIG 1981:<br />
105). Auf Grund <strong>de</strong>r interlingualen Gemeinsamkeiten, Ähnlichkeiten und<br />
Unterschie<strong>de</strong> können nur bestimmte Aspekte einer Ausgangssprache mit<br />
<strong>de</strong>nen <strong>de</strong>r Zielsprache verglichen wer<strong>de</strong>n (vgl. MOISE 2004: 21). Davon<br />
ausgehend kann die Zielsetzung von Konfrontationen sehr unterschiedlich<br />
sein. Einerseits können sie innerlinguistischer Natur sein und die<br />
Charakteristika <strong>de</strong>r verglichenen Sprachen vermitteln, d.h. <strong>de</strong>n<br />
unterschiedlichen Bau <strong>de</strong>r Sprachsysteme bestimmen, an<strong>de</strong>rerseits<br />
können sie die funktionelle Seite <strong>de</strong>r Sprache beinhalten und als<br />
heuristische Metho<strong>de</strong> genutzt wer<strong>de</strong>n, um das Regelsystem <strong>de</strong>r Sprachen<br />
zu beschreiben.<br />
Für die Ermittlung <strong>de</strong>r zwischensprachlichen Korrelate benötigt <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Forscher i.d.R. eine übereinzelsprachliche Bezugsgröße, ein “tertium<br />
comparationis”, das mit <strong>de</strong>n zu untersuchen<strong>de</strong>n Sprachen nicht i<strong>de</strong>ntisch<br />
ist, aber Aussagen über die jeweiligen Sprachen enthält (vgl.<br />
STERNEMANN 1983: 33; 63; PUTZER 1994: 26). Es ist eine theoretisch<br />
explizierte bzw. hypothetisch angesetzte Größe invarianter Eigenschaften,<br />
Merkmale und Regeln (vgl. HELBIG 1981: 75; MOISE 2004: 22), die<br />
1 R. Sternemann, Einführung in die kontrastive Linguistik. Leipzig: VEB Verlag<br />
Enzyklopädie, 1983<br />
12
zumin<strong>de</strong>st für zwei, ten<strong>de</strong>nziell jedoch auch für mehrere Sprachen<br />
Gültigkeit besitzt. Als Bezugsgröße hat es relativen Wert; oft ist es eine<br />
Hilfskonstruktion, <strong>de</strong>r nicht ohne weiteres eine Verallgemeinerbarkeit für<br />
beliebige Sprachen zukommt. Diesem Prinzip zufolge ergibt ein bilateraler<br />
Vergleich, dass die erfassbaren bzw. erfassten einzelsprachlichen<br />
Merkmale in Abhängigkeit von <strong>de</strong>r Spezifik <strong>de</strong>r verglichenen Sprachen und<br />
in Abhängigkeit von <strong>de</strong>m im „tertium comparationis“ Formulierten mehr<br />
o<strong>de</strong>r weniger differieren können. Im Falle eines unilateralen Vergleichs<br />
übernimmt die Rolle <strong>de</strong>r Bezugsgröße die Ausgangssprache. Zwar erweist<br />
sich die Verwendung einer Vergleichsgröße für <strong>de</strong>n Sprachvergleich unter<br />
bestimmten Gesichtspunkten als nachteilhaft (z. B. zwangsläufige<br />
Wie<strong>de</strong>rholung). Trotz<strong>de</strong>m ermöglicht sie Übersichtlichkeit und<br />
Objektivität.<br />
2. Kontroversen über die Anwendbarkeit <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Konfrontationen<br />
In <strong>de</strong>r vergleichen<strong>de</strong>n Linguistik herrschen kontroverse Diskussionen<br />
hinsichtlich <strong>de</strong>r Anwendbarkeit <strong>de</strong>r Konfrontationen. Gegenwärtig<br />
zeichnen sich zwei voneinan<strong>de</strong>r diametral entgegengesetzte Positionen ab:<br />
a. eine anwendungsskeptische und b. eine anwendungsoptimistische.<br />
Repräsentativ für die Anwendungsskeptiker ist KÖNIG (1990) 2 , <strong>de</strong>r die<br />
Ansicht vertritt, dass die „als Komplement zur Typologie“ (KÖNIG 1990:<br />
117) bzw. „als Grenzfall eines typoligischen Vergleichs“ (KÖNIG 1996: 31)<br />
konzipierte Kontrastive Linguistik im Fremdsprachenunterricht kaum<br />
anwendbare Ergebnisse hervorbringen könne. Als repräsentative Vertreter<br />
<strong>de</strong>r Anwendungsoptimisten sind JAMES (1992) und WEKKER (1992) zu<br />
nennen. JAMES (1992: 195) meint eine neue Möglichkeit für die<br />
Bewusstmachung interlingualer Kontrastivität in bestimmten<br />
Entwicklungsten<strong>de</strong>nzen <strong>de</strong>r Kontrastiven Linguistik, vor allem <strong>de</strong>r<br />
typologisch orientierten Forschung zu ent<strong>de</strong>cken. Nicht nur entsprechen<strong>de</strong><br />
Subsysteme zweier Sprachen können verglichen wer<strong>de</strong>n, son<strong>de</strong>rn die<br />
Sprachen können auch einer holistischen Konfrontation unterzogen<br />
2 König, E. Kontrastive Linguistik als Komplement zur Typologie. In: Kontrastive<br />
Linguistik. HG. Claus Gnutzmann. Frankfurt am Main: (Forum Angewandte Linguistik<br />
19), 1990, 117-131.<br />
13
wer<strong>de</strong>n. Kontraste sollen ihm zufolge nicht mehr isoliert erfasst wer<strong>de</strong>n,<br />
son<strong>de</strong>rn in ihren implikationellen Zusammenhängen.<br />
Festzuhalten bleibt mit BRDAR SZABO (2001), dass in <strong>de</strong>r<br />
theoretischen Kontrastiven Linguistik immer tiefere<br />
Systemzusammenhänge und Implikationshierarchien aufgezeigt wer<strong>de</strong>n,<br />
die mit <strong>de</strong>n nötigen Transmissionen auch zur Optimierung <strong>de</strong>s<br />
Fremdsprachenunterrichtes beitragen können. JAMES (1981) weist u.a.<br />
darauf hin, dass Lernen<strong>de</strong> von einer minimalen Information über ein<br />
Detail eines interlingualen Kontrastes ausgehend durch Inferieren auf die<br />
Existenz eines implikativ begrün<strong>de</strong>ten Kontrastes schließen können. Auch<br />
WEKKER (1992: 289f) 3 argumentiert dafür, dass die Kontrastive<br />
Linguistik in <strong>de</strong>r Zweitsprachenforschung eine zunehmend wichtige Rolle<br />
spielen sollte, da in <strong>de</strong>r Synthese <strong>de</strong>r traditionellen und <strong>de</strong>r typologisch<br />
orientierten Kontrastiven Linguistik eine zukunftsträchtige Variante in <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Erforschung <strong>de</strong>r Lernersprache einen wichtigen Beitrag leisten kann.<br />
Um die Rolle <strong>de</strong>s in <strong>de</strong>r Literatur kontrovers diskutierten kontrastiven<br />
Sprachvergleichs richtig einzuschätzen, erweist es sich als notwendig,<br />
seine Grenzen festzuhalten:<br />
a. Eine erste Grenze <strong>de</strong>r Kontrastiven Analyse in ihren Anfängen<br />
hängt mit <strong>de</strong>m Verhältnis von Sprachdifferenz und Schwierigkeitsgrad <strong>de</strong>s<br />
Erlernens zusammen, das von <strong>de</strong>n Initiatoren <strong>de</strong>r Kontrastivhypothese<br />
(FRIES 1945; LADO 1968; 1964; 1957 u. a.) ihrer Theorie zu Grun<strong>de</strong> gelegt<br />
wur<strong>de</strong>. Laut ihrer These seien die ähnlichen Phänomene für <strong>de</strong>n<br />
Lernen<strong>de</strong>n einfach, die verschie<strong>de</strong>nen schwierig (vgl. LADO 1957: 2).<br />
“Leichtigkeit” bzw. “Schwierigkeit” sollte sich automatisch aus <strong>de</strong>n durch<br />
<strong>de</strong>n kontrastiven Sprachvergleich ermittelten Unterschie<strong>de</strong>n ergeben; <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Interferenz- und Schwierigkeitsgrad sollte proportional zum Grad <strong>de</strong>r<br />
sprachlichen Differenzierung sein. Nicht beachtet wur<strong>de</strong>n dabei<br />
lernerinterne und –externe Aspekte, z. B. <strong>de</strong>r psychologische und<br />
physiologische Zustand <strong>de</strong>s Lerners, die Unterrichtssituation und <strong>de</strong>r -ort,<br />
das Lehrmaterial, die Lehr- und Lernmetho<strong>de</strong>.<br />
b. Die auf Grund <strong>de</strong>r Ausklammerung <strong>de</strong>r Rolle <strong>de</strong>r Muttersprache<br />
im Fremdsprachenerwerb in ihren Anfängen entstan<strong>de</strong>ne Betrachtung <strong>de</strong>r<br />
3 Wekker, H. On contrastive linguistics and second language aquisition. In:<br />
Christian Mair, Manfred Markus (Hg.), 1992, 279-292.<br />
14
Kontrastiven Analyse als “Allheilmittel” (HELBIG 1981: 70; 97) für die<br />
Optimierung <strong>de</strong>s Fremdsprachenunterrichts hat sich als unvollständig und<br />
unzureichend erwiesen. Neuere Untersuchungen ergaben, dass große<br />
Unterschie<strong>de</strong> zwischen Mutter- und Fremdsprache vom Lerner früher<br />
wahrgenommen wer<strong>de</strong>n und infolge<strong>de</strong>ssen keine Basis für die<br />
Übertragung in die Fremdsprache darstellen (vgl. KALTENBACHER 1994:<br />
93). Die Unterrichtspraxis zeigte, dass ähnliche Strukturen zwischen <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Mutter- und Fremdsprache häufiger Unsicherheiten und Fehlleistungen in<br />
<strong>de</strong>r Fremdsprache auftreten lassen (vgl. STERNEMANN 1983: 17;<br />
PUTZER 1994: 14). Auf die Aussprache bezogen, han<strong>de</strong>lt es sich z. B. um<br />
Ähnlichkeiten zwischen <strong>de</strong>n in <strong>de</strong>n Sprachen vorkommen<strong>de</strong>n Lauten, im<br />
Gebrauch und in <strong>de</strong>r Kombination <strong>de</strong>r intonatorischen Parameter bei <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Realisierung <strong>de</strong>r intonatorischen Komponenten. Diesbezügliche<br />
Untersuchungen im Anfänger- und Fortgeschrittenenunterricht führten<br />
zur Schlussfolgerung, dass bei formal ähnlichen Phänomen zahlreiche<br />
Fehler auftreten (vgl. STOCK 1993: 101; HIRSCHFELD 1983: 52).<br />
c. Zu <strong>de</strong>n potenziellen Fehlern im Fremdsprachenerwerb zählen<br />
außer <strong>de</strong>n interlingualen Interferenzen auch intralinguale, die auf Grund<br />
<strong>de</strong>s Systems <strong>de</strong>r Fremdsprache, infolge <strong>de</strong>r Übergeneralisierung von<br />
Regeln o<strong>de</strong>r wegen falscher Analogieschlüsse verursacht wer<strong>de</strong>n.<br />
d. Einwän<strong>de</strong> kommen auch seitens <strong>de</strong>r empirischen Fehleranalyse,<br />
<strong>de</strong>ren Fehlersammlungen nicht immer mit <strong>de</strong>n von <strong>de</strong>r Kontrastiven<br />
Analyse vorausgesagten übereinstimmen (vgl. CORDER 1974: 19; HELBIG<br />
1981: 93).<br />
e. Der Anteil <strong>de</strong>r linguistischen Grundlagenforschung für <strong>de</strong>n<br />
Fremdsprachenunterricht lässt sich nicht auf <strong>de</strong>n kontrastiven<br />
Sprachvergleich reduzieren. Es ist HELBIG (1981: 98) darin zuzustimmen,<br />
dass nicht nur für die kontrastive Linguistik, son<strong>de</strong>rn auch für die<br />
Linguistik überhaupt in ihrer Be<strong>de</strong>utung für <strong>de</strong>n Fremdsprachenunterricht<br />
bestimmte Grenzen anerkannt wer<strong>de</strong>n müssen, da diesem Unterricht<br />
außer <strong>de</strong>r Linguistik auch an<strong>de</strong>re Wissenschaften wie z. B. die<br />
Fremdsprachenmethodik zugrun<strong>de</strong> liegen.<br />
Der kontrastive Sprachvergleich darf folglich nicht überbewertet bzw.<br />
verabsolutiert wer<strong>de</strong>n. Er kann we<strong>de</strong>r die Beschreibung <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Einzelsprachen noch die fremdsprachen-methodische Aufbereitung<br />
15
ersetzen, er kann we<strong>de</strong>r die Auswahl und die Abfolge <strong>de</strong>s Sprachstoffes im<br />
Fremdsprachenunterricht allein <strong>de</strong>terminieren, noch die psychologischen<br />
Gegebenheiten ausschalten. Trotz <strong>de</strong>r Schwächen darf ihm aber nicht je<strong>de</strong><br />
Be<strong>de</strong>utung abgelehnt wer<strong>de</strong>n:<br />
a. Die durch die Kontrastive Analyse für <strong>de</strong>n<br />
Fremdsprachenunterricht außeror<strong>de</strong>ntlich nutzbaren ermittelten<br />
Kenntnisse können durch die einzelsprachliche Beschreibung, die<br />
Psychologie und die Fremdsprachen-Methodik nicht ersetzt wer<strong>de</strong>n.<br />
b. Durch die für die Fremdsprachen-Methodik geleistete linguistische<br />
Vorarbeit wer<strong>de</strong>n für <strong>de</strong>n Fremdsprachenunterricht, wenn auch nicht<br />
allein ausreichen<strong>de</strong>, trotz<strong>de</strong>m notwendige theoretische Voraussetzungen<br />
geschaffen. Durch die Erweiterung <strong>de</strong>s Untersuchungsgegenstan<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>r<br />
kontrastiven Sprachvergleiche, in <strong>de</strong>m Sinne, dass außer Unterschie<strong>de</strong>n<br />
auch Gemeinsamkeiten und Ähnlichkeiten zwischen <strong>de</strong>n Sprachen<br />
<strong>de</strong>utlich gemacht wer<strong>de</strong>n, ermöglichen sie Schlussfolgerungen bezüglich<br />
potenzieller Interferenzerscheinungen beim Erwerb und Gebrauch <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Fremdsprache, tatsächlich eingetretene Fehler können auf bestimmte<br />
muttersprachliche Einflüsse zurückgeführt wer<strong>de</strong>n. Durch Konfrontationen<br />
wer<strong>de</strong>n also System- und Normverstöße in <strong>de</strong>r Zielsprache<br />
voraussagbar(vgl. STERNEMANN 1983: 20; JAMES 1994: 180).<br />
c. Die auf Grund <strong>de</strong>r Konfrontationen gesicherte Kenntnis <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Verwendungsweisen <strong>de</strong>r Zielsprachenkorrelate trägt nicht nur zur<br />
Herausbildung <strong>de</strong>s fremdsprachlichen Könnens, <strong>de</strong>s internen sprachlichen<br />
Regelsystems bei (vgl. STERNEMANN 1983: 16), durch die <strong>de</strong>r Lernen<strong>de</strong><br />
mit <strong>de</strong>n sich zwischen Mutter- und Fremdsprache in Wechselbeziehung<br />
befindlichen Regelnund existenten Oppositionen vertraut gemacht wird,<br />
bzw. die jeweiligen Phänomene abgrenzen kann, auch die<br />
ausgangssprachlichen Erscheinungen können unter einem an<strong>de</strong>ren, neuen<br />
Blickwinkel betrachtet wer<strong>de</strong>n (vgl. STERNEMANN 1983: 72).<br />
d. Durch das mittels <strong>de</strong>r kontrastiven Sprachvergleiche ermöglichte<br />
Bewusstwer<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong>r Transfererscheinungen öffnen sich für <strong>de</strong>n<br />
Fremdsprachenunterricht Wege für die Einschränkung bzw. Reduzierung<br />
<strong>de</strong>r aus <strong>de</strong>r Mutter- in die Zielsprache übertragenen Gewohnheiten;<br />
systemrelevante aber auch weniger wichtige Fehler in <strong>de</strong>r Fremdsprache<br />
16
können vermie<strong>de</strong>n o<strong>de</strong>r ausgeschaltet wer<strong>de</strong>n (vgl STERNEMANN 1983:<br />
22; ABBAS 1995: 195).<br />
e. Kontrastive Sprachvergleiche sind sowohl für <strong>de</strong>n<br />
phonetisch-phonologischen Bereich, als für <strong>de</strong>njenigen <strong>de</strong>r Grammatik<br />
und <strong>de</strong>r Lexik von außeror<strong>de</strong>ntlicher Be<strong>de</strong>utsamkeit, da sie beson<strong>de</strong>rs im<br />
Anfängerunterricht, wo die Zahl <strong>de</strong>r Interferenzerscheinungen höher liegt,<br />
die notwendige Grundlage für die Vorbereitung und Durchführung eines<br />
effektiven Unterrichts <strong>de</strong>r Fremdsprache (Ausspracheschulung und<br />
–korrektur) bieten.<br />
Der Nutzen <strong>de</strong>r Kontrastiven Analysen zwischen Ausgangs- und<br />
Zielsprache für <strong>de</strong>n Fremdsprachenunterricht ist also unverkennbar. In<br />
diesem Sinne ist erwünschenswert, noch vorliegen<strong>de</strong> Forschungs<strong>de</strong>fizite<br />
im Bereich theoretischer und empirischer Untersuchungen dringend zu<br />
lösen. Das Lehren und Lernen <strong>de</strong>r charakteristischen linguistischen<br />
Merkmale einer Fremdsprache, die methodische Bearbeitung <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Unterschie<strong>de</strong> und Übereinstimmungen zwischen Mutter- und Zielsprache<br />
setzen die genaue Kenntnis <strong>de</strong>r Charakteristika <strong>de</strong>r Muttersprache voraus.<br />
Unterrichten<strong>de</strong> o<strong>de</strong>r Verfasser von Sprachlehrprogrammen und<br />
–materialien müssen die charakteristischen Strukturen <strong>de</strong>r eigenen<br />
Sprache kennen, um diese mit <strong>de</strong>n fremdsprachlichen in Beziehung setzen<br />
zu können. Konfrontationen dienen jedoch nicht nur <strong>de</strong>n Lehren<strong>de</strong>n<br />
son<strong>de</strong>rn auch <strong>de</strong>n Lernen<strong>de</strong>n. Sie sind eine kognitive Hilfe zur bewussten<br />
Vermeidung o<strong>de</strong>r zumin<strong>de</strong>st für die Diminution <strong>de</strong>s negativen Transfers<br />
<strong>de</strong>r muttersprachlichen Gewohnheiten in die Zielsprache.<br />
Die Kontrastive Analyse ist als einfür die Fehleranalyse<br />
unentbehrliches Instrument zu betrachten, da sie begrün<strong>de</strong>t, warum<br />
gera<strong>de</strong> bestimmte Merkmale für <strong>de</strong>n Lerner schwierig sind (vgl. PUTZER<br />
1994: 18f.). Sie bietet <strong>de</strong>n theoretischen Rahmen und stellt für die<br />
Fehleranalyse nützliche Schlussfolgerungen bereit. Die Fehleranalyse<br />
liefert zusätzliche, differenzieren<strong>de</strong> und präzisieren<strong>de</strong> Angaben über die<br />
Fehlerproduktion, erarbeitet Fehlerdiagnosen und kann konkrete<br />
Zielstellungen und Maßnahmen für die Fehlertherapie formulieren.<br />
Zu beachten sind dabei auch die von WOTJAK (1988: 106)<br />
formulierten Anfor<strong>de</strong>rungen, laut <strong>de</strong>nen bei <strong>de</strong>r Durchführung von<br />
Konfrontationen vom Forscher <strong>de</strong>utlich zu bestimmen gilt:<br />
17
a. was (welche ausgewählten Detailaspekte) im Hinblick auf welches<br />
tertium comparationis und <strong>de</strong>mzufolge welche Domäne verglichen wer<strong>de</strong>n<br />
soll,<br />
b. welchem Ziel die Konfrontation zu dienen hat, d. h. welchen<br />
theoretischen Explizitanspruch man realisieren sollte und<br />
c. welche Metho<strong>de</strong>n und theoretischen Grundannahmen zugrun<strong>de</strong><br />
gelegt wer<strong>de</strong>n.<br />
Laut STERNEMANN (1983: 43) und HELBIG (1981: 80), die diese<br />
Anfor<strong>de</strong>rungen ergänzen, setzt ein erfolgreicher kontrastiver<br />
Sprachvergleich die vorherige Beschreibung <strong>de</strong>r Einzelsprachen<br />
voraussetzt, bzw. sind dieselben nur dann überhaupt komparabel, wenn:<br />
d. die Konfrontation auf einem vergleichbaren<br />
theoretisch-methodischen Hintergrund stattfin<strong>de</strong>t, d. h. auf <strong>de</strong>r Grundlage<br />
<strong>de</strong>r gleichen Sprachtheorie, <strong>de</strong>r gleichen Metho<strong>de</strong>n und <strong>de</strong>r gleichen<br />
Terminologie.<br />
Bilanz und Ausblick<br />
Kontrastivität soll als Verhältnis:<br />
a. zwischen Erst- und Zweitsprache im interlingualen Bereich,<br />
b. von Erstsprache, Lernersprache und Zweitsprache im<br />
Zweitsprachenerwerbsprozess,<br />
c. von interlingualem Vergleich und Zweitspracherwerbsprozess<br />
verstan<strong>de</strong>n wer<strong>de</strong>n.<br />
Die Kontrastive Analyse wird in <strong>de</strong>r Forschung als synchron<br />
vergleichen<strong>de</strong>, <strong>de</strong>skriptive, erklären<strong>de</strong> Forschungsmetho<strong>de</strong> eingesetzt. Sie<br />
beschreibt, vergleicht und erklärt strukturelle Unterschie<strong>de</strong>,<br />
Gemeinsamkeiten und Ähnlichkeiten zwischen <strong>de</strong>n Systemen zweier<br />
beliebiger Sprachenpaare.<br />
Da Kontrastivforschungen im Allgemeinen auf <strong>de</strong>r abstrakten<br />
Systemebene <strong>de</strong>r bei<strong>de</strong>n zu beschreiben<strong>de</strong>n Sprachen erfolgen und<br />
bestimmte Fehlertypen nur prognostizieren und erklären, ist es<br />
erwünschenswert, dass in Forschungsarbeiten <strong>de</strong>r theoretische<br />
Sprachvergleich durch einen empirischen Teil, eine Fehleranalyse<br />
komplementär ergänzt wird, wo die tatsächlich eingetretenen Fehler<br />
analysiert und bewertet wer<strong>de</strong>n. Auf diese Weise können die Hypothesen<br />
18
<strong>de</strong>r Kontrastiven Analyse, die potenziellen Fehler <strong>de</strong>r Lernen<strong>de</strong>n<br />
verifiziert, die formulierten Ausgangshypothesen ergänzt wer<strong>de</strong>n.<br />
LITERATURVERZEICHNIS<br />
1. Abbas, A. K. (1995): Contrastive Analyses. Is it a living Fossil? In:<br />
IRAL XXXIII, 195-215.<br />
2. Brdar Szabo (2001) Kontrastivität in <strong>de</strong>r Grammatik. In: Deutsch<br />
als Fremdsprache, ein internationales Handbuch. Hg. G. Helbig, Berlin,<br />
New-York: Walther <strong>de</strong> Gruyter GmbH, 195-203.<br />
3. Bünnagel, W. (1993): Fehlerlinguistik und computergestützte<br />
Fremdsprachenerwerbsforschung. In: Linguistik XXI, Frankfurt am Main:<br />
Peter Lang.<br />
4. Cor<strong>de</strong>r, S. P. (1974): The Signifiance of Learners’ Errors. In: IRAL<br />
5/1967, 161-170.<br />
5. Fries, C. C. (1945): Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign<br />
Language. Ann Arbor.<br />
6. Helbig, G. (1986a): Bemerkungen zu Zielen, Möglichkeiten und<br />
Grenzen konfrontativer (kontrastiver) Sprachvergleiche. In: Kwartalnik<br />
Neofilologiczny, 33, 271-289.<br />
7. Helbig, G. (1981): Sprachwissenschaftliche Konfrontationen –<br />
Fremdsprachenunterricht. Leipzig: VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie.<br />
8. Hirschfeld, U. (1983): Zur Interferenz im Bereich <strong>de</strong>r Phonologie<br />
und Phonetik. In: DaF, Heft 1, 20. Jahrgang, Son<strong>de</strong>rdruck, 51-55.<br />
9. James, C. (1995): Don,t shoot my dodo: On the resilience of<br />
contrastive and error analyses. In: IRAL, vol. XXXII/3, 179-200.<br />
10. James, C. (1992): „The monitor mo<strong>de</strong>l“ and the role of the first<br />
language. In: Hans Goebl; Peter H. u.a. 515 – 525.<br />
11. James, C. (1990): Contrastive analyses. 9. Auflage, Harlow:<br />
Longman.<br />
12. James, C. (1981): Contrastive analyses. London.<br />
13. Kaltenbacher, E. (1994): Der <strong>de</strong>utsche Wortakzent im<br />
Zweitsprachenerwerb. Zur Rolle von Ausgangssprache, Zielsprache und<br />
Markiertheit. In: Linguistische Berichte 150, 91-117.<br />
14. König, E. (1996): Kontrastive Grammatik und Typologie. In:<br />
Deutsch – typologisch. Hg. Ewald Lang; Gisela Zifonum, Berlin,<br />
New-York.<br />
19
15. König, E. (1990): Kontrastive Linguistik als Komplement zur<br />
Typologie. In: Kontrastive Linguistik. HG. Claus Gnutzmann. Frankfurt<br />
am Main: (Forum Angewandte Linguistik 19) 117-131.<br />
16. Lado, R. (1968): Language learning. In: J. Alatis (Hg.): Report on<br />
the 19 th Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Studies<br />
– Constrastive Studies and its Pedagogical Implications, Washington.<br />
17. Lado, R. (1964): Language Teaching. A Scientific Approach.<br />
New-York - San Francisco-Toronto - London.<br />
18. Lado, R. (1957): Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor.<br />
19. Moise, M-I. (2004): Akzent und Rhythmus im Deutschen und<br />
Rumänischen. Kontrastive Untersuchung. Bukarest: Editura<br />
Enciclopedica.<br />
20. Putzer, O. (1994): Fehleranalyse und Sprachvergleich:<br />
Linguistische Metho<strong>de</strong>n im Fremdsprachenunterricht am Beispiel<br />
Italienisch-Deutsch. Ismaning: Max Hueber.<br />
21. Sandu, D. (1994): Die Wortfolge. Regeln. Bucureşti: Editura<br />
Universităţii.<br />
22. Sternemann, R. (1983): Einführung in die kontrastive Linguistik.<br />
Leipzig: VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie.<br />
23. Stock, E. (1993): Aussprachschulung. In: DaF, Heft 2, 30.<br />
Jahrgang, 100-103.<br />
24. Stock, E. (1987): Probleme und Ergebnisse <strong>de</strong>r Wirkungsforschung<br />
zu Intonation und Artikulation. In: Ergebnisse <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Sprechwirkungsforschung, Kongress- und Tagungsberichte <strong>de</strong>r Martin<br />
Luther Universität Halle/Wittenberg 19 (F67), 50-124.<br />
25. Stock, E. (1986): Normen <strong>de</strong>r Lautung – Anspruch und Realität.<br />
In: Textlinguistik Heft 13, 47-52.<br />
26. Stock, E. (1980): Untersuchungen zu Form, Be<strong>de</strong>utung und<br />
Funktion <strong>de</strong>r Intonation im Deutschen. Berlin: Aka<strong>de</strong>mie Verlag.<br />
27. Wekker, H. (1992): On contrastive linguistics and second language<br />
aquisition. In: Christian Mair, Manfred Markus (Hg.) 279-292.<br />
28. Wotjak, G. (1988): Schlußfolgerungen für die Bestimmung <strong>de</strong>s<br />
Tertium Comparationis (TC) aus einer kommunikativ-pragmatischen<br />
Gegenstandserweiterung <strong>de</strong>r konfrontativen Linguistik (KL). In:<br />
Linguistische Studien, Reihe A 176, 105-111.<br />
20
BORROWINGS IN THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD<br />
Mirela Copcă <br />
mireimihalache@gmail.com<br />
Abstract: This paper reveals the great social, political and cultural factors<br />
which have influenced the English language: the English language of today<br />
reflects in its entire <strong>de</strong>velopment, the social, political and cultural history of the<br />
English people. The history of the English language is the history of the foreign<br />
influences that have affected it. Nevertheless, in spite of the extensive foreign<br />
influences, English has always remained a Germanic language.<br />
I want to point the wealth of the English vocabulary, together with the<br />
sources from which the vocabulary has been enriched and is being enriched. In<br />
this field, we are struck by the similarity between a large number of English and<br />
German words (house- Haus, winter – Winter, good – Gut, have- Haben, etc.),<br />
on the one hand, and between some English and French words (cousin- cousin,<br />
table-table, village- village, change-changer, etc.), on the other hand.<br />
Moreover, the study of the evolution of English will enable us to grasp the<br />
full beauty and significance of the important literary works of different periods,<br />
e.g. G. Chaucer in Middle English, W. Shakepeare in Early Mo<strong>de</strong>rn English, etc.<br />
“the aesthetic appreciation of Shakespeare and Milton is immensely<br />
quickened by an un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of their language; the exact sha<strong>de</strong>s of meaning<br />
of their words and phrases become clear only through the consciousness of the<br />
semantic changes in the language”. C.L. Wrenn 1<br />
Keywords: language, evolution of english, words, phrases, literary works<br />
Sources of the English Vocabulary<br />
Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is heterogenous<br />
and diversified. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and<br />
Lecturer, “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest<br />
1 Charles Leslie Wrenn (1895–1969) was a British scholar. He became Rawlinson<br />
and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon at the University of Oxford in 1945, the successor<br />
in the chair of J.R.R. Tolkien, and held the position until 1963. Wrenn was a Fellow of<br />
Pembroke College, Oxford. He was also a member of the Oxford literary discussion group<br />
known as the "Inklings", which inclu<strong>de</strong>d C. S. Lewis and Tolkien.<br />
21
the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words<br />
is consi<strong>de</strong>rably larger than the native stock of words. In fact native words<br />
comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary<br />
but the native words form the bulk of the most frequent words actually<br />
used in speech and writing. Besi<strong>de</strong>s, the native words have a wi<strong>de</strong>r range<br />
of lexical and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and<br />
productive in forming word clusters and set expressions.<br />
Native words are divi<strong>de</strong>d into 3 basic groups:<br />
1) The words which have cognates (words of the same etymological<br />
root, of common origin) in many Indo-European languages. For ex: family<br />
relations: father (Vater), mother, daughter, son; parts of human body:<br />
foot, heart, nose; wolf, cow, cat; numerous verbs: stand, sit; the numerals<br />
from 1 to 100; heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star.<br />
2) The words, which have cognates with words of the language of the<br />
Germanic group. Some of the main groups of Germanic words are the<br />
same as in the Indo-European group. For ex: parts of human body: head,<br />
hand, arm, finger; animals: bear, fox; natural phenomena: rain, frost;<br />
human dwellings and furniture: house, bench; adj: green, blue, old, good,<br />
small, high; verbs: see, hear, tell, say, drink, give.<br />
3) The English element proper. Ex.: bird, boy, girl, woman, lord,<br />
always.<br />
The Anglo-Saxons, the Romans, the Danish and Norwegian inva<strong>de</strong>rs,<br />
the Norman French conquerors, the prestige of the ancient Latin and<br />
classical Greek have contributed a lot to the formation of the English<br />
vocabulary. An insatiable borrower, English seems to have welcomed<br />
words from over 120 languages throughout the world. Moreover, the<br />
process of borrowing is likely to continue as the English language “seems<br />
to be spreading its tentacles to reach and borrow from less and and less<br />
known languages (Jackson and Ze Amvela 2000) 2 . Among the traditional<br />
suppliers, French, Japanese and Spanish still occupy front positions, while<br />
Latin has relatively less to offer nowadays. Instead of borrowing directly<br />
from Latin, the English language often coins new Latinate words from<br />
English morphemes originally from Latin.<br />
22<br />
2 Jackson H. & Zé Amvela, E. Words, Meaning and Vocabulary: An Introduction to<br />
Mo<strong>de</strong>rn English Lexicology, London & New York: Cassell, 2000.
Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language<br />
communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the<br />
two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more<br />
words go from one si<strong>de</strong> to the other. In this case the source language<br />
community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that<br />
makes the objects and i<strong>de</strong>as it brings <strong>de</strong>sirable and useful to the borrowing<br />
language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few<br />
centuries (A.D.) adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted<br />
new products via tra<strong>de</strong> with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the<br />
other hand, passed into Latin.<br />
Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a<br />
different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a<br />
borrowing. The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers<br />
adopting words from a source language into their native language. "Loan"<br />
and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal<br />
lending process. There is no transfer from one language to another, and no<br />
"returning" words to the source language. They simply come to be used by<br />
a speech community that speaks a different language from the one they<br />
originated in.<br />
Borrowing may be internal and external. The internal one is concerned<br />
with the importance of: dialectal terms, or of archaisms (words belonging<br />
to earlier stages of the respective language), as opposed to the external<br />
type, concerning loans/loanwords proper (terms coming from foreign<br />
languages).<br />
Some examples for the first category: Scottish hoot moon!, kirk, etc.;<br />
for the second category: casemate, machicolation, harquebus, methinks,<br />
forsooth, by my halidom! – in some literary works, archaisms can be used<br />
to lend a certain “historical atmosphere”; although at times they can be<br />
improperly used, being called ‘ghost-words’. As for the third category,<br />
foreign words in English, here are a few examples: spaghetti, pizza, au<br />
revoir, fortissimo, chilli con carne, kamikaze, kibbutz.<br />
A loan-word proper is the form which is taken over directly – nearly<br />
always with a certain <strong>de</strong>gree of phonological and/or morphological<br />
adaptation. When the foreign form itself is not taken over, but only the<br />
meaning of a native form is shifted to correspond to that of a foreign word/<br />
23
phrase, we have to do with the process called calque/ <strong>de</strong>calcomania/ loan<br />
translation (some linguists simply call it loan-shift): marriage of<br />
convenience (< Fr. Marriage <strong>de</strong> convenance), that goes without saying<br />
(
(singular) / phenomena (plural form), criterion (singl) / citeria (pl.),<br />
datum (singl) / data (pl), earlier Latin borrowings such as street, plum or<br />
wall were fully adapted.<br />
The adjustment to the system of meanings of the vocabulary is called<br />
semantic adaptation. Generally, borrowing is caused either by the<br />
necessity to fill a gap in the vocabulary or by a chance to add a synonym<br />
conveying an old concept in a new way. Nevertheless, the process of<br />
borrowing is not always purposeful, logical and efficient. Sometimes a<br />
word may be borrowed “blindly” and such acci<strong>de</strong>ntal borrowings are<br />
generally rejected by the vocabulary. Interestingly, other borrowings<br />
manage to take root by the process of semantic adaptation. The adjective<br />
large, for instance, was borrowed from French in the meaning “broad,<br />
wi<strong>de</strong>”, although English already had the word ‘wi<strong>de</strong>’; moreover, the<br />
adjective large did not add any sha<strong>de</strong>s of meaning to the native ‘wi<strong>de</strong>’. And<br />
yet it was not rejected, entering another synonymic group with the general<br />
meaning ‘big in size’. At first the word was applied to objects characterized<br />
by vast horizontal dimensions, thus retaining a trace of its former<br />
meaning, and now, although still bearing some features of that meaning, is<br />
actually competing with big. Used figuratively, large implies broadness,<br />
generosity and comprehensiveness (take the large view), big suggests<br />
importance and impressiveness but often in contrast to genuine worth.<br />
Another interesting word is gay, which was borrowed from French, in<br />
several meaning at once: ‘noble of birth’, ‘bright, shining’, ‘multi-coloured’.<br />
Rather soon it shifted its ground <strong>de</strong>veloping the meaning ‘joyful,<br />
high-spirited’ and thus it became a synonym of the native merry. Gay<br />
suggests a lightness of heart or liveliness of mood that is openly<br />
manifested, while merry suggests, even more than gay, convival animated<br />
enjoyment.<br />
It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have<br />
always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they<br />
have come in contact with.<br />
There have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable,<br />
and there has never been a national aca<strong>de</strong>my in Britain, the U.S., or other<br />
English-speaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there<br />
has been in many continental European countries.<br />
25
The situation of borowing in the Middle English period<br />
(1066/1100 – 1500, i. e. the language of Chaucer)<br />
The Norman Invasion and Conquest of 1066 was a cataclysmic event<br />
that brought new rulers and new cultural, social and linguistic influences<br />
to the British Isles. The Norman French ruling minority dominated the<br />
church, government, legal, and educational systems for three centuries.<br />
The Norman establishment used French and Latin, leaving English as the<br />
language of the illiterate and powerless majority. During this period<br />
English adopted thousands of words from Norman French (a variety of Old<br />
Northern French) and from Latin, and its grammar changed rather<br />
radically. By the end of that time, however, the aristocracy had adopted<br />
English as their language and the use and importance of French gradually<br />
fa<strong>de</strong>d. The period from the Conquest to the reemergence of English as a<br />
full-fledged literary language is called Middle English. Geoffrey Chaucer 3<br />
wrote his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, in Middle English in the late<br />
1300s.<br />
26<br />
FRENCH borrowings<br />
Heavy borrowing from French occurred in two phases:<br />
1066-1250. About 900 words were borrowed during this phase,<br />
with most of them showing the effects of Anglo-Norman phonology.<br />
Examples from this source are:<br />
Social: baron, noble, dame, servant, messenger, feast, minstrel,<br />
juggler, largess.<br />
Literary: story, rime, lay;<br />
Church: The largest number of words was borrowed for use in<br />
religious services since the French-speaking Normans took control of the<br />
church in England.<br />
1250-1400. A great influx of French into general English use took<br />
place between these years, a rather long period “during which<br />
Anglo-Norman bilingualism gradually turned into a resurrection of<br />
English as mother tongue of all inhabitants of England. For all their Old<br />
3 The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written in Middle English by<br />
Geoffrey Chaucer at the end of the 14th century.
French names, the early nationalist Simon of Montfort and Chaucer<br />
embodied the beginning and the end (respectively) of the process of<br />
re-Anglicization. English speakers were regaining both social prestige and<br />
confi<strong>de</strong>nce in the possibilities of their own language, which they also felt<br />
free to enrich, by assimilating foreign words that were coming in with new<br />
fashions and notions” (Poruciuc, 1992) 4 .<br />
Government and Administrative: govern, government, administer,<br />
crown, state, empire, royal, majesty, treaty, statute, parliament, tax, rebel,<br />
traitor, treason, exile, chancellor, treasurer, major, noble, peer, prince,<br />
princess, duke, squire, page (but not king, queen, lord, lady, earl), peasant,<br />
slave, servant, vassal.<br />
Ecclesiastical: religion, theology, sermon, confession, clergy, clergy,<br />
cardinal, friar, crucifix, miter, censer lectern, abbey, convent, creator,<br />
savior, virgin, faith, heresy, schism, solemn, divine, <strong>de</strong>vout, preach, pray,<br />
adore, confess.<br />
Law: justice, equity, plaintiff, judge, attorney, petition, inquest, felon,<br />
evi<strong>de</strong>nce, sue, accuse arrest, blame, libel, slan<strong>de</strong>r, felony, adultery,<br />
property, estate, heir, executor.<br />
Military, Army and Navy: (Much of the fighting during this time was<br />
done in France. Many now-obsolete words for pieces of armor, etc., were<br />
borrowed at this time.) army, navy, peace, enemy, arms, battle, spy,<br />
combat, siege, ambush, soldier, guard, mail, buckler, banner, lance,<br />
besiege, <strong>de</strong>fend, array.<br />
Clothing: habit, gown, robe, garment, attire, cape, coat, collar,<br />
petticoat, train, lace, embroi<strong>de</strong>ry, pleat, buckle, button, tassel, plume,<br />
satin, taffeta, fur, sable, blue, brown, vermilion, russet, tawny, jewel,<br />
ornament, broach, ivory, turquoise, topaz, garnet, ruby, pearl, diamond.<br />
Food: feast, repast, collation, mess, appetite, tart, sole, perch,<br />
sturgeon, sardine, venison, beef, veal, mutton, port, bacon, toast, cream,<br />
sugar, salad, raisin, jelly, spice, clove, thyme.<br />
Social: curtain, couch, lamp, wardrobe, screen, closet, leisure, dance,<br />
carol, lute, melody.<br />
4 A. Poruciuc, A Concise History of the English Language, Iaşi, Casa Editorială<br />
Demiurg, 2004, 129 pages.<br />
A. Poruciuc, Istorie scrisă în engleza veche, Iaşi, Editura Moldova, 1995, 144 pages.<br />
27
Hunting: rein, curry, trot, stable, harness, mastiff, spaniel, stallion,<br />
pheasant, quail, heron, joust, tournament, pavilion.<br />
Art, Learning, Medicine: painting, sculpture, music, beauty, color,<br />
image, cathedral, palace, mansion, chamber, ceiling, porch, column, poet,<br />
prose, romance, paper, pen, volume, chapter, study, logic, geometry,<br />
grammar, noun, gen<strong>de</strong>r, physician, malady, pain, gout, plague, pulse,<br />
remedy, poison.<br />
Common words and expressions inclu<strong>de</strong> nouns--age, air, city, cheer,<br />
honor, joy; adjectives--chaste, courageous, coy, cruel, poor, nice, pure;<br />
verbs--advance, advise, carry, cry, <strong>de</strong>sire; phrases--draw near, make<br />
believe, hand to hand, by heart, without fail (These are loan-translations).<br />
The number of form-words (prepositions, conjunctions) is extremely<br />
scarce because these rarely change or are borrowed into a different<br />
language; examples such as the archaic sans or the phrase due to are in<br />
short supply, anyway. Yet, all the above words which are frequently used in<br />
English stand proof for the diversity and richness of the borrowings from<br />
French. Moreover, one can cite a great number of French affixes borrowed<br />
by English, e.g. –ment, -ess, dis-, <strong>de</strong>s-, en-, etc.<br />
In certain cases, the French term was preferred to the native word as<br />
more refined, more learned, or more technical. Moreover, a whole system<br />
of synonym pairs has <strong>de</strong>veloped ever since (‘etymological synonyms’), e.g.<br />
ask – <strong>de</strong>mand, <strong>de</strong>ep – profound, feed – nourish, forgive – pardon,<br />
friendship – amity, hearty – cordial, begin – commence, help – aid, hi<strong>de</strong> –<br />
conceal, hin<strong>de</strong>r – prevent, likeness – similitu<strong>de</strong>, lonely – solitary, win –<br />
conquer, wish – <strong>de</strong>sire, etc.<br />
Many of the above words differ from Mo<strong>de</strong>rn French in form and<br />
pronunciation because of phonological changes such as the following:<br />
French /s/ was lost before other consonants in the 12th century, so<br />
OF feste became MF fête (MnE feast). Cf. forest--forêt, hostel--hôtel,<br />
beast--bête.<br />
In the 13th century the French `j' came to be pronounced `zh', and<br />
`ch' became `sh'. Early borrowings (i.e., before the 13th century) thus have<br />
the `ch' and `j' pronunciations: charge, change, chamber, chase, chair,<br />
chimney; just, jewel, journey, majesty, gentle. Later borrowings (i.e., after<br />
28
the 13th century) have the `zh' and `sh' pronunciations: chamois,<br />
chaperon, chiffon, chevron, jabot (last trim on the front of a dress), rouge.<br />
The Anglo-Norman (abbrev.AN) dialect was also different from the<br />
dialect of Paris, which was Central French (abbrev. CF): AN retained the<br />
initial ca-, which became cha-, chie- in CF, e.g.: MnE caitiff, not CF chaitif.<br />
English contains words borrowed from both dialects at different times,<br />
e.g.:<br />
cattle < AN catel catch < AN cachier<br />
chattel < CF chatel chase < CF chacier (MF chasser)<br />
Central French also showed an early dislike of w-, but the northern<br />
dialects did not, e.g.: war<strong>de</strong>n from AN and guardian from CF. CF also<br />
dropped the /w/ in qu- (i.e., AN /kw/, CF /k/), so Mo<strong>de</strong>rn English has<br />
quarter, quality, question, etc., pronounced /kw-/. (French - qualité, etc.)<br />
Vowels also show some differences. For example, Anglo-Norman<br />
retained the /ei/ diphthong, but in the 12th century it became/oi/in CF, so:<br />
MnE leal < AN leial MnE loyal < CF<br />
MnE real < AN reial MnE royal < CF<br />
Some 10,000 French words were borrowed into Middle English, and<br />
about 75% (7500) of these words are still in use.<br />
This heavy borrowing from French had several effects on English:<br />
Native words were replaced:<br />
OE aeðel F.noble<br />
OE aeðeling F.nobleman<br />
OE here F.army<br />
OE campa F.warrior<br />
OE sibb F. peace<br />
English and French words were retained with a differentiation in<br />
meaning:<br />
hearty - cordial<br />
ox – beef<br />
sheep – mutton<br />
swine – pork<br />
calf – veal<br />
house – mansion<br />
29
The Old English word-forming powers were reduced, with less use<br />
of prefixes and suffixes and fewer compounds.<br />
30<br />
LATIN borrowings<br />
In a sense the French words were Latin borrowings since French<br />
<strong>de</strong>veloped from Vulgar Latin - as did all the Romance languages. The<br />
borrowings that came directly from Latin ten<strong>de</strong>d to be more learned in<br />
character--e.g., allegory, in<strong>de</strong>x, magnify, mechanical, private, secular,<br />
zenith, conspiracy, contempt, gesture, immune, infinite, minor, necessity,<br />
popular, precinct, private, script, secular, solar, subjugate, temperature,<br />
testimony, vulgar, etc.<br />
Many such words introduced into English a substantial number of<br />
affixes:<br />
- suffixes: -able, -ible, -ent, -al, -ive<br />
-prefixes: ab-, ad-, am-, ante-, con-, dis-, im-, in-, pro-, re-, sub-,<br />
It is estimated that in contemporary English about one in four words<br />
is of Latin origin. A number of Latin words and phrases preserved their<br />
Latin spelling (and, to a certain extent, pronunciation): agendum,<br />
antenna, bonafi<strong>de</strong> “real, genuine” (a bonafi<strong>de</strong> manuscript/ agreement<br />
‘something un<strong>de</strong>rtaken in good faith’), erratum (pl. errata), innuendo “1.<br />
an indirect or subtle reference, especially one ma<strong>de</strong> maliciously or<br />
indicatng criticism or disapproval, insinuation; 2. legal term used in an<br />
action or libel/ <strong>de</strong>clamation, used as an explanation in the construction<br />
put upon the words alleged to be <strong>de</strong>famatory where this meaning is not<br />
apparent”, factotum, habeas corpus, in flagrante <strong>de</strong>licto, per diem, viva<br />
voce, etc.<br />
Latin also lent a number of abbreviations to English:<br />
a.m. – ante meridian i.e. – id est ‘that is’<br />
p.m. – post-meridian<br />
e.g. – exempli gratia<br />
l.s.d. – Lat. libra, solidi, <strong>de</strong>narii ‘pounds, shillings, pennies’<br />
cf. – confer < Lat. Conferro, -erre ‘to compare’<br />
viz. – Lat. Vi<strong>de</strong>licet ‘namely, that is to say’
The official style (used for instance in the courts of law), as well as<br />
scientific and technical English are characterised by an abundance of Latin<br />
borrowings, e.g. in flagrante <strong>de</strong>licto, Habeas corpus, jus canonicum, jus<br />
divinum, to recidivate, recidivism, etc.<br />
Direct borrowings from Latin (aureate terms) were a stylistic<br />
affectation of the 15 th century Scottish Chaucerians such as James I,<br />
Henryson, and Dunbar. Some of these words have been dropped from<br />
English (or never really ma<strong>de</strong> it in) while others have survived, e.g.,<br />
diurnal (daily or daytime), tenebrous (dark), laureate, mediation,<br />
oriental, prolixity.<br />
It has been pointed out that as a result of Middle English borrowings<br />
from French and Latin, Mo<strong>de</strong>rn English has synonyms on three levels:<br />
popular (English), literary (French), and learned (Latin), as in rise –<br />
mount – ascend ; ask – question – interrogate ; fire – flame –<br />
conflagration ; holy – sacred – consecrated, time – age – epoch, fire –<br />
flame – conflagration, etc.<br />
Borrowings from GREEK<br />
Since the English has never been in direct contact with the Greek, its<br />
influence upon the English language is generally characterized as indirect.<br />
However, it was the English humanists (who wanted their language to be<br />
able to sustain the most refine thoughts) that took a serious interest in a<br />
geographical remote classical language.<br />
Almost all Greek words were introduced into English by means of<br />
Latin at first and later through French. Some of the earliest Greek<br />
borrowings are:<br />
Devil < OE <strong>de</strong>ofol < Late Lat. Diabolus < Greek diábolos (meaning<br />
initially ‘a slan<strong>de</strong>rer’, then ‘an enemy’);<br />
Church < OE cirice < West Germanic kirika < Mediaeval Greek<br />
kurkon < Greek kurikon (doma) ‘the Lord’s house’;<br />
Dropsy (in the sense of “a pathological condition characterised bu an<br />
accumulation of watery fluid in the subcutaneous tissues or in a body<br />
cavity”), which entered English through Latin and Old French: OF< Lat.<br />
31
Hydropis(is) < Greek hydrops ‘dropsy, hydrops’ < hydropi - < (ultimate<br />
stem) hudor ‘water’ ;<br />
Aca<strong>de</strong>my< French académie or Latin aca<strong>de</strong>mia < Gk. Aka<strong>de</strong>mia ( the<br />
enclosed piece of ground, or ‘grove’ in Athens where Plato taught, named<br />
after the Attic legendary mithological hero Aka<strong>de</strong>mos/ Heka<strong>de</strong>mus ) ;<br />
Atom < Gk. Atomos ‘that can not be divi<strong>de</strong>d’;<br />
Diphtong < Lat. Diphtongus < Gk. Diphtongos (di + phthόngos ‘two +<br />
sound, voice’);<br />
Ecstasy < Old French extasie < Late Lat. Extasis < Gk. Ékstasis<br />
‘driving out od one’s mind’ < existánai ‘displace, drive out of one’s mind’;<br />
Harmony < Old French harmonie < Lat. Harmonia < Gk. Harmonia<br />
‘means of putting togheter/ joining’, hence ‘agreement, concord’ < Gk.<br />
Harmos ‘joint’;<br />
Nymph < Gk. Númphe (originally ‘bri<strong>de</strong>’ – Lat. Nubere ‘to take a<br />
husband’);<br />
Theatre < Old French theatre < Lat. Theatrum < Gk. Théatron ‘place<br />
of viewing’ < theasthai ‘to watch, to look at, to view’;<br />
When two different languages have contact over a certain period of<br />
time they will surely influence each other. Words might be taken over from<br />
one language and are adopted to the other. This process is called<br />
borrowing. Throughout its long history English had contact with many<br />
different languages such as Old Norse, French, and Latin, but also with<br />
many colonial laguages.<br />
The reasons for a language such as English to borrow words from<br />
other languages are manifold. Francis Katamba remarks in this context<br />
that there is no purely linguistic reason for borrowing. According to him<br />
no limit exists to the number of words that can be generated in any<br />
language. But still, whenever the need for a new term arises, due to the<br />
contact between people from different cultures, the formation of a<br />
neologism, composed f the elements of the own language, is only rarely<br />
done. One reason for borrowing a suitable word from another language is<br />
the need to find a term for an unfamiliar thing, animal, or cultural <strong>de</strong>vice.<br />
Then borrowing seems to be the easiest solution to this problem.<br />
The enrichment of the lexical stock of the language has also been done,<br />
in addition to introducing new words, by appealing to the native sources;<br />
32
such is the case of the terms created during the Renaissance, when some<br />
men of letters were so strongly opposed to the borrowing of Latin and<br />
Greek words in translating the Bible, that they created English equivalents<br />
ma<strong>de</strong> up of native roots.<br />
The English language still continues its process of amplification (it is<br />
alleged that it annually receives around 800 neologisms); half of the new<br />
items come from combinations of the old ones, but the direct borrowing is<br />
still heavy.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1.Hulban, Horia, (2001), Syntheses in English Lexicology and<br />
Semantics, Perspective of English Language Series, 1, Editura Spanda, Iaşi<br />
2. Jespersen, Otto, (1955), Growth and structure of the English<br />
Language, New York<br />
3. Manea, Constantin, Manea, Maria-Camelia, (2002), Contemporary<br />
English Lexicology with an Outline History of the English Language,<br />
Editura Universitatii din Pitesti<br />
4. Algeo, John, Pyles, Thomas, (2005), The Origins and Development<br />
of the English Language, Wadsworth, Boston.<br />
5. Quirk, Randolph and Wrenn,C.L., (1955), An Old English<br />
Grammar, Methuen, London<br />
6. The explanatory information was selected from the Online<br />
Etymology Dictionary, available at www.etymonline.com<br />
33
34<br />
IS THERE AN END TO BEGIN WITH?<br />
Fabiola Hosu <br />
fabiola.hosu@littlelondonpipera.ro<br />
Abstract: Romania’s attempt at reforming education within the last 20<br />
years could use the example of other countries. Any recent analysis of<br />
educational reform policies will <strong>de</strong>scribe Finland as the country with a slow but<br />
steady reform that led to a mo<strong>de</strong>rn, publicly financed quality education system<br />
where “nobody is left behind”. Can Romania contextualize such an example into<br />
a coherent educational structure for itself?<br />
The results of the Programme for International Stu<strong>de</strong>nt Assessment (PISA)<br />
in 2000 and 2003 have brought attention to this Finnish Brave New World of<br />
education, based on the principle of “less is more” and “high is low”. No later<br />
than the 1960s, the Finnish agrarian society with limited education has <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d<br />
to plan for change. A culturally shared recognition admitted that education<br />
directly impacts well-being and economic health. So they set their engines into<br />
motion…<br />
30 years later, in the 1990s, a Balkan country has the opportunity to make<br />
this change, yet the focus shifts at that time. The results will be visible a few<br />
generations later and in 2012, the civil society begins to react. Will Romania<br />
start planning for the change for the future, given the fact that its wobbly<br />
educational steps so far indicate exactly the opposite: the lack of a plan, the lack<br />
of an end? Shall we assist to a bottom-to-top pressure for change or shall we<br />
continue the well-trod<strong>de</strong>n path of the top-to-bottom incoherent “gui<strong>de</strong>lines”?<br />
Keywords: educational reform, Finnish educational system, Romanian<br />
educational reform<br />
A good system plans the change for the future, <strong>de</strong>fines that change<br />
and the long term plan that goes with it, following it with laborious<br />
meticulousness. The Finnish educational system has <strong>de</strong>signed and<br />
thoroughly implemented a 50 year plan that is now showing its excellent<br />
Lecturer, “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest
esults. The purpose of this article is to present the Finnish educational<br />
reform and draw some conclusions as to what or how much of it can be<br />
adapted to the Romanian system, should we consi<strong>de</strong>r it is worth the while.<br />
Romania’s attempt at reforming education within the last 20 years<br />
could use the example of other countries. The Finnish El Dorado seems to<br />
be now an educational i<strong>de</strong>al for Romanian educationalists. In Finland,<br />
there are virtually no private schools. Nor is there a need for one, since the<br />
public system functions so well. In Finland, there are no elites and no<br />
concern for elite management since every individual reaches his/her full<br />
potential and the system is able to <strong>de</strong>liver the best possible education for<br />
every child. There are no tests and no school inspections.<br />
“In a Finnish classroom, it is rare to see a teacher standing at the front<br />
of a classroom lecturing stu<strong>de</strong>nts for 50 minutes. Instead, stu<strong>de</strong>nts are<br />
likely to <strong>de</strong>termine their own weekly targets with their teachers in specific<br />
subject areas and choose the tasks they will work on at their own pace. In a<br />
typical classroom, stu<strong>de</strong>nts are likely to be walking around, rotating<br />
through workshops or gathering information, asking questions of their<br />
teacher, and working with other stu<strong>de</strong>nts in small groups. They may be<br />
completing in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt or group projects or writing articles for their own<br />
magazine. The cultivation of in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce and active learning allows<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nts to <strong>de</strong>velop metacognitive skills that help them to frame, tackle,<br />
and solve problems; evaluate and improve their own work; and gui<strong>de</strong> their<br />
learning processes in productive ways” 1 , announces Linda Darling<br />
Hammond, Professor of Education at Stanford University in an article<br />
“What we can learn from Finland’s successful school reform”, published on<br />
the NEA site (National Education Association) 2 .<br />
1 From Darling-Hammond, Linda, The Flat World and Education: How America’s<br />
Commitment to Equity Will Determine Our Future, Teachers College Press, New York,<br />
2010.<br />
2 Linda Darling-Hammond is the Charles E. Ducommun Professor of Education at<br />
Stanford University where she has launched the Stanford Educational Lea<strong>de</strong>rship<br />
Institute and the School Re<strong>de</strong>sign Network. She is a former presi<strong>de</strong>nt of the American<br />
Educational Research Association and member of the National Aca<strong>de</strong>my of Education.<br />
Her research, teaching, and policy work focus on issues of school restructuring, teacher<br />
quality and educational equity.<br />
35
Any recent analysis of educational reform policies will <strong>de</strong>scribe<br />
Finland as the country with a slow but steady reform that led to a mo<strong>de</strong>rn,<br />
publicly financed quality education system where “nobody is left behind”<br />
(See Annex 1: Finland’s education system organisation). Can Romania<br />
contextualize such an example into a coherent educational structure for<br />
itself?<br />
The results of the Programme for International Stu<strong>de</strong>nt Assessment<br />
(PISA) in 2000 and 2003 have brought attention to this Finnish Brave<br />
New World of education, based on the principle of “less is more” and “high<br />
is low”. No later than the 1960s, the Finnish agrarian society with limited<br />
education has <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to plan for change. A culturally shared recognition<br />
admitted that education directly impacts well-being and economic health.<br />
The basic assumption at hand was that education is the key vehicle to<br />
enhance human capital, to preserve cultural specificity as globalisation<br />
proceeds and also to ensure economic <strong>de</strong>velopment and social well-being.<br />
A Statistics Report from Finland, 2008 shows more than 99% of the<br />
age group successfully complete compulsory basic education, about 95%<br />
continue their education in upper secondary schools or in the 10th gra<strong>de</strong> of<br />
basic school (some 3%) immediately after graduation, and 90% of those<br />
starting upper secondary school eventually receive their school leaving<br />
certification, providing access to tertiary education. Two thirds of those<br />
enrol either in aca<strong>de</strong>mic universities or professionally oriented<br />
polytechnics. Moreover, more than 50% of the Finnish adult population<br />
participates in adult-education programs.<br />
How did they manage to get to this expansion of participation in<br />
education? By focused investment in education and its resources. Recent<br />
global education indicators show that only 2% of Finnish education costs<br />
are from private sources, the rest being covered by the state.<br />
Since the 1950s, Finland went through a fundamental economic and<br />
especially cultural transformation that was based on an investment-driven,<br />
knowledge-based and education-oriented economy. This equity-based,<br />
well-performing and exclusively publicly-financed education system<br />
upgra<strong>de</strong>d its human capital by transforming this system from one of the<br />
Cin<strong>de</strong>rellas of education (less-than-average) to one of “le meilleur <strong>de</strong>s<br />
mon<strong>de</strong>s” since the 1980s.<br />
36
Back in the 70’s, stu<strong>de</strong>nt achievement in Finland was low.<br />
Beginning with the 1970s, Finland <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to equalize educational<br />
opportunity, by eliminating the practice of separating stu<strong>de</strong>nts into very<br />
different tracks based on their test scores, and then by eliminating the<br />
examinations altogether. This occurred in two stages between 1972 and<br />
1982, and a common curriculum, through the end of high school, was<br />
<strong>de</strong>veloped throughout the entire system. These equal changes ensured<br />
more open access to higher education. During this time, these changes<br />
were combined with social supports for children and families, including a<br />
free daily meal, free health and <strong>de</strong>ntal care, transportation, learning<br />
materials, and counselling in schools, just to have an overview of the range<br />
of economic investment involved.<br />
By the late 1970s, the second stage involved exten<strong>de</strong>d<br />
investment in very skilful teachers that could later on permit local<br />
schools more autonomy to make <strong>de</strong>cisions about what and how to teach. In<br />
Finland, stu<strong>de</strong>nt teachers are recruited from the top 10% of the graduate<br />
cohort, only 1 in 10 or 15 applicants being accepted to become a teacher in<br />
Finland. They have a high overall level of literacy and numeracy, strong<br />
interpersonal and communication skills, a willingness to learn (aca<strong>de</strong>mic<br />
ability) and a high motivation to teach. Finnish teachers spend nearly half<br />
of their time in school in high-level professional <strong>de</strong>velopment,<br />
collaborative planning, and working with parents. They are vested with<br />
much <strong>de</strong>cision-making authority, choice of textbooks, stu<strong>de</strong>nt assessment<br />
policy, <strong>de</strong>termining course content and fluctuation. This organicity of the<br />
system, its paradigm of flow, networks, waves, dynamisms and structure is<br />
gui<strong>de</strong>d by the lea<strong>de</strong>rship and choice of every individual.<br />
On stu<strong>de</strong>nt achievement, teacher lea<strong>de</strong>rship has much more<br />
significant effects than principal or administrative lea<strong>de</strong>rship. This is one<br />
of the core strategic dilemmas to reconcile: pedagogical lea<strong>de</strong>rship or<br />
administrative lea<strong>de</strong>rship, educating and teaching or customer service,<br />
networking and cooperation or competition and specialisation of schools?<br />
The well-known 2007 McKinsey Report “How the world’s<br />
best-performing school systems come out on top” evinces 3 main things<br />
top school systems claim matter the most:<br />
1. “The quality of a school cannot exceed the quality of its teachers”<br />
37
2. “The only way to improve outcomes is to improve instruction”<br />
3. “High performance requires every child to succeed” 3 .<br />
These 3 requirements are the pillars of the observed Finnish system:<br />
1. Getting the right people to become teachers<br />
2. Developing them into effective instructors<br />
3. Ensuring that the system is able to <strong>de</strong>liver the best possible<br />
instruction for every child.<br />
At the conference held at the Education Forum in Bucharest on May,<br />
13 th , 2010, Dr. Jukka Kangaslahti, a Finnish expert on education and<br />
education consultant of the European Education Commission highlighted<br />
the very prerequisites of their analysis that goes along the lines of the<br />
McKinsey Report:<br />
“The quality of ECONOMY is <strong>de</strong>pendant on the quality of HUMAN<br />
RESOURCES.<br />
The quality of HUMAN RESOURCES is <strong>de</strong>pendant on the quality of<br />
EDUCATION.<br />
The quality of EDUCATION is <strong>de</strong>pendant on the quality of<br />
TEACHING AND LEARNING.<br />
The quality of TEACHING AND LEARNING is <strong>de</strong>pendant on the<br />
quality of TEACHERS.<br />
The quality of TEACHERS is <strong>de</strong>pendant on the quality of TEACHER<br />
EDUCATION (AND LIFE-LONG LEARNING).” 4<br />
As a reaction against an oppressive, centralized system existent before,<br />
Finnish economics chose to invest in teachers. They upgra<strong>de</strong>d the teaching<br />
profession. Their teachers now take a free three-year graduate school<br />
preparation program, with a stipend for living expenses. They specialise in<br />
a 5-6 year program and after teaching in mo<strong>de</strong>l schools, they enter the<br />
classrooms after graduating a Master’s <strong>de</strong>gree.<br />
Much like the British preschool curriculum that has now gone from 69<br />
to 17 clear learning objectives, by the mid-1990s, the Finnish national<br />
3 In September 2007, How the world’s best-performing school systems come out on<br />
top<br />
4 Professor Jukka Kangaslahti is the Educational Consultant of the European<br />
Education Commission in the European Parliament and expert of the Finnish educational<br />
system. He held a conference the Education Forum in Bucharest on May, 13th , 2010 and<br />
has been meeting Romanian authorities and educationalists ever since.<br />
38
curriculum became flexible, <strong>de</strong>centralised and less <strong>de</strong>tailed,<br />
going from 700 pages of prescriptive curriculum to 10 pages of guidance<br />
for all of mathematics, just to give an example. Now, their national core<br />
curriculum is a much leaner document, emphasizing creative thinking and<br />
learning management from both teachers and children.<br />
The Finnish educational system appears to us as a perfect epitome of<br />
“flow”, creativity and individual freedom and lea<strong>de</strong>rship. One of the<br />
authors often mentioned by Finnish educationalists is Mihaly<br />
Csikszentmihalyi, the author of Flow: The Psychology of Optimal<br />
Experience (1990) and Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery<br />
and Invention (1996) 5 with his theory of flow, creativity and happiness:<br />
“Creativity is a central source of meaning in our lives ... most of the<br />
things that are interesting, important, and human are the results<br />
of creativity... [and] when we are involved in it, we feel that we are living<br />
more fully than during the rest of life.” 6<br />
Creativity can make one happy/ec-static, being life in concentrated<br />
form that annuls the passing of time and the back-breaking effort. Creativity<br />
in any form or discipline can produce meaning, reality, ec-static joy.<br />
Although Finnish educationalists try to apply the theory of “flow” to<br />
their educational system, they do think it important to find a balance<br />
between happiness and contribution, or challenge and skill, in their work.<br />
And this is another noteworthy thing about Finnish experts: when in a<br />
paradigm, they think “out of the box” or “laterally”, by trying to take the<br />
best of everything, balancing paradigms and adapting them to their<br />
context.<br />
"Most visitors to Finland discover elegant school buildings filled with<br />
calm children and highly educated teachers. They also recognize the large<br />
autonomy that schools enjoy, little interference by the central education<br />
administration in schools’ everyday lives, systematic methods to address<br />
5 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi is a Hungarian Psychology Professor, immigrated to the<br />
United States, teaching now at Claremont Graduate University. One of his former<br />
positions was that of Head of the Psychology Department at the University of Chicago. He<br />
is noted for his work in the study of “happiness” and “creativity” and is best known as the<br />
architect of the notion of “flow”.<br />
6 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and<br />
Invention, Harper Perennial, New York, 1996.<br />
39
problems in the lives of stu<strong>de</strong>nts, and targeted professional help for those<br />
in need." 7<br />
Finnish schools are generally small (fewer than 300 pupils) with<br />
relatively small class sizes (around 20 stu<strong>de</strong>nts), and are uniformly well<br />
equipped. The notion of caring for stu<strong>de</strong>nts educationally and<br />
personally is a central principle of their school policy. All stu<strong>de</strong>nts<br />
receive, as I have mentioned before, a free meal daily, as well as free health<br />
care, transportation, learning materials, and counselling in their schools,<br />
so that the foundations for learning are in place. Beyond that, access to<br />
quality curriculum and teachers has become a central aspect of Finnish<br />
educational policy.<br />
Between ages 7-14 years, a Finnish child spends around 5400 hours in<br />
school. Within the same age period, a French child spends around 8300<br />
hours in school. So, “less is more” at this point and quality does prevail<br />
over quantity.<br />
Finland has been doing what Romania has not and apparently, in this<br />
context, cannot or is not willing to. Over the past 40-50 years, Finland has<br />
moved focus from a highly centralized system emphasizing external testing<br />
to a more localized system in which highly trained teachers <strong>de</strong>sign<br />
curriculum around the very flexible national standards that are used as<br />
gui<strong>de</strong>lines to follow. The logic of the system is to invest in the capacity of<br />
local schools and teachers’ lea<strong>de</strong>rship to meet the needs of all stu<strong>de</strong>nts.<br />
We resume a few of the principles of the Finnish Reform:<br />
Finland changed paradigm: from a closed paradigm based on<br />
“either/or” polarities, on fixed dismembered things, they moved to a live<br />
organic one that synthesizes, relates, organizes, contains “both/and”<br />
polarities.<br />
Finns <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to invest in education to change course.<br />
They provi<strong>de</strong>d social support for stu<strong>de</strong>nts including a free<br />
daily meal, free health and <strong>de</strong>ntal care, transportation, learning materials,<br />
and counselling in schools.<br />
They upgra<strong>de</strong>d the teaching profession and trained better<br />
teachers. All teachers have a Master’s <strong>de</strong>gree.<br />
7 Sahlberg, Pasi, Educational Change in Finland, in A. Hargreaves, M. Fullan, A.<br />
Lieberman, and D. Hopkins (Eds.), Second International Handbook of Educational<br />
Change, Springer, New York, 2009, page 7.<br />
40
They changed curriculum, minimizing objectives and vesting<br />
teachers with <strong>de</strong>cisional lea<strong>de</strong>rship.<br />
They eliminated standardized tests that tied teachers’ hands.<br />
They eliminated school inspections permitting each school<br />
and teacher to use the curriculum as a starting point of their educational<br />
en<strong>de</strong>avour.<br />
30 years later, in the 1990s, Romania has the opportunity to make a<br />
“different” educational reform, yet the focus shifts at that time. The results<br />
will be visible a few generations later and in 2012, the civil society begins<br />
to react. Will Romania start planning for change for the future, given the<br />
fact that its wobbly educational steps so far indicate exactly the opposite:<br />
the lack of a long-term plan, the lack of an end? Shall we assist to a<br />
bottom-to-top pressure for change or shall we continue the well-trod<strong>de</strong>n<br />
path of the top-to-bottom incoherent “gui<strong>de</strong>lines”?<br />
Romania’s highly centralized and politicized system registers throbs of<br />
internationalism in one Minister or another, but the Government, even<br />
though it has expressed a need for Reform, does not seem interested in<br />
articulating a long-term plan with clear simple outlines that all political<br />
parties follow, irrespective of parti-pris. How long a term can Romania<br />
plan for, given the change in management, philosophy and vision? Do we<br />
even have a management philosophy of the public sector that is followed<br />
systematically with commitment and enthusiasm by all parties involved?<br />
At the conference held at the Education Forum in Bucharest on May,<br />
13th , 2010, when asked “What can Romania do at this point in time?”, Dr<br />
Jukka Kangaslahti answered:<br />
Recruit the best teachers – which is crucial for the success!<br />
Do not copy; Romanian context counts and is important!<br />
Experiment in context – do not abandon the positives of the<br />
Romanian school curriculum/teaching methods!<br />
Do not get stuck in rigid procedures – <strong>de</strong>velop and make better:<br />
Evaluate!<br />
Don’t be afraid of mistakes – we learn from mistakes!<br />
Set long term educational goals and short term aims: Process view,<br />
be patient!<br />
Take advantage of co-operation: share best practices!<br />
41
Fight against bureaucracy!<br />
For all I know, Finnish educationalists have met Romanian authorities<br />
and have presented to them everything we know and more – the need for<br />
change in educational administration, the suggestion to eliminate<br />
bureaucracy, etc. What they choose to do with this information still<br />
remains unknown.<br />
This point in time of the Education Reform presents a preschool<br />
curriculum that follows the gui<strong>de</strong>lines of the IB (International<br />
Baccalaureate), a new primary school curriculum with less educational<br />
objectives that no longer follows the IB gui<strong>de</strong>lines but that can be<br />
integrated with the international curriculum objectives, should one choose<br />
to do so, and an old curricular scheme for the secondary school packed<br />
with objectives and uncorrelated information.<br />
Interesting to note as well is the fact that statistics regarding the<br />
teacher-training financed by European Union funds have a rate of<br />
investment of 10-20%. Conclusion: the teacher instruction has not<br />
improved outcomes! So the questions that come to mind are then: ”Why is<br />
Romania so resistant to change and why has it not planned for change<br />
more efficiently?”, ”When are we going to draw valuable conclusions from<br />
the actual state of education nowadays?”, Would Romanian education<br />
system be so willing to overhaul old mentalities and habits for new ones,<br />
whose benefits for children have already been proven?<br />
In or<strong>de</strong>r to begin the Education Reform, one must have an end to look<br />
to, since most beginnings start with a long-term end in mind. In the<br />
meantime, while still formulating our long-term educational objectives, we<br />
give and spend more, from all points of view, including the financial one.<br />
Or in Derek Bok’s words, American educator and lawyer: “If you think<br />
education is expensive, try ignorance”.<br />
42<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1. Linda, Darling-Hammond, (2010), The Flat World and Education:<br />
How America’s Commitment to Equity Will Determine Our Future,<br />
Teachers College Press, New York
2. Jukka Kangaslahti, Some reasons why Finland's school system<br />
come out on top…, conference held at the Education Forum in Bucharest<br />
on May, 13 th , 2010<br />
3. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, (1996), Creativity: Flow and the<br />
Psychology of Discovery and Invention, Harper Perennial, New York<br />
4. Pasi Sahlberg, (2009), Educational Change in Finland, in A.<br />
Hargreaves, M. Fullan, A. Lieberman, and D. Hopkins (Eds.), Second<br />
International Handbook of Educational Change, Springer, New York<br />
Appendix<br />
43
44<br />
THE PROCESS OF METAPHORIZATION IN<br />
NEWSPAPER TITLES <br />
Adriana Dănilă <br />
adrianadanila@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract: This paper refers to the process of metaphorisation in the<br />
formulation of the journalistic title. Assuming that figurative language is used<br />
to point out the emotional aspect of the message, our study focuses mainly on<br />
the use of metaphor in the journalistic title. The analysis is based on a corpus<br />
consisting of media texts in German (the variety spoken in Romania -<br />
Rumänien<strong>de</strong>utsch) and Romanian in the post war period, before and after the<br />
Romanian revolution of 1989.<br />
Keywords: figurative language, metaphor, journalistic title.<br />
From the series of figures of speech that we can find in the titles of<br />
newspaper articles, a very important role is played by the metaphor,<br />
together with other classes of tropes that are subordinated to it, such as<br />
metonymy and the synecdoche (essentially, the synecdoche and metonymy<br />
are figures of speech related to the metaphor). By <strong>de</strong>finition, the metaphor<br />
is a figure of speech that consists of a transfer of meaning based on an<br />
implied comparison; a image-word replaces the object-word of the<br />
comparison (Fr. metaphoré = transport, transfer, resettlement).<br />
In the European languages, at their current state, most words can<br />
become metaphors as long as some abstract words originate from ol<strong>de</strong>r<br />
concrete words that were once metaphorised. So, besi<strong>de</strong>s its general,<br />
linguistic function, on an ethnological level, the existence of a magical<br />
function can also be <strong>de</strong>tected for the metaphor, consi<strong>de</strong>ring that the<br />
Translated into English by Andreea Bularda<br />
Lecturer, PhD. “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest
process of metaphorisation appeared as closely related to lexical elements<br />
that shouldn’t be uttered. (cf. Marin, M., Ne<strong>de</strong>lcu, C. 2007: p. 243-244) 1<br />
There’s no doubt that when it comes to the metaphors present in the<br />
journalistic title, the semantic transfer is done strictly with the purpose of<br />
being suggestive (and, why not, in the post-Revolution press with the role<br />
of implying or actually hiding the real facts). So, the metaphor is used in<br />
the journalistic language with the purpose of enhancing the strength of a<br />
phrase and, implicitly, the meanings of the facts it <strong>de</strong>scribes.<br />
In terms of their content, the totalitarian and post-totalitarian<br />
newspapers circulate two types of metaphors, conditioned by the<br />
socio-political context:<br />
1) eulogistic metaphors – phrases that have a positive connotation.<br />
The difference between the two periods taken into consi<strong>de</strong>ration,<br />
regarding the way in which a metaphor is used, is that:<br />
- during the communist era we find structures of an eulogistic type,<br />
regarding the socialist system, whose achievements were sometimes<br />
exaggerated through hyperbolization (with association of genitival<br />
attributes and epithets).<br />
G<br />
Hartes Ringen für die Normalisierung <strong>de</strong>r ökonomischen<br />
und sozialen Lebens (NW, 9.III.1977, p. 3/4)<br />
Ein Akt <strong>de</strong>r Vernunft (NW, 22.VII.1977, p. 2)<br />
- the subject at matter is the resolution of the United Nations’ Security<br />
Council by which the Republic of Vietnam is proposed to become a<br />
member of the Organization. The title represents a metaphor that has the<br />
role of enhancing the text’s expressiveness.<br />
R<br />
Conlucrarea permanentă cu oamenii muncii, generalizarea<br />
experienţelor înaintate – chezăşie a înfăptuirii neabătute a<br />
hotărîrilor <strong>de</strong> partid şi a respectării legilor ţării (S, 9.XI.1983, p. 1)<br />
(supratitlu) În întîmpinarea marelui eveniment din viaţa partidului<br />
şi a poporului (titlu) Mesaje ale hărniciei (S, 1.XII.1977, p. 1)<br />
1 Marin, M., Ne<strong>de</strong>lcu, C., Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> termeni literari, Editura All Educational,<br />
Bucureşti, 2007, p. 243-244.<br />
45
- in the post-totalitarian period, the eulogistic metaphors are not<br />
directed towards the un<strong>de</strong>rlining of a single i<strong>de</strong>ology’s positive features<br />
anymore, but they extend their eulogistic scope towards figures from<br />
different fields of activity (such as politics, sports, etc.), whose political<br />
orientation can be of various kinds.<br />
G<br />
Boxer Doroftei und Simion setzen „Goldsuche” fort (subtitlu)<br />
Sportlegen<strong>de</strong> Lewis droht Ärger und Staffeleinsatz (ADZ, 1.VIII.1996, p. 7)<br />
R<br />
Boxul a intrat în zona medaliilor (subtitlu) Două medalii sigure<br />
(<strong>de</strong>ocamdată <strong>de</strong> bronz) (A, 1.VIII.1996, p. 9)<br />
2) dysphoric metaphors – pejorative labeling structures:<br />
- of the capitalist system or some negative aspects of the economical<br />
and social life in socialist countries (during the communist era).<br />
G<br />
A<strong>de</strong>nauers schwarze Gar<strong>de</strong> (NW, 7.V.1953, p. 7)<br />
R<br />
Mai puţine surle şi trîmbiţe şi mai multă treabă! (S,<br />
1.IV.1950, p. 2)<br />
- of some unfavorable aspects of the activity of various<br />
socio-professional groups, other than those previously imposed by the<br />
communist propaganda system (after 1990).<br />
G<br />
Streitlustiger Kohl auf <strong>de</strong>m DGB-Kongreß (ADZ, 12.VI.1998, p. 2)<br />
- streitlustig = (adj.) quarrelsome, snappish, in the mood for fights.<br />
R<br />
Curtea Supremă <strong>de</strong> Justiţie şi Parchetul stau prost cu aritmetica<br />
(A, 21.IV.1994, p. 2)<br />
- the law wasn’t correctly interpreted by the magistrates.<br />
Such structures with metaphorical value can be grouped in several<br />
classes:<br />
From a grammatical point of view we can i<strong>de</strong>ntify two types of<br />
metaphorical constructions:<br />
a) <strong>de</strong>finition type nominal metaphors (pattern A is B) or an<br />
appositional type (A,B) – phraseological structures with a nominal core,<br />
46
having the function of fixing the targeted object (the referent). This type of<br />
metaphorical phrases, which are found in reporting articles, put forward a<br />
much more elaborated structure in the Romanian newspaper than in the<br />
German one.<br />
G<br />
Malaya - ein riesiges englisches Konzentrationslager (NW,<br />
28.IV.1953, p. 7)<br />
Neuer EWG – Agrarmarathon? (subtitlu) Marktordnung für<br />
Milch, Fleisch und Obst stösst auf Ablehnung Pisani: Die Frage dürfte<br />
bald wie<strong>de</strong>r erörtert wer<strong>de</strong>n (NW, 2.III.1965, p. 1)<br />
Kuba, die Perle <strong>de</strong>r Antillen (NW, 26.VII.1977, p. 2)<br />
R<br />
Agitatorul, prietenul cetăţenilor din cartier (S,2.III.1956, p. 3)<br />
Ţărănimea – făuritoare şi păstrătoare prin vremi a valorilor<br />
spiritualităţii româneşti (S, 12.IV.1977, p. 1)<br />
(supratitlu) Tinereţea unei tradiţii literare (titlu) Eroul – călător<br />
pasionat în lumea i<strong>de</strong>ilor (S, 1.XII.1977, p. 1)<br />
(titlu) Patriotismul comuniştilor – patriotismul faptelor<br />
(subtitlu) Spre binele poporului, spre bucuria prietenilor şi ca răspuns<br />
neprietenilor – în<strong>de</strong>plinirea exemplară a sarcinilor <strong>de</strong> plan şi<br />
angajamentelor suplimentare (S, 12.XII.1977, p. 2)<br />
(supratitlu) 65 <strong>de</strong> ani <strong>de</strong> la făurirea statului naţional unitar român<br />
(titlu) Mişcarea muncitorească şi socialistă – puternică forţă a luptei<br />
pentru unitatea naţională (S, 9.XI.1983, p. 1)<br />
Iarna – anotimp <strong>de</strong> muncă intensă în agricultură (S, 5.I.1985,<br />
p. 1)<br />
Ştiinţa românească – puternică forţă motrice a progresului<br />
multilateral al patriei socialiste (S, 6.I1985, p. 3)<br />
(supratitlu) În lumina i<strong>de</strong>ilor şi orientărilor formulate <strong>de</strong> tovarăşul<br />
Nicolae Ceauşescu la Congresul al-XIII-lea al Partidului (titlu) A gîndi<br />
economic, a gîndi gospodăreşte (S, 8.I.1985, p. 1)<br />
Argumentele realităţii – argumentele încre<strong>de</strong>rii poporului<br />
în partid (S, 1.IX.2989, p. 2)<br />
47
). verbal metaphors – metaphorical structures whose verbal<br />
component has the role to characterize the action presented in the title.<br />
This type of structure has also been i<strong>de</strong>ntified in cover articles.<br />
G<br />
Warum <strong>de</strong>r Kollektivbauer Nicola Miloşev für die Erhaltung <strong>de</strong>s<br />
Frie<strong>de</strong>ns kämpft? (NW, 3.I.1953, p. 5)<br />
Die west<strong>de</strong>utschen Werktätigen kämpfen gegen <strong>de</strong>n sinken<strong>de</strong>n<br />
Lebensstandard (NW, 15.I.1953, p. 7)<br />
(supratitlu) Das Land vor <strong>de</strong>n Wahlen (titlu) Temeswarer<br />
Grosskonsument zügelt wirksam Metallhunger (subtitlu)<br />
Maschinenbaubetrieb schiebt Werkstoffvergeudung Riegel vor /<br />
Rationelles Zuschnei<strong>de</strong>n wichtige Sparquelle (NW, 7.III.1980, p. 1)<br />
- the Temesvarer Grosskonsument metaphor <strong>de</strong>signates the machine<br />
factory in Timisoara, while Metallhunger, also used metaphorically, is a<br />
reference to the excessive consumption of metal. schiebt... Riegel vor is<br />
also used in a figurative way, its meaning being to shut, to stop, to withold.<br />
R<br />
Vom lupta fără preget pentru cauza măreaţă a lui Lenin şi Stalin (S,<br />
8.III.1953, p. 3)<br />
Omagiu celor ce făuresc florile <strong>de</strong> beton şi oţel ale patriei<br />
(S,20.VII.1969, p. 1)<br />
- a metaphor for the buil<strong>de</strong>rs.<br />
La fruntaşi automulţumirea nu „înmugureşte” (S, 21.IX.1989, p. 2)<br />
From the standpoint of subject matter we can i<strong>de</strong>ntify the following<br />
types of metaphors:<br />
- proper noun metaphors<br />
- generic name metaphors<br />
- road metaphors<br />
- military metaphors<br />
- metaphors of construction<br />
- adjectival metaphors<br />
- metaphors containing terms borrowed from the religious language.<br />
From these, we will only talk about the first category in the present<br />
paper.<br />
48
As a result of our analysis we have reached the conclusion that proper<br />
noun metaphors are obtained only in two subcategories:<br />
- proper noun metaphors <strong>de</strong>rived from personal names (<strong>de</strong>scriptive<br />
metaphor).<br />
- proper noun metaphors obtained from names of geographical<br />
places.<br />
1). Proper noun metaphors <strong>de</strong>rived from personal names (the<br />
<strong>de</strong>scriptive metaphor) represent structures with a metaphorical value that<br />
refer to a person.<br />
Before the 1990’s the process of creating proper noun metaphors for<br />
persons was directed towards cultural and political figures or people from<br />
the socialist society, with the purpose of revealing positive or negative<br />
characteristics of that certain person. This type of metaphor would<br />
materialize itself in concise nominal groups, with an obvious target, and<br />
usually placed at the beginning of the title.<br />
G<br />
Der Held <strong>de</strong>r sozialistischen Arbeit Dumitru Arjan über seine<br />
Initiative zur Steigerung <strong>de</strong>r Erdölför<strong>de</strong>rung (NW, 14,III.1953, p. 3)<br />
- this metaphor has the purpose of un<strong>de</strong>rlining the merits of the<br />
worker named Dumitru Arjan.<br />
Der zweite Kolumbus (subtitlu) Zu 100. Wie<strong>de</strong>rkehr <strong>de</strong>s<br />
To<strong>de</strong>stages von Alexan<strong>de</strong>r von Humboldt (NW, 15.V.1959, p. 2)<br />
- metaphor through which a positive judgement is being conveyed<br />
„Freundlicher Gastwirt“ blieb ungestraft (NW, 1.IV.1969, p. 2)<br />
- the phrase placed between the quotes expresses the opposite of what<br />
it wants to convey. The actual text relates the story of an innkeeper who,<br />
thinking that his clients are foreigners, asks for double the price.<br />
R<br />
Omul cu binoclu (S, 8.II.1951, p. 2)<br />
- about a movement signalman who acts in a peculiar way: he watches<br />
through his binoculars how the work is conducted, and has an ina<strong>de</strong>quate<br />
attitu<strong>de</strong> towards the public (he doesn’t give any information, nor does he<br />
answer to any greetings).<br />
Omul cu ruleta (S, 18.II.1965, p. 4)<br />
49
- about a thief that impersonates various functions and, using the<br />
excuse of measuring an object with his measuring tape, enters people’s<br />
houses and steals various goods.<br />
Also worthy of note are the eulogistic metaphors used for the most<br />
important communist political lea<strong>de</strong>rs of the period, in the Romanian<br />
newspapers being usually very long and tiring:<br />
Metaphors for I.V. Stalin:<br />
G<br />
Stalin - Koryphäe <strong>de</strong>r Wissenschaft (NW, 7.III.1953, p. 3)<br />
Das Sowjetvolk nimmt Abschied vom grossen Führer (subtitlu) 6.<br />
März, im Säulensaal <strong>de</strong>s Hauses <strong>de</strong>r Gewerkschaften (NW, 8.III.1953, p. 1)<br />
Stalin - <strong>de</strong>r Befreier <strong>de</strong>r Völker (NW, 8.III.1953, p. 5)<br />
Das Sowjetvolk nimmt Abschied von seinem geliebten Führer<br />
(NW, 9.III.1953, p. 1)<br />
R<br />
Pe drumul luminos <strong>de</strong>schis <strong>de</strong> scumpul nostru părinte şi<br />
învăţător (S, 7.III.1953, p. 2)<br />
Marele geniu al omenirii progresiste (S, 7.III.1953, p. 2)<br />
Gloriosul făuritor al victoriilor (S, 7.III.1953, p. 2)<br />
Stegarul invincibilei lupte pentru apărarea păcii (S,<br />
8.III.1953, p. 2)<br />
Credincioşi învăţăturilor marelui corifeu al ştiinţei (S, 8.III.1953,<br />
p. 2)<br />
O figură gigantică a istoriei (S, 8.III.1953, p. 2)<br />
Îndrumătorul şi învăţătorul înţelept al oamenilor <strong>de</strong> artă<br />
(S, 8.III.1953, p. 2)<br />
Călăuza noastră cea mai <strong>de</strong> preţ (9.III.1953, p. 2)<br />
Metaphors for N. Ceausescu:<br />
R<br />
Un mare erou al păcii, promotor neobosit al i<strong>de</strong>alurilor<br />
in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nţei pe arena mondială (S, 3.IX.1989, p. 6)<br />
- title composed by enumerating many metaphors <strong>de</strong>stined for N.<br />
Ceausescu.<br />
50
After the year 1990, the process of creating proper noun metaphors<br />
still continues, this time fulfilling the role of qualifying people, mostly from<br />
fields such as sport or politics, either in a <strong>de</strong>preciative or in a eulogistic<br />
way. The ways of expression are much more permissive now, including<br />
elements from the colloquial language, words borrowed from English,<br />
together with elements that actually produce some very clever structures.<br />
G<br />
Victor Ciorbea – Rächer <strong>de</strong>r Entrechteten? (subtitlu) Warum <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Vergeltungsschlag <strong>de</strong>r PNŢCD gegen die PD (noch) nichts bewirkt hat<br />
(ADZ, 12.VI.1998, p. 3)<br />
Der Glücksstern leuchtete über Frankreich (subtitlu) Gol<strong>de</strong>n-Boy<br />
und Gol<strong>de</strong>n-Goal-Schütze Zidane will jetzt auch das EM-Gold (ADZ,<br />
1.VII.2000, p. 7)<br />
- the subtitle inclu<strong>de</strong>s two eulogistic metaphors: Gol<strong>de</strong>n-Boy and<br />
Gol<strong>de</strong>n-Goal-Schütze referring to the soccer player Zidane.<br />
„Italienischer Ikarus” stirbt bei Flugzeugabsturz (ADZ,<br />
29.III.2006, p. 7)<br />
- this metaphor refers to the Italian paragliding sportsman Angelo<br />
d’Arrigo, who died in an air crash.<br />
Leinwandheld mit stahlblauen Augen (subtitlu) Henry Fonda<br />
starb vor 25 Jahren (ADZ, 13.VIII.2007, p. 6<br />
- a metaphor for Henry Fonda.<br />
„Vater aller Bomben“ (subtitlu) Russland testet neue<br />
Vakuum-Waffe (ADZ, 14.IX.2007, p. 11)<br />
- the bomb tested in 2001 in Florida was named Mutter aller Bomben,<br />
and, by using an analogy, the Russian army has named this bomb the<br />
father of all bombs (Vater aller Bomben).<br />
Der „sanfte Gigant“ ist von uns gegangen (subtitlu) Viermaliger<br />
Diskus-Olympiasieger Al Oerter gestorben (ADZ, 3.X.2007, p. 6)<br />
- the article informs the rea<strong>de</strong>rs about the <strong>de</strong>ath of the American<br />
discobolus athlete, Al Oerter. The title, built around a metaphor with an<br />
hyperbolizing role, <strong>de</strong>r sanfte Gigant, is taken from the athlete’s wife<br />
discourse: “Al war ein sanfter Gigant, größer als das Leben.”, sagte seine<br />
Ehefrau Cathy Oerter.<br />
„Vater <strong>de</strong>r Verfassung“ gestorben (ADZ, 5.X .2007, p. 1)<br />
51
- The PSD senate member, Antonie Iorgovan, the father of the<br />
Constitution, died at the age of 59 in a hospital in Vienna.<br />
R<br />
Zeiţele sprintului din nou la start (A, 2.IV.1994, p. 8)<br />
- a reference to the athletes Gail Deyers and Marlene Ottey, both<br />
having achieved the record at the 100m sport event.<br />
(supratitlu) Primul termen în scandalul Vegas-Petroşani (titlu) Ion<br />
Cantaragiu, una dintre victimele lui Miron Cozma, şi-a retras plângerea<br />
(subtitlu) „Luceafărul huilei” caută un avocat care să-i ple<strong>de</strong>ze<br />
nevinovăţia (A, 4.IX.1996, p. 10)<br />
(supratitlu) Dacă fiul prefectului <strong>de</strong> Bihor se va întoarce în ţară<br />
(titlu) Antonie Iorgovan, tatăl hoţilor, îl va apăra pe Adrian Tărău (A,<br />
4.VI.2002, p. 14)<br />
Also in the post-totalitarian period, we can notice the release of some<br />
obsolete terms with a metaphoric value.<br />
G<br />
Lokalbarone Mischie und Ivanovici nicht dabei (ADZ, 1.V.2004, p. 1)<br />
R<br />
(supratitlu) Revenim asupra afacerii cu valută falsă „Le Baron”<br />
(titlu) Dl. Patriciu este baronul stabilimentului (subtitlu) El s-a<br />
asociat, prin „Alpha” S.A., cu societatea „Le Baron Impex Serv” S.R.L. (A,<br />
1.VI.1994, p. 1)<br />
Pajul Antonescu răscoală PNL împotriva stăpânului Stoica (A,<br />
8.VI.2002, p. 2)<br />
PSD cântăreşte avantajele şi pagubele candidaturii baronilor<br />
(subtitlu) Sechelariu şi Oprişan pe liste (A, 23.IV.2004, p. 2)<br />
(supratitlu) Niciodată terminată (titlu) Fabrica <strong>de</strong> lapte Oraviţa,<br />
mulsă <strong>de</strong> baronii locali prin „Clubul Intelectualilor” (A, 1.V.2004, p. 7)<br />
Worthy to mention are also the metaphors used for Ceausescu’s<br />
family, put into circulation right after the fall of the communist regime in<br />
Romania, and limited only to the beginning of the 1990’s. They are used<br />
only with a <strong>de</strong>preciative value, and have the role of putting the <strong>de</strong>signees<br />
in a disadvantageous light. The dysphoric effect arises from the negative<br />
meaning of the words used in the building of the tropes, and also from the<br />
52
fact that the references were ma<strong>de</strong> as accusations towards the <strong>de</strong>signated<br />
persons, from the winner’s perspective who’s Revolution was fruitful.<br />
G<br />
Der Clan erteilte Schiessbefehl (subtitlu) Aufschlussreiche Zeugnisse<br />
über die letzten Tage <strong>de</strong>r Diktatur (NW, 11.I.1990, p. 1)<br />
Öffentlicher Prozess gegen Führungsclique begonnen (NW,<br />
28.I.1990. p. 1)<br />
Aufstieg und Fall eines Conducătors (subtitlu) Wi<strong>de</strong>rstand mit<br />
Gewalt gebrochen und an eigener Despotie gescheitert (NW, 9.I.1990, p. 2)<br />
Jazz unter <strong>de</strong>m „Conducător” (subtitlu) Erinnerungen an das<br />
inoffizielle musikalische Leben in Rumänien (NW, 27.I.1990, p. 4)<br />
Hafturlaub für Bru<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>s Ex-Diktators (NW, 26.II.1992, p. 1)<br />
R<br />
„Am <strong>de</strong>monstrat paşnic şi călăii ne-au ucis” (subtitlu) Dureroasa<br />
ceremonie <strong>de</strong> la „Cimitirul Tinerilor Eroi” (A, 27.XII.1989, p. 2)<br />
„Tiranul – călău al propriului popor” (A, 28.XII.1989, p.4)<br />
Cum se aduceau din afară mărfuri <strong>de</strong> lux pentru cuplul dictatorial<br />
(subtitlu) Agenţia A.P.A. <strong>de</strong>spre ultimul voiaj al ultimului şef al<br />
reprezentanţei comerciale a României din Austria (A, 6.I.1990, p. 6)<br />
Preţul unui vot împotriva tiranului (A, 10.I.1990, p. 1)<br />
(supratitlu) Domnul Alexandru Bârlă<strong>de</strong>anu vorbeşte A<strong>de</strong>vărului<br />
(titlu) „Prostia agresivă a dictatorului m-a <strong>de</strong>terminat să părăsesc<br />
scena vieţii politice” (A, 6.I.1990, p. 1)<br />
Megalomania dictatorului şi bolile metalurgiei (subtitlu) Precizări<br />
ale ministrului industriei metalurgice, domnul Ion Cheşa (A, 10.I.1990, p.<br />
2)<br />
Sfîrşitul perechii ucigaşe – sfîrşitul unui sistem monstruos al<br />
crimei şi represiunii (subtitlu) Alături <strong>de</strong> poporul român, întreaga lume<br />
respiră uşurată (A, 27.XII.1989, p. 4)<br />
Bancherii din Scorniceşti (A, 7.I.1990, p. 4)<br />
Cum a <strong>de</strong>venit „Prinţişorul” locotenent <strong>de</strong> aviaţie (A, 7.I.1990, p. 1)<br />
2). Geographical proper noun metaphors – <strong>de</strong>scribe a common<br />
procedure through which certain countries or cities were qualified in the<br />
communist press. Their eulogistic or incriminating <strong>de</strong>piction was relative<br />
53
to whether those certain geographical regions were either geographically<br />
or politically part of the communist or capitalist bloc. The journalists<br />
would utilize nouns with positive values, or negative values respectively,<br />
to which they would attach <strong>de</strong>finitions to un<strong>de</strong>rline the meaning or further<br />
the irony.<br />
G<br />
Malaya - ein riesiges englisches Konzentrationslager (NW,<br />
28.IV.1953, p. 7)<br />
(supratitlu) Reiseeindrücke aus West<strong>de</strong>utschland (titlu) „Gol<strong>de</strong>ner“<br />
Westen (NW, 8.III.1965, p. 3)<br />
- ironic metaphor pointing to the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic of Germany.<br />
R<br />
Marea noastră învăţătoare (S, 4.II.1952, p. 2)<br />
- about the “thesaurus of teachings and experience of the Soviet<br />
Union.”<br />
Fiumicino: o uriaşă pompă aspiratoare <strong>de</strong> miliar<strong>de</strong> (S,<br />
26.I.1962, p. 3)<br />
La sud <strong>de</strong> Rio Bravo „Oaza prosperităţii” se ofileşte (S, 18.I.1969,<br />
p. 6)<br />
- about the economical crisis in Montevi<strong>de</strong>o, Uruguay.<br />
Temelii <strong>de</strong> granit (S, 1.IV.1969, p. 1)<br />
- about Macinului mountains in Dobrogea.<br />
La Singapore – în „Babilonul Tropicelor” (S,12.VII.1969, p. 6)<br />
Galaţi – metropolă a oţelului, oraşul unor noi <strong>de</strong>stine (S,<br />
8.XI.1983, p. 1)<br />
Oamenii muncii – constructori şi cronicari <strong>de</strong> istorie nouă (subtitlu)<br />
Oraşul cel nou <strong>de</strong> la porţile Deltei (S, 10.IV.1985, p. 2)<br />
- about the city of Tulcea.<br />
The metaphors used in a title for different geographical regions,<br />
<strong>de</strong>termines the geographical compound by using unsophisticated<br />
linguistic constructions, simple nominal groups, composed of a noun core<br />
and genitival or adjectival <strong>de</strong>terminants, a convenient way of conjuring<br />
the targeted object.<br />
G<br />
Kuba, die Perle <strong>de</strong>r Antillen (NW, 26.VII.1977, p. 2)<br />
54
Kairo wird in die Wüste hinein erweitert (subtitlu) Die Metropole<br />
am Nil zieht vor allem die Landbevölkerung an (NW, 15.IV.1983, p. 1)<br />
– die Metropole am Nil – metaphor for Cairo city.<br />
Ein Bermudadreieck für Lkw (subtitlu) Italien / Frankreich: 1982<br />
über 7000 Lastzüge ausgeraubt (NW, 15.IV.1983, p. 2)<br />
- ein Bermudadreieck, the Bermuda Triangle – the metaphoric<br />
expression which refers to the triangular area in the Atlantic Ocean,<br />
spotted between Miami, Bermuda, and Puerto Rico, known as a<br />
mysterious area (many people, boats and aircrafts have disappeared there<br />
in a mysterious manner), becomes a metaphor for Italy and France where<br />
over 7000 trucks were stolen.<br />
Drogenbarone regieren die Stadt <strong>de</strong>r Frühling (subtitlu) Kokain<br />
und Krieg <strong>de</strong>r Mafia: Das kolumbianische Me<strong>de</strong>llin hat mit 17 Toten pro<br />
Tag die höchste Mordrate <strong>de</strong>r Welt (NW, 21.IX.1989, p. 2)<br />
- Die Stadt <strong>de</strong>r Frühling is a metaphor for the city of Me<strong>de</strong>llin,<br />
situated north-west of Colombia, also known by the name of “The city of<br />
the never-ending spring”, because the yearly temperature over there is of<br />
approximately 22 <strong>de</strong>grees Celsius; the metaphor in the title has the role of<br />
expressive categorization.<br />
R<br />
Constelaţia „Alutus” Lumină, chimie, cultură pe Valea Oltului (S,<br />
24.VII.1977, p. 1)<br />
- the Alutus constellation <strong>de</strong>signates the four hydroelectric power<br />
plants on the river Olt, but also other big companies built in the socialist<br />
era, like the Ramnicu Valcea Industrial Compound.<br />
Început <strong>de</strong> ianuarie în cita<strong>de</strong>la muncitorească a Nicolinei (S,<br />
8.I.1985, p. 1)<br />
Se înseninează cerul peste ţinuturile bananelor? (S, 8.I.1985, p. 4)<br />
- The Lands of Bananas are the countries in Central America which, in<br />
recent years have been <strong>de</strong>aling with many problems that are affecting their<br />
economies.<br />
Tinereţea „cetăţii <strong>de</strong> foc” (S, 21.IX.1989, p. 1)<br />
- metaphor used for the city of Resita.<br />
After 1990, a <strong>de</strong>crease in metaphor usage for geographical names can<br />
be noticed, these being present mostly at the beginning of the 90’s (as a<br />
55
continuation of the old techniques of entitling). But, after overcoming the<br />
transition period, in the post-totalitarian period, a collapse of stylistic<br />
values of the geographical names can be noticed, their usage becoming one<br />
with a <strong>de</strong>notative value.<br />
G<br />
Verän<strong>de</strong>rung auf <strong>de</strong>m „Dach <strong>de</strong>r Welt” (subtitlu) Energie- und<br />
Verkehrswesen – Schlüsselfragen <strong>de</strong>r Wirtschaft im Pamir (NW,<br />
6.I.1990, p. 2)<br />
- about road building in Tajikistan, located in the western area, at the<br />
foothills of the Pamir Mountains, in Central Asia. The Pamir Mountains<br />
are a high mountain range in Central Asia, also known as the “Roof of the<br />
World”.<br />
Südafrika bejubelt historischen Sieg (subtitlu) Das Land am Kap<br />
<strong>de</strong>r guten Hoffnung wird die Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft 2010<br />
ausrichten (ADZ, 18.V.2004, p. 7)<br />
Die Straße über die Wolken (subtitlu) Die atemberauben<strong>de</strong> Fahrt<br />
über die Transfogarascher Hochstraße (ADZ, 17.VIII.2007, p. 12)<br />
- about the Transfagarasan road in Romania.<br />
R<br />
Călimani, munţii care plîng (subtitlu) 3,2 miliar<strong>de</strong> pentru o crimă<br />
ecologică fără prece<strong>de</strong>nt în Carpaţii României (A, 25.I.1990, p. 2)<br />
(supratitlu) A patra rundă <strong>de</strong> convorbiri asupra păcii în Orientul<br />
Mijlociu (titlu) Unchiul Sam îşi înăspreşte poziţia faţă <strong>de</strong> Ierusalim (A,<br />
25.II.1992, p. 6)<br />
- a metaphor for America.<br />
Buzăul: Sicilia comerţului românesc (A, 26.II.1992, p. 2)<br />
O oază a prosperităţii într-un continent al sărăciei (A,<br />
10.V.1994, p. 5)<br />
- the oasis of prosperity – a metaphor for South Africa; the continent<br />
of poverty – a metaphor for the continent of Africa.<br />
The examples given in this current work give an i<strong>de</strong>a about the<br />
methods of artistic expression specific to the journalistic language in the<br />
aforementioned <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>s. The method of using metaphors for proper<br />
personal and geographical names is present in both mentioned periods<br />
56
and newspapers, and has the purpose of presenting a social reality in a<br />
suggestive manner.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1.Ingar<strong>de</strong>n, R. (1978), Studii <strong>de</strong> estetică, Bucureşti, Editura Univers.<br />
2.Iordan, I. (1975), Stilistica limbii române. Ediţie <strong>de</strong>finitivă,<br />
Bucureşti, Editura Ştiinţifică (I ediţie: 1944).<br />
3.Irimia, D. (1986), Structura stilistică a limbii române<br />
contemporane, Bucureşti, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică<br />
4.Maingueneau, Dominique (2007), Analiza textelor <strong>de</strong> comunicare,<br />
trad. <strong>de</strong> Mariana Şovea, Iaşi, Editura Institutul European.<br />
5.Maingueneau, Dominique (2007), Pragmatică pentru discursul<br />
literar, trad. <strong>de</strong> Raluca-Nicoleta Balaţchi, Iaşi, Editura Institutul<br />
European.<br />
6.Maingueneau, Dominique (2008), Lingvistică pentru textul literar,<br />
trad. De Ioana-Crina Coroi şi Nicoleta Loredana Moroşan, Iaşi, Editura<br />
Institutul European.<br />
7.Roşca, L. (2004), Producţia textului jurnalistic, Polirom, Iaşi.<br />
8.Slama-Cazacu, T. (2000), Stratageme comunicaţionale şi<br />
manipularea, Polirom, Iaşi.<br />
9.Vişinescu, Victor (2003), Stilistica presei. Introducere în receptarea<br />
textului mediatic, Bucureşti, Editura Victor.<br />
57
THE OTHER`S (RE)WRITING OF THE NARRATIVE(S)<br />
IN JEAN RHYS` WIDE SARGASSO SEA<br />
58<br />
Aurora Goia <br />
aurora.goia@gmail.com<br />
Abstract: In 1966 Jean Rhys produced the novella “Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea”,<br />
which retells Charlotte Brontë's famous novel “Jane Eyre”, while transposing it<br />
in colonial Jamaica, and showing the negative effects of Eurpoean colonization<br />
on Caribbean culture. The narrative relies upon dream-like visions, fragmented<br />
impressions, and multiple first-person voices to create an unsettling sense of<br />
disorientation in the rea<strong>de</strong>r; but this reflects the experiences of the work's main<br />
characters. Antoinette Cosway, patterned on the character of mad creole Bertha<br />
in Jane Eyre, tries to escape her predicament as a Creole by marrying, but she<br />
finds herself in the same position as Rochester’s wife.<br />
The notion of the minority as "other" is important to postcolonial studies<br />
and to our un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the tensions at play in “Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea”. Both<br />
the black majority and white minority on the island marginalize Antoinette and<br />
her Creole family, making them outsi<strong>de</strong>rs on two fronts.<br />
Keywords: minority, Caribbean culture, colonization, <strong>de</strong>sorientation,<br />
outsi<strong>de</strong>rs, otherness<br />
The field known as "Postcolonial Studies" gained recognition as an<br />
aca<strong>de</strong>mic discipline in the 1960s, the same <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> in which Jean Rhys<br />
penned Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea. Today the novella is regar<strong>de</strong>d as one of the<br />
most famous examples to emerge from a revisionist school of literary<br />
interpretation known as "Postcolonialism." But what exactly does it mean<br />
to say that the text is a "postcolonial" revision of Jane Eyre?<br />
In brief, Rhys' work offers a retelling of part of Brontë's novel with<br />
specific attention paid to the largely negative effects of European<br />
colonization on the culture of the Caribbean. Postcolonial writing attempts<br />
to revise or correct often-accepted European-ma<strong>de</strong> historical <strong>de</strong>tails by<br />
Lecturer, “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest
providing accounts from the perspective of the colonized peoples -<br />
generally repressed minority groups. In this case, Rhys gives voice to the<br />
Brontë's Creole madwoman, a character she sympathetically reconfigures<br />
as Antoinette. By imagining Antoinette's history before being locked in the<br />
attic, the fate to which Brontë consigned her, Rhys simultaneously calls<br />
into question the racially pejorative characterization of her literary<br />
pre<strong>de</strong>cessor and indicts the once-rampant practice of colonialism. In this<br />
vein, Antoinette's nameless English husband (Brontë's Rochester)<br />
represents the <strong>de</strong>vastatingly powerful colonizer.<br />
Rhys' Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea (1966) 1 is a short but <strong>de</strong>nse literary work<br />
that becomes consi<strong>de</strong>rably more approachable when given some context.<br />
In the words of critic Anne B. Simpson, it is a text that offers "ambiguous<br />
and mutually incompatible interpretive possibilities." As such Rhys's work<br />
has been classified as a paragon of post-structuralism, a literary movement<br />
that insists upon the absence of absolute truth in the world. To be sure,<br />
Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea resists <strong>de</strong>finition to an extent that many rea<strong>de</strong>rs find<br />
frustrating. The narrative relies upon dream-like visions, fragmented<br />
impressions, incomplete sentences, and multiple first-person voices to<br />
create an unsettling overall sense of disorientation in the rea<strong>de</strong>r; this<br />
confusion in turn reflects the experiences of the work's main characters.<br />
Perhaps because of its multitu<strong>de</strong> of "interpretive possibilities," the novella<br />
has attracted a variety of critics, from feminists to <strong>de</strong>constructionists to<br />
postcolonial theorists.<br />
Undoubtedly the most important piece of contextual information<br />
about Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea is that the novella was inspired by Charlotte<br />
Brontë's famous nineteenth-century novel Jane Eyre (1847) 2 . In Jane<br />
Eyre, the eponymous heroine accepts a position as a governess at a remote<br />
country estate by the name of Thornfield Hall. She falls in love with her<br />
employer, the much-ol<strong>de</strong>r (Mr. Rochester), and eventually agrees to marry<br />
him. On the day of their nuptials, however, it comes out that Rochester is<br />
1 Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea is a 1966 postcolonial parallel novel by Dominica-born author<br />
Jean Rhys.<br />
2 Charlotte Brontë (21 April 1816 – 31 March 1855) was an English novelist and<br />
poet, the el<strong>de</strong>st of the three Brontë sisters who survived into adulthood, whose novels are<br />
English literature standards. She wrote Jane Eyre un<strong>de</strong>r the pen name Currer Bell.<br />
59
already married and is hiding his insane wife Bertha in the attic of his<br />
mansion. (This explains the evil laughter that Jane frequently hears<br />
emanating from the third story, as well as several strange inci<strong>de</strong>nts that<br />
befall the inhabitants of the house.) Jane, traumatized by the revelation of<br />
Rochester's shady past and horrified by his suggestion that she live as his<br />
mistress, flees from Thornfield, which the madwoman later burns to the<br />
ground. Bertha dies in the blaze and Rochester is temporarily blin<strong>de</strong>d but<br />
regains his vision soon after his reunion with and marriage to Jane. The<br />
two, presumably, go on to live happily ever after.<br />
Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea positions itself as a prequel to the events <strong>de</strong>scribed<br />
in Brontë's tale and offers a much more nuanced and sympathetic portrait<br />
of the Creole madwoman Bertha, whom Rhys bestows with the more<br />
becoming moniker of "Antoinette." The title of the novella refers to the<br />
elongated portion of the Atlantic Ocean that separates England and the<br />
West Indies. The work traces Antoinette's life from her early childhood<br />
years in Jamaica to her disastrous marriage to an unnamed Englishman<br />
who imprisons her in the attic of his ancestral home. The text is full of<br />
ominous foreshadowing, mostly related to Antoinette's ultimate <strong>de</strong>scent<br />
into madness and her final violent assertion of agency - setting fire to the<br />
house where she is captive.<br />
It should be noted that Rhys ma<strong>de</strong> two significant changes to the<br />
<strong>de</strong>tails of Jane Eyre as established by Brontë more than one hundred years<br />
earlier. First, she changed the time frame of the narrative, pushing<br />
Antoinette's childhood ahead by several <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>s. In Brontë's novel, which<br />
takes place between 1798 and 1808, Bertha Mason is an already a grown<br />
woman, but in Rhys's work Antoinette Cosway is still an adolescent when<br />
the story begins in 1834, one year after Emancipation. This modification<br />
enabled Rhys to emphasize the racial tensions as well as the antagonism of<br />
the natives toward the colonizer: the revised time frame places Rhys's<br />
story as an end-of-empire text, while Brontë's novel takes place at the<br />
height of British imperialism. Additionally, Rhys revised the lineage of the<br />
madwoman as outlined in Jane Eyre, making it so that Antoinette/Bertha<br />
is not related by blood to Richard Mason; instead, she is his stepsister. As<br />
60
critic Judith L. Raiskin 3 points out, this enables Rhys to introduce<br />
"Antoinette's larger 'colored' family" to the tale and thus, again, to address<br />
racial issues in a more direct manner.<br />
Race is a prevalent topic though the entirety of this story. Hybridity<br />
and colonialism are two examples of racially inspired i<strong>de</strong>as that are<br />
expressed. There are many divisions within groups of people who have the<br />
same color of skin. For example, Christophine, who acts as a sort of<br />
mother figure for Antoinette, has dark skin but is treated differently<br />
because she is not Jamaican but instead hails from the French Caribbean<br />
island of Martinique. Also, there is a clear disparity between the whites<br />
born in England and the creoles, people who live in the Caribbean and<br />
although they possess black ancestry, have white skin.<br />
In the Caribbean, there is a large population of mixed-race people,<br />
usually because white slave owners would often rape and impregnate their<br />
black female slaves. It is implied that Sandi and Daniel Cosway are born<br />
this way. Speaking of Antoinette's now <strong>de</strong>ceased father, Alexan<strong>de</strong>r Cosway,<br />
and her mother, Annette, people familiar with their past say, "And all<br />
those women! She never did anything to stop him - she encouraged him.<br />
Presents and smiles for the bastards every Christmas" (29).<br />
Finally, it is interesting to note that Antoinette and her mother do not<br />
share the same racist views as the other whites on the island. Both women<br />
un<strong>de</strong>rstand the importance of black slaves in their lives, and Antoinette<br />
seems to i<strong>de</strong>ntify more closely with the blacks in the story than the whites.<br />
Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea is an end-of-empire text that charts the downfall<br />
of English colonialism in the Caribbean, a process that began with the<br />
abolition of slavery. By moving the timeframe of the story to just after the<br />
passage of the Emancipation Acts, Rhys emphasizes this aspect of her<br />
novella. Much of the <strong>de</strong>scriptive <strong>de</strong>tail in the work serves to un<strong>de</strong>rscore<br />
this theme; for example, Coulibri Estate has fallen into a state of utter<br />
disarray and Antoinette says that she "did not remember the place when it<br />
was prosperous." Throughout the work we see the English struggling to<br />
maintain their tenuous grasp over the island while simultaneously<br />
grappling with the reality that this domain is very different from Europe.<br />
3 Judith L. Raiskin is a published editor. A published credit of Judith L. Raiskin is<br />
Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea (Norton Critical Editions).<br />
61
Rochester's intense need to control Antoinette represents the British fight<br />
to maintain economic and legal control over an area they consi<strong>de</strong>red their<br />
territory.<br />
Related to the theme of British imperialistic <strong>de</strong>cline, nostalgia plays an<br />
important role in the text from its outset. "My father, visitors, horses,<br />
feeling safe in bed - all belonged to the past," Antoinette says wistfully on<br />
the very first page, and throughout the story she longs for a return to what<br />
she remembers as the innocent and happy days of her girlhood. She<br />
remembers Coulibri as having a gar<strong>de</strong>n as "large and beautiful as that<br />
gar<strong>de</strong>n in the Bible," but laments that over time it has "gone wild." Rhys<br />
repeatedly represents the past in Biblical terms, as a state of grace from<br />
which mankind has fallen. This conception of history, however, is<br />
somewhat ironic; the time for which Antoinette yearns so <strong>de</strong>sperately is<br />
the same period in which the vast majority of the island's inhabitants were<br />
living as slaves.<br />
The notion of the minority as "other" is important to postcolonial<br />
studies and to our un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the tensions at play in Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso<br />
Sea. Both the black majority and white minority on the island marginalize<br />
Antoinette and her Creole family, making them outsi<strong>de</strong>rs on two fronts. As<br />
a result they live in a state of almost complete social isolation. "Now we are<br />
marooned," Antoinette's mother says after the <strong>de</strong>ath of her horse prevents<br />
her from leaving the grounds of the family's estate. Later she repeats that<br />
they are "abandoned, lied about, helpless." Even though she marries to get<br />
out of this predicament, Antoinette finds herself in the same position as<br />
Rochester's wife.<br />
The subjection of women to male authority is an important theme in<br />
both Charlotte Brontë's nineteenth-century novel and Jean Rhys's<br />
twentieth-century revision. Like Brontë, Rhys illustrates the painfully<br />
limited role of women in Victorian society. Antoinette, for example, is<br />
unable to free herself from Rochester's brutality because she has no<br />
financial in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce; when she married him all of the money in her<br />
dowry was given to him without condition or stipulation. Rochester<br />
represents the ultimate in patriarchal tyrants, but other male characters in<br />
the novella also display <strong>de</strong>ep-seated feelings of misogyny, including Mr.<br />
Mason and Daniel. With the possible exception of Christophine, men<br />
62
<strong>de</strong>prive all of the female characters in the text of their agency, something<br />
Rhys clearly finds <strong>de</strong>plorable.<br />
The theme of feminism and the <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce of women on men is<br />
prevalent throughout the novel. Miss Germaine and Helene <strong>de</strong> Plana, two<br />
of the young women at the convent school, represent the feminine i<strong>de</strong>als<br />
that Antoinette is meant to emulate. Such values expected of women at the<br />
time were properness, mild tempers, chastity, beauty, elegance, and good<br />
manners. Such values seem to be contradictory to what Antoinette<br />
represents, who possesses a quite fiery temper, as <strong>de</strong>monstrated by her<br />
fight with Tia at the beginning of the novel.<br />
Annette, Antoinette’s mother, attempts to use men as a means to gain<br />
financial and, as a result, social status. She marries Mr. Mason, a wealthy<br />
white man, with the hope that she may be able to escape Coulibri and<br />
return to her previous status among her peers, one of wealth, power, and<br />
importance.<br />
Antoinette marries Rochester, a white man who hopes to gain the<br />
inheritance left to Antoinette by her late father, Alexan<strong>de</strong>r Cosway. In<br />
society at this time, a single woman, no matter how wealthy, didn’t possess<br />
the same type of social power as men did. It appears as though Antoinette<br />
does truly love Rochester, but it is clear that Rochester is using Antoinette<br />
simply as a means to gain wealth. Eventually, both Antoinette and Annette<br />
are driven insane as a result of their <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce on men.<br />
Money, Rhys suggests, is the medium by which a new and legalized<br />
form of slavery has been instituted on the island now that emancipation<br />
has been granted by the British government. The inci<strong>de</strong>nts in which<br />
financial inequality sullies the emotional relationships between characters<br />
are innumerable: Tia steals Antoinette's pennies, Rochester marries<br />
Antoinette for her dowry and pays Amelie for sleeping with him, Daniel<br />
tries to extort money from Rochester in exchange for his silence, and even<br />
Antoinette attempts to use her pounds to convince Christophine to<br />
perform a black magic ritual. Without exception, the awareness of<br />
economic inequality <strong>de</strong>stroys the ties that bind the novella's characters, as<br />
those in power lord their wealth over others who are less fortunate.<br />
It is no surprise when Antoinette loses her mind in the last section of<br />
the novella. Like Rochester, rea<strong>de</strong>rs have been expecting it to happen for a<br />
63
long time. Daniel insists that both of Antoinette's parents suffered from<br />
mental maladies, and in<strong>de</strong>ed Annette displays her instability over and over<br />
in the first part of the text, first as a recluse at Coulibri and later as fiend<br />
who tries to kill her husband. Yet Antoinette's mental breakdown is not<br />
only the result of her hereditary susceptibility, Rhys suggests. The<br />
circumstances of Antoinette's upbringing and marriage - in particular her<br />
confinement in the attic in the last section - contribute to her<br />
<strong>de</strong>terioration. Rea<strong>de</strong>rs should ask themselves at what point Antoinette's<br />
conduct truly becomes "madness," as Rhys hints that insanity is at least in<br />
part a condition constructed by those in power to subordinate their<br />
inferiors. Hence female madness is closely related to patriarchy.<br />
Jean Rhys wrote Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea as an alternative version of the<br />
events <strong>de</strong>scribed in Jane Eyre; a revision in which the madwoman in the<br />
attic could tell her own si<strong>de</strong> of the story. Toward this end, perhaps the<br />
most important theme in Rhys's work is the i<strong>de</strong>a that, as Antoinette says in<br />
the text, there are always at least two si<strong>de</strong>s to every story. Critics have<br />
often asked whether Rhys's account of British colonialism is more valid<br />
than Brontë's and vice versa. Still, even within Rhys's own text there are<br />
irreconcilable differences between the different narrators' recollections of<br />
the same events. Some scholars tend to privilege Antoinette's account of<br />
her life over that offered by Rochester, but while it is tempting to do so it<br />
must also be remembered that this is exactly the type of reading that Rhys<br />
warns against. In this alternative Caribbean world, she suggests, memory<br />
is malleable and imagination is influential; reality, if it exists, is different<br />
for each individual. To attempt to discover a <strong>de</strong>finitive interpretation of<br />
Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea, then, is to make the same mistake as Mr. Rochester,<br />
ttempting to fix something that by its very nature is variable.<br />
64<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1. Frickey, Pierrette M., (1990), Critical Perspectives on Jean Rhys.<br />
Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press.<br />
2. Gilbert, Sandra M. and Susan, Gubar, (1979), The Madwoman in<br />
the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary<br />
Imagination. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
3. Gregg, Veronica Marie, (1995), Jean Rhys's Historical<br />
Imagination: Reading and Writing the Creole. Chapel Hill and London:<br />
The University of North Carolina Press.<br />
4. Gro<strong>de</strong>n, Michael and Martin Kreiswirth, eds., (1994), The John<br />
Hopkins Gui<strong>de</strong> to Literary Theory and Criticism. Baltimore and London:<br />
The Johns Hopkins University Press.<br />
5. Howells, Coral Ann, (1991), Jean Rhys. New York and London:<br />
Harvester Wheatsheaf.<br />
6. Simpson, Anne B., (2005), Territories of the Psyche: The Fiction<br />
of Jean Rhys. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.<br />
7. Staley, Thomas F., (1979), Jean Rhys: A Critical Study. London:<br />
The Macmillan Press Ltd.<br />
8. Rhys, Jean. Wi<strong>de</strong> Sargasso Sea (1966), ed. Judith L. Raiskin. New<br />
York and London: Norton, 1999.<br />
9. Peter Hulme, University of Essex. "Jean Rhys (1890-1979)." The<br />
Literary Encyclopedia. 2001-01-21. 2007-04-20.<br />
65
COMUNICĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE PREZENTATE LA<br />
CONFERINŢA INTERNAŢIONALĂ A UNIVERSITĂŢII<br />
CREŞTINE DIMITRIE CANTEMIR, CU TEMA<br />
„INTERCULTURALITATE ŞI STRATEGII COMPETIŢIONALE“<br />
Sesiunea I<br />
24-26 MAI 2012<br />
RESEARCH PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE INTERNATIONAL<br />
CONFERENCE OF DIMITRIE CANTEMIR CHRISTIAN<br />
UNIVERSITY, WITH THE TITLE:<br />
„INTERCULTURALITY AND COMPETITIONAL STRATEGY“<br />
Session I<br />
24-26 MAY 2012<br />
67
CULTURAL DIFFICULTIES IN TRANSLATIONS FROM<br />
ENGLISH INTO ARABIC<br />
Roxana Mareş <br />
mares.roxana@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract: Translation is an activity of enormous importance in the<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>rn world and has become an established area in language studies, being<br />
the main criterion for achieving communication.<br />
Consi<strong>de</strong>ring Newmark's theory that translation is an art as well as a skill<br />
and a science, three main aspects are taken into consi<strong>de</strong>ration when we talk<br />
about translation: the foreign and native cultures, the two languages and the<br />
writer and the translator.<br />
In the case of Arabic, translations are viewed from a different perspective.<br />
The knowledge of the Arabic culture is crucial for English - Arabic translation.<br />
Inaccurate translations reveal the mismatches in beliefs and cultural norms<br />
between the Western cultures and the Arab culture. The influence of culture on<br />
language heritage is manifested between i<strong>de</strong>ntity and culture. Secondly the<br />
duality of Arabic is another important aspect related to translations differences.<br />
It is useful for English – Arabic translators to be aware that differences<br />
between the two linguistic systems may cause problems in translation, for this<br />
reason the author tries to specify the most frequent linguistic errors in English –<br />
Arabic translations.<br />
Keywords: translations, difficulties, English, Arabic<br />
1.1. Introduction<br />
Communication between cultures can be achieved through translation.<br />
Through translation, people are introduced to different languages and<br />
ways of thought. It is important to un<strong>de</strong>rstand the relation between<br />
language and culture in or<strong>de</strong>r to train translators and interpreters. "What<br />
truly distinguishes translation is that it takes place in the context of the<br />
Lecturer, "<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>" Christian University, Bucharest<br />
69
elations between two cultures, two worlds of thought and perception"<br />
(Delisle 1988, 74)<br />
Newmark (1981, 183-185) argues that there is a cultural value in<br />
translation. Language is partly the reflection of a culture. Translators like<br />
linguists tend to <strong>de</strong>fine culture as the sum of people's customs and ways of<br />
thinking. Culture is heavily in<strong>de</strong>bted for its intellectual <strong>de</strong>velopment to<br />
translation. Nothing <strong>de</strong>monstrates the complexity of language and of<br />
specific texts more vividly and explicitly than translation. Further, nothing<br />
exposes good writing and bad writing as effectively as translation.<br />
Translation is important as a source of diffusion of knowledge of every<br />
kind. By un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the <strong>de</strong>velopment of every aspect of culture in other<br />
civilizations, people can also enrich their un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of their own<br />
culture.<br />
Knowledge of the target culture is crucial for successful English-Arabic<br />
translation. Poor comprehension may arise from lack of insight into the<br />
target culture. There is a mismatch in cultural norms and beliefs between<br />
the Arab and Western cultures. Each different language has its own<br />
individuality, which makes it distinctive and peculiar to the people who<br />
speak it. Words <strong>de</strong>note things and put them in a distinct category of<br />
thought.<br />
As a result, differences between languages are not only related to the<br />
linguistic system, but involve differences in the speakers' interpretation<br />
and un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the world they live in. Languages classify knowledge<br />
in various ways for the purposes of speech.<br />
1.2. Defining translations<br />
Catford (1965, 1) <strong>de</strong>fines translation as "a process of substituting a text<br />
in one language for a text in another". Thus, translation is consi<strong>de</strong>red an<br />
operation performed on languages. Catford builds his <strong>de</strong>finition on the<br />
concept of equivalence, <strong>de</strong>scribing translation as the replacement of<br />
textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another<br />
language. He consi<strong>de</strong>rs the central problem of translation to be finding<br />
target language equivalents. Catford distinguishes between full and partial<br />
translation, <strong>de</strong>pending on the extent to which the source language text is<br />
submitted to the translation process.<br />
70
According to him, translating consists, in reproducing RL (receptor<br />
language) closest natural equivalent of the SL (source language) message,<br />
first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. According to him,<br />
the basis to any discussion of principles and procedures in translation is a<br />
thorough acquaintance in the manner in which meaning is expressed<br />
through language as communication co<strong>de</strong>. He gives importance to the<br />
communicative aspects of translation. His views on translation are<br />
essentially discourse oriented with a focus on the various socio-linguistic<br />
variables, which <strong>de</strong>termine the nature of the translation. He propounds a<br />
pragmatic theory of translation by consi<strong>de</strong>ring the connotative or<br />
pragrammatic as the central focus in transforming the message from the<br />
source language to the receptor language.<br />
He says, "basic to any discussion of principles and procedures in<br />
translation is a through acquaintance in the manner in which meaning is<br />
expressed through language as a communication co<strong>de</strong> - first in terms of<br />
parts which constitute such a co<strong>de</strong>; secondly, the manner in which the<br />
co<strong>de</strong> operates; and thirdly, how such co<strong>de</strong> as language is related to other<br />
co<strong>de</strong>s. Nida in his theory of translation gives importance to the<br />
communicative aspect of translation. His view of translation is essentially<br />
discourse oriented with focus on the various socio-linguistic variables,<br />
which <strong>de</strong>termine the nature of the translating. The role of the receptor is<br />
central to his theory of translation.(Nida and Taber 1969, 31). Nida and<br />
Taber emphasize the importance of un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the original text before<br />
constructing the target language text. Nida (1964, 14) argues that<br />
"Translation is the interpretation of verbal signs of one language by means<br />
of verbal signs of another".<br />
Newmark (1981, 7) <strong>de</strong>fines translation as "a craft consisting in the<br />
attempt to replace a written message and/or a statement in one language<br />
by the same message and/or statement in another language". He (1988,5)<br />
states that "translation is ren<strong>de</strong>ring the meaning of a text into another<br />
language in the way that the author inten<strong>de</strong>d the text". Newmark (1981,18)<br />
shares Benjamin's (1932) view that translation goes beyond enriching the<br />
language and culture of a country which it contributes to, beyond renewing<br />
and maturing the life of the original text, beyond expressing and analysing<br />
71
the most intimate relationships of languages with each other and becomes<br />
a way of entry into a universal language.<br />
As a functionalist, Halliday <strong>de</strong>fines the goal of a functional theory of<br />
language as explaining linguistic structure, and linguistic phenomena, by<br />
reference to the notion that language plays a certain part in our lives; that<br />
it is required to serve certain universal types of <strong>de</strong>mand. It approaches<br />
language through text. His theory establishes six levels:<br />
-Social system: the world of abstract relations and consciousness as<br />
well as the physical world.<br />
-Register: the variety of language used in a particular situational<br />
context or the contextual dimensions of social meaning. This represents<br />
the socio-contextual or semiotic resources from a socio-cultural system,<br />
which apply in a given situation, <strong>de</strong>termining the choice of meaning<br />
options in the semantic system of language.<br />
-Semantics: register is realized by semantics. It has three functional<br />
components: i<strong>de</strong>ational, interpersonal and textual (Morley 1985, 50-81).<br />
-Lexicogrammar: this realises the semantics. It is the level of wording<br />
(Morley 1985, 49).<br />
-Phonology: this realizes lexicogran-unar. It is the level of sounding<br />
(Morley 1985, 49).<br />
-Phonetics: this is the ultimate 'output', and involves the actual<br />
sounds, which are uttered, or the physical graphic marks in writing<br />
(Morley 1985, 49).<br />
1.3. Cultural Differences between Western Culture and the<br />
Arab World<br />
Culture is the complex whole, which inclu<strong>de</strong>s knowledge, belief, art,<br />
morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities or habits acquired by man<br />
as a member of society (Taylor 1958, 1). It is the set of general meanings<br />
that people use to explain their origins, and to predict their future. Culture<br />
plays an essential role in <strong>de</strong>termining the appropriateness of linguistic<br />
units. In addition, cultural variables affect the <strong>de</strong>gree of un<strong>de</strong>rstanding<br />
between two language communities (cf. Kussmaul 1995, 65). As a result,<br />
language is an integral part of culture because the vocabulary of a language<br />
<strong>de</strong>rives its meaning from its culture. Arabic is associated with specific<br />
cultural and social norms quite different from those, associated with other<br />
72
languages. According to Sapir (1949), "environment and culture have a<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>rable influence on the language of speakers as is clearly seen in<br />
their vocabulary". Through translation, translators become transmitters of<br />
different civilizations. Inevitably to some extent, any translation will reflect<br />
the translator's own mental and cultural outlook, <strong>de</strong>spite the best of<br />
impartial intentions. Every translator has her/his own beliefs, knowledge<br />
and attitu<strong>de</strong>s. "A target language culture can also be exten<strong>de</strong>d by the<br />
introduction of new i<strong>de</strong>as and styles... the translational act may give rise to<br />
new forms of the target language" (Holman and Boase-Beier 1999, 15).<br />
Discrepancy in cultural beliefs, norms and linguistic expression between<br />
the two cultures and languages is responsible for difficulties in English/<br />
Arabic translation. Cultural differences often impose greater difficulty for<br />
translators than linguistic features such as language structure.<br />
There are often cultural gaps caused by different aspects of societies,<br />
which lead to linguistic gaps. Therefore, finding translation equivalents for<br />
cultural terms requires the bridging of the cultural and linguistic gaps and<br />
meeting rea<strong>de</strong>rs' expectations. "Translators have to be aware of the fact<br />
that rea<strong>de</strong>rs' expectations, their norms and values, are influenced by<br />
culture and that their comprehensions of utterances is to a large extent<br />
<strong>de</strong>termined by these expectations, norms and values" (Kussmaul 1995, 70).<br />
A lot of the translation difficulties discussed in this chapter are closely<br />
connected to the distinction in Arabic between Standard Arabic and<br />
colloquial Arabic r+4. .1-.3) (Dickins et al 2002, 167).<br />
Translation from English to Arabic is normally bound to be into<br />
Standard Arabic rather than colloquial Arabic. Although Arabic has<br />
colloquial equivalents for many English terms, Standard Arabic has<br />
limited terms. Standard Arabic is also intrinsically formal in register<br />
terms. So, there are almost no informal terms available in Arabic to relay<br />
informal English ones. Some of the translation problems presented in this<br />
chapter involve the interaction between cultural and linguistic problems.<br />
They often involve the lack of equivalents in Standard Arabic for certain<br />
English terms. It is the role of the translator to un<strong>de</strong>rstand the applications<br />
and connotations of words and <strong>de</strong>termine suitable equivalents in specific<br />
contexts. The translator should <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> whether to use the original term to<br />
preserve the essence of meaning of the culture-bound word or to use an<br />
73
appropriate translation equivalent. Borrowings can often be used to fill<br />
lexical gaps but they sometimes need an explanatory gloss. Sometimes, a<br />
translation equivalent shows links between languages and can bridge the<br />
lexical gap between the source and target language.<br />
General cultural background about the first three cultural aspects is<br />
provi<strong>de</strong>d. This general background illustrates a number of differences<br />
between Western, and particularly British, and Arabic cultures, which are<br />
expected to be problematic in English/Arabic translation. Some examples<br />
of translation difficulties from the research translation sample are also<br />
provi<strong>de</strong>d. Due to limitations of time and space, these texts are limited to<br />
political, social and religious aspects of culture. In fact, translation<br />
difficulties appeared in virtually all of the translated texts. These<br />
difficulties illustrate that cultural texts can pose difficulties for some<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nts of a <strong>de</strong>gree that hin<strong>de</strong>rs target rea<strong>de</strong>rs' un<strong>de</strong>rstanding. Better<br />
un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of Western culture is important for translators to overcome<br />
cultural difficulties in English/Arabic translation.<br />
1.4. Religious facts<br />
Islamic beliefs are connected with every aspect of Muslim social<br />
culture even proper names. "Mohammed" and "Abdullah" are common<br />
names in Islamic culture because they have religious significance. Many of<br />
the Muslims choose their children's names from the Quran, names of<br />
prophets, compound variations of -14a "slave", "servant" and the names of<br />
"God" or religious occasions. Parents believe that these names will bless<br />
their children. So, Arab societies are more conventional and traditional in<br />
using proper names than Western societies. It is difficult for the target<br />
language rea<strong>de</strong>r to un<strong>de</strong>rstand the religious dimensions related to such<br />
proper names. Traditional proper names may also be a good indicator of<br />
social and cultural background. For instance, urban communities have a<br />
greater ten<strong>de</strong>ncy to use new names than rural communities. Sometimes, it<br />
may be appropriate to have a footnote in the translation to explain the<br />
related social and cultural aspects or religious dimensions of proper nouns.<br />
Islamic-based greetings are another important aspect of Muslims'<br />
daily life. Expressions of good will, resignation to God, self-ingratiation<br />
and other forms of social grace have different social functions.<br />
74
1.5. Diglossia<br />
One of the first to have systematically <strong>de</strong>veloped and <strong>de</strong>fined diglossia<br />
was Ferguson in a famous article, ‘Diglossia’, 1 which appeared in the<br />
Word journal in 1959, in which he en<strong>de</strong>avoured to <strong>de</strong>fine this type of<br />
language contact through four distinct situations:<br />
- Greece: the alternation of Katharevusa and Demotic<br />
- Switzerland: the alternation of Swiss German and German<br />
- Arabic-speaking countries: the coexistence of literary and dialectal<br />
Arabic<br />
- Haiti: the alternation of Creole and French<br />
Since the first <strong>de</strong>finitions from Ferguson were reviewed and amen<strong>de</strong>d<br />
by Fishman (1971) and subsequently by many other sociolinguists over the<br />
years, we will avoid the extraneous question of whether diglossia implies<br />
that the high (H) and low (L) languages are inevitably related (Ferguson<br />
spoke of two varieties of one language). It will be quite clear that<br />
Ferguson’s analyses, which were perhaps valid in 1959, are often no longer<br />
a true <strong>de</strong>scription of the relationships between the languages he <strong>de</strong>scribed.<br />
Demotic has now completely prevailed over Katharevusa and Haitian<br />
Creole is no longer restricted to the situations assigned it by Ferguson,<br />
having progressively taken over many areas of expression.<br />
Furthermore, it is questionable whether the concept of diglossia is still<br />
actually relevant in Haiti given that approximately 90% of the population<br />
are monolingual Creole speakers while only a fringe minority of the<br />
population is actually diglossic (or possibly even bilingual).<br />
Another important aspect related to translation difficulties is diglossia<br />
(Dickins et al 2002, 167) 1 . This is a language situation in a specific speech<br />
community in which two or more varieties of the same language exist si<strong>de</strong><br />
by si<strong>de</strong>. One of them is a "high" variety that is used in formal situations<br />
such as Mo<strong>de</strong>rn Standard Arabic. The other is informal and colloquial. The<br />
colloquial variety typically varies consi<strong>de</strong>rably between speech<br />
communities (Johnson & Johnson 1999, 97) 2 . Certainly, there are great<br />
1 Dickins, J., Hervey, S. and Higgins, I. Thinking Arabic translation: a course in<br />
translation method: Arabic to English, 2002, Routledge, UK., p. 167<br />
2 Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. Learning together and alone: Cooperative,<br />
competitive, and individualistic learning, 1999, p.97<br />
75
similarities between the speech forms of communities which are near to<br />
each other geographically, but variations between areas which are further<br />
apart can be so great that some linguistic forms that are used in one<br />
community may not be un<strong>de</strong>rstood in another region. This linguistic<br />
phenomenon gives rise to certain difficulties in English-Arabic translation.<br />
Arab translators may un<strong>de</strong>rstand formal English but they may not<br />
un<strong>de</strong>rstand colloquial English, for example, "canny" in Newcastle<br />
(Geordie) means friendly.<br />
It is useful for English/Arabic translators to be aware of the<br />
differences between the Arabic and English linguistic systems, since<br />
differences between the two linguistic systems may cause problems in<br />
translation.<br />
76<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1. Catford, J. (1965), A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford<br />
University Press. UK.<br />
2. Delisle, J. (1988), Translation: An interpretive approach.<br />
University of Ottawa Press. Canada.<br />
3. Dickins, J. and Watson, J. (1999), Standard Arabic: an advanced<br />
course. Cambridge University Press. UK.<br />
4. Dickins, J. (2000), Arabic. In Encyclopaedia of language teaching<br />
and learning. Byram, M. (ed.). Routledge. UK.<br />
5. Halliday, M. (1985), An introduction to functional grammar.<br />
Arnold. UK<br />
6. Holman, M. and Boase-Beier, J. (1999), Writing, rewriting and<br />
translation through constraint to creativity. In The practices of literary<br />
translation: Constraints and creativity. Holman, M. (ed.). St. Jerome. UK.<br />
7. Kussmaul, P. (1995), Training the translator. Benjamins. The<br />
Netherlands<br />
8. Newmark, P. (1981), Approaches to translation. Language and<br />
teaching series. Pergamon. UK.<br />
9. Newmark, P.(1988), A textbook of translation. Prentice Hall. UK.<br />
10. Newmark, P. (1991), About translation. Multilingual Matters. UK.
11. Newmark, P. (1993), Paragraphs on translation. Multilingual<br />
Matters. UK.<br />
12. Newmark, P. (1998), More paragraphs on translation.<br />
Multilingual Matters. UK.<br />
13. Newmark, P., et al (1999), Word, text, translation. Multilingual<br />
Matters. UK<br />
14. Nida, E. (1964a), Towards a science of translating with special<br />
reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translation. Brill.<br />
Lei<strong>de</strong>n<br />
15. Nida, E. (1964b), Linguistics and ethnology in translation<br />
problems. In Language and culture and society. Dell, H. (ed.). Harper and<br />
Row. UK.<br />
16. Nida, E. and Taber, R. (1969), The theory and practice of<br />
translation. Brill. Lei<strong>de</strong>n<br />
17. Sapir, E. (1949), Language and environment. In Selected writings<br />
of Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality. University of<br />
California Press. USA.<br />
18. Sapir, E. (1949), The status of linguistics as a science. Selected<br />
writings of Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality. University<br />
of California Press. USA.<br />
77
78<br />
YOUNG PEOPLE’S LANGUAGE IN ROMANIA:<br />
FROM MARGINALIZATION TO<br />
INTERNATIONALISATION <br />
Aida Ferencz <br />
aidaferencz@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract: Linguistic research concerning the lexical innovations in the<br />
speech of young Romanians, as well as research on its dynamics within the<br />
frame of Romanian language has occurred in several stages. The first period<br />
(approximately 1920-1950), is characterized by the willingness of linguists to<br />
draw up word lists recording the word circulated by the adolescents of the time,<br />
as well as to study and analyse this variety of speech. With the advent of<br />
communism regime in Romania, juvenile language is no longer recor<strong>de</strong>d, it is<br />
marginalized being consi<strong>de</strong>red dangerous for the „purity” of the Romanian<br />
language. After 1990, and the overthrowing of the communist regime,we<br />
witness an unprece<strong>de</strong>nted expansion, and internationalization of the juvenile<br />
language, a situation to which internet and mass media contributed largely.<br />
Keywords: language, youth, dynamics, communist regime,<br />
marginalization, internationalization.<br />
In Romania, unlike other European countries, the interest of linguists<br />
was not constantly directed toward analyzing and studying the language of<br />
pupils and stu<strong>de</strong>nts in the school environment, or outsi<strong>de</strong> of it, nor was<br />
there any systematic research concerning its dynamics in the Romanian<br />
language. 1<br />
Translated into English by Andreea Bularda<br />
Lecturer PhD. “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest<br />
1 Cf. in this sense, Rodica Zafiu, Diversitate stilistică în româna actuală, Bucureşti,<br />
Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, 2001, pp. 194-201, Adriana Stoichiţoiu-Ichim,<br />
Vocabularul limbii române actuale. Dinamică, influenţe, creativitate, Bucureşti, All,<br />
pp.119-120, Miorita Baciu Got, Argoul românesc. Expresivitate şi abatere <strong>de</strong> la normă,<br />
Bucureşti, Corint, 2006.
However, as early as the first <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>s of the 20 th century articles and<br />
studies were written, and word lists recording the words circulated by the<br />
adolescents of the period were drawn up. The study of a peripheral<br />
segment of language such as young people’s language, usually neglected or<br />
sanctioned by linguists, proved difficult for two main reasons. The<br />
difficulties consisted mainly in the lack of attestations in the<br />
lexicographical records, which led to the total loss of many elements of<br />
young people’s language from the period prior to the beginning of the 20 th<br />
century. Secondly, to this situation which makes the diachronic study of<br />
this segment of language more difficult, is ad<strong>de</strong>d the extremely rapid<br />
rhythm with which this language is renewed and its volatile character.<br />
A possible periodization – suggested by the bibliography I studied – of<br />
the recor<strong>de</strong>d terms and of the research concerning the language spoken by<br />
young people in Romania could inclu<strong>de</strong> three distinct moments, which,<br />
although discontinuous, provi<strong>de</strong> a linguistic material whose elements<br />
overlap and influence each other, and show the vitality and continuity of<br />
this type of language.<br />
I. In the 20 th century, in the 1920-1950 period there was a constant<br />
though weak interest for the research of juvenile slang, materialized in a<br />
small number of articles and collections realized by amateurs, published<br />
mainly in the magazine A<strong>de</strong>vărul literar şi artistic and in a few studies<br />
published in the Buletinul Institutului <strong>de</strong> Filologie Românã “Alexandru<br />
Philippi<strong>de</strong>” (Journal of the “Alexandru Philippi<strong>de</strong>” Institute of Romanian<br />
Philology).<br />
Although limited in number, those attestations represent an image of<br />
the young Romanian people’s speech from the respective period – a vivid<br />
and colourful language – giving very useful information from a linguistic<br />
point of view. Moreover, a very interesting thing which <strong>de</strong>serves to be<br />
pointed out is the fact that the researchers’ attitu<strong>de</strong> towards their object is<br />
not at all polemic.<br />
The recor<strong>de</strong>d terms, together with the explanations given by the<br />
authors of the articles are important for the dynamic and the mechanisms<br />
which lead to the formation of these terms, illustrating the way in which<br />
tradition and innovation intertwine in the language of young people.<br />
Additionaly, we appreciate their documentary value and we do not exclu<strong>de</strong><br />
79
the hypothesis that today’s youths be surprised by the age of some terms<br />
which are still circulating today, when reading these articles.<br />
The first attestations in this period date from 1923 and belong to a<br />
certain G. Saul. He ma<strong>de</strong> a list of 17 terms and expressions that <strong>de</strong>signate<br />
metaphorically the various marks, belonging to pupils’ language (for<br />
example, starting from analogies of the shape of the figures, the balloon is<br />
0; the stick/ the match is 1; the humpback is 3; the royal chair is 4).<br />
From the same year we have a <strong>de</strong>tailed inventory belonging to Nicu<br />
Marinescu 2 of the words and expressions used by pupils at school as well<br />
as a short list of terms circulated by pupils, drawn up and published in the<br />
same magazine by Constant G. Grigorescu 3 .<br />
In 1935, after almost 12 years since the publication of these articles, in<br />
the review ma<strong>de</strong> for Alexandru Graur’s study „Les mots tsiganes en<br />
roumain”, the linguist Iorgu Iordan 4 makes the observation that poupils<br />
and stu<strong>de</strong>nts borrow words from gypsy language, ennumerating a few of<br />
them: baftă, baftangiu, băşcălie, biştari, ciricliu (pasăre), gagiu<br />
(romanian), man<strong>de</strong>a, mişto, mucles, nasol, nasulie.<br />
Gheorghe Agavriloaiei 5 continues the research in this direction and<br />
records the special language of boarding-house stu<strong>de</strong>nts, noticing that it is<br />
influenced by other slangs: military slang, porters, and pickpockets. The<br />
slang words used by stu<strong>de</strong>nts age more slowly than terms in other slangs,<br />
the author remarks, “because the life of these words is, first of all, coloured<br />
by the affective element so strong and somehow the same with all the<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nts that pass through these schools and boarding schools. These<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nts will always have feelings of fear, hate, disdain, insatisfaction,<br />
admiration and so on for the teachers and housemasters, feelings that<br />
strongly colour every expression from their slang” 6 . The author goes on<br />
2 Nicu Marinescu, “Argot-ul şcolăresc”, A<strong>de</strong>vărul literar şi artistic, nr.121, of 18<br />
march 1923, p.5 şi nr. 122, din 25 martie 1923.<br />
3 Constant Grigorescu, “Contribuţii la argot-ul şcolăresc”, A<strong>de</strong>vărul literar şi artistic,<br />
nr.126, 1923, p.5.<br />
4 Iorgu Iordan, Recenzie la Alexandru Graur, „Les mots tsiganes en roumain“, în<br />
Buletinul Institutului <strong>de</strong> Filologie Română “Alexandru Philippi<strong>de</strong>”, I, 1935, pp. 271-279.<br />
5 Gheorghe Agavriloaiei, “Din argot-ul şcolarilor”, în Buletinul Institutului <strong>de</strong><br />
Filologie Română “Alexandru Philippi<strong>de</strong>”, IV, 1937, pp. 137-150<br />
6 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p.138.<br />
80
aptly noticing that the expressions and words are transmited from one<br />
class to another, from one generation to another, and some of them “enter<br />
the familiar language and even the literary Romanian language” 7 .<br />
Dumitru Florea-Rarişte 8 minutely records terms and usual expressions<br />
from the pupils’ language, and mostly from the stu<strong>de</strong>nts’ language (boboc,<br />
boboacă, bobociţă first year stu<strong>de</strong>nt male/female), but also greetings,<br />
various rhyming constructions or formulas used to mock the canting in the<br />
newspapers of the period.<br />
Elements belonging to the juvenile lexic from this period can be found<br />
not only in the studies of linguists, but also in the works of many writers of<br />
the period, who appreciated the humour, the pitoresque and the<br />
colourfulness of young people language: Mircea Elia<strong>de</strong> (Romanul<br />
adolescentului miop), George Călinescu (Cartea nunţii), Grigore Băjenaru<br />
(Cişmigiu & comp., Bună dimineaţa, băieţi!), Ionel Teodoreanu (La<br />
Me<strong>de</strong>leni, În casa bunicilor), Ion Minulescu (Corigent la limba română),<br />
Tudor Muşatescu (Profesorul <strong>de</strong> franceză), Mihail Drumeş (Elevul Dima<br />
dintr-a şaptea), Gib Mihăescu (Zilele şi nopţile unui stu<strong>de</strong>nt întârziat) etc.<br />
Best-sellers of the period, written with lyricism, but also with a lot of<br />
humour, the above mentioned literary works prove to be very important<br />
for the linguistic attestations of young people’s language – mo<strong>de</strong>rn,<br />
cheerful, allusive – from the interwar period.<br />
II. With the coming to power of the communist dictatorship, after a<br />
period of intense politization, there was a constant control in linguistics<br />
from the political sphere.<br />
The linguistic policy of the over 40 years of the communist regime<br />
consisted of obsessive attention for the correctness of language and of<br />
constantly rejecting the substandard urban variants, especially of slang<br />
and of terms consi<strong>de</strong>red vulgar. Treated as the language of groups that<br />
have an outlawish character, unbecoming the communist morality, slang<br />
was marginalized, also as it was running against the homogeneity and<br />
7 The author observes that young people’s speech, born from a need to manifest<br />
one’s belonging to a certain groups well as from a ludic and fron<strong>de</strong>ur spirit that are<br />
characteristic of the young, is changing at a much quicker pace than other argots, being<br />
always on the look for fresh expressive forms.<br />
8 Dumitru Florea-Rarişte, „Din limbajul şcolarilor (stu<strong>de</strong>nţi şi elevi)”, in Buletinul<br />
Institutului <strong>de</strong> Filologie Română “Alexandru Philippi<strong>de</strong>”, V, 1938, pp. 194-229.<br />
81
purity of the Romanian language9 . For instasnce, in 1980, in the preface of<br />
the Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terminology,<br />
Constantinescu-Dobridor specified that „The action of cultivating the<br />
Romanian language narrows the domani of these elements (i.e. slang) ,<br />
forcing them to ultimately dissapear together with the old mentalities” 10 .<br />
Despite the fact that it was marginalized and igonred for a few <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>s<br />
(when it was not downright con<strong>de</strong>mned), and that it had a narrow<br />
communicational area, juvenile slang survived and continued to <strong>de</strong>velop. A<br />
good proof of this are the observations regarding stu<strong>de</strong>nt slang and lists of<br />
terms and expressions from the articles published by Coman Lupu11 , Mihai<br />
Petre12 and Alexandru Niculescu13 . Even if they don’t do justice to the<br />
expressivity and variety and colorfulness of stu<strong>de</strong>nts’ language during this<br />
period,, the above mentioned studies record some usual expresions from<br />
the stu<strong>de</strong>nt life: bandist (stu<strong>de</strong>nt who eats in the canteen, from the<br />
„bandă”, the conveyor belt), holist (stu<strong>de</strong>nt who spends most of his time<br />
on the university halls), fomist, blugi, sgubilitic, bac, dirig/-ă, prof/-ă,<br />
cas, mag , a avea o boabă (to have a re-examination), a avea o înfăţişare<br />
(to have an exam), a băga nasoale (to slan<strong>de</strong>r), a-şi vopsi un examen (to<br />
have someone put in a good word for an exam), dat <strong>de</strong> gol (compromised<br />
person, good for nothing), oameni noi din ’52 (old people).<br />
In his article, Mihai Petre classifies the words and expressions from<br />
juvenile language in four segments:<br />
words and expressions relating to professional training: a fi în<br />
pom/aer/plop, synonymic expressions for a fi aerian/pomicol/arboricol<br />
(ato be unprepared for an exam); exmatriculită (“the disease” of stu<strong>de</strong>nts<br />
on the verge of expulsion); explicanol, intervenţinol (“medicine”<br />
recommen<strong>de</strong>d in case of „exmatriculita”); loterie (exam); olimpiadă,<br />
9 Rodica Zafiu, Limbaj şi politică, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, 2007.<br />
10 Gh. Constantinescu-Dobridor, Mic dicţionar <strong>de</strong> terminologie lingvistică,<br />
Albatros, Bucureşti, 1980, p. 38.<br />
11 Coman Lupu, “Observaţii asupra argoului stu<strong>de</strong>nţesc”, in Limbă şi literatură,<br />
Anul XVII, no.3, 1972, pp. 349-351.<br />
12 Petre Mihai, “Noi contribuţii la studiul argoului stu<strong>de</strong>nţesc”, in Limba Română,<br />
Anul XXVII, no.5, 1978, pp.489-494.<br />
13 Alexandru Niculescu, “Umor lingvistic tineresc”, in România literarâ, anul XII,<br />
no.29, 1979, p.9.<br />
82
septembriadă (the fall exam session); pepecist (stu<strong>de</strong>nt who goes to the<br />
exam hoping that “maybe something falls”);<br />
words and expressions relating to the stu<strong>de</strong>nt dormitory and<br />
canteen: brontozaur, talpă, cauciuc (very tough beef meat served at the<br />
canteen); O.Z.N. (chicken meat served at the canteen); potol (food); potol<br />
greţos (good food); potol nasol (bad food); a potoli (to eat);<br />
words and expressions pertaining to the relations among stu<strong>de</strong>nts:<br />
Alifia, Sulfamida (Pharmacy Department); Zerotehnie (Zootechnical<br />
Department); Sorbona (The Three Year Pedagogical Institute); a umbla cu<br />
bancuri/minuni/poante/scheme/tromboane (to speak empty word, to talk<br />
nonsense);<br />
words and expressions concerning stu<strong>de</strong>nts’ sports activity:<br />
cartonar (football referee); chiflă (a wrong pass in football); a chifla (to<br />
make a wrong pass); dresor (coach, trainer).<br />
The attestations from this period are limited by and large to the<br />
instances from school environment, and the young people’s ten<strong>de</strong>ncy to<br />
oppose the fixed and rigid formulas imposed by the official style shunned,<br />
however, constantly and <strong>de</strong>liberately the vulgar words, or those borrowed<br />
from the un<strong>de</strong>rworld or from gypsy language.<br />
The writers of the period, just like the prewar ones, reproduced in the<br />
books for young people elements of juvenile language, however, without<br />
the more coloured expressions that circulated in the teenagers groups in<br />
schools and highschools. Of <strong>de</strong>finite relevance are the cases of writers<br />
Constantin Chiriţă, author of the Cireşari cycle, whose novels had a huge<br />
success and were reprinted several times, and George Nicolae Şovu, whose<br />
novels <strong>de</strong>picting the adolescents world are remiscent of the popular<br />
literature of the pre-war period.<br />
III. The radical social and political changes occurring after 1989 are<br />
naturally reflected also in the linguistic domain, both in the usage of<br />
Romanian in general as well as in young people’s language, which acquired<br />
totally new dimensions and expan<strong>de</strong>d in an unprece<strong>de</strong>nted manner. After<br />
a hiat of several <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>s when the slang was ostracized by the totalitarian<br />
regime and neglected by researchers, after 1989 appeared many articles<br />
and studies and even many dictionaries that record and explain terms<br />
83
elonging to the Romanian argot 14 among which many belong to young<br />
people’s language. Linguists and researchers start to focus on this age<br />
group who, once freed from the restrictions imposed by communism, and<br />
haviong access to information (television, publications, movies) and to the<br />
Internet, started to integrate itself in the ample process of<br />
internationalization of juvenile culture.<br />
The year 1990 will <strong>de</strong>finitely remain as the year of the strongest<br />
political youth coagulation, in the form of the University Plaza protest, the<br />
year of the so called (by the press) Golaniada, which ad<strong>de</strong>d a new meaning<br />
to the term Golan (“tramp”), namely, “participant to the anticommunist<br />
<strong>de</strong>monstration of Piata Universitatii” 15 . On the 28 of april 1990 will sound<br />
for the first time the „Hymn of the Tramps”: „Better be a bum and a tramp<br />
than a traitor,/ Better be a hooligan than a dictator/ Better a tramp than a<br />
Party activist/ Better be <strong>de</strong>ad than be a communist”.<br />
Since 1990 start to appear youth magazines (Bravo, Popcorn, Cool<br />
girl) whose articles are saturated with anglicisms, largely non assimilated<br />
phonetically and morphologically within the structure of Romanian (e. g.<br />
cover. maxi-single, outfit, boar<strong>de</strong>r, casting, girl-power, fitness), but with<br />
a huge impact on juvenile language. Borrowings from mvarious languages,<br />
especially English, are explained by the fact that adolescents feel the need<br />
to be in contact with the other youths in the world: the country of one’s<br />
origin is felt as a too small reality, much too limited by comparison with<br />
their aspirations; lexical borrowing thus serves as a key element of a<br />
subculture whose primary goal is to surpass the provincial dimension.<br />
14 Cf. Ştefan Nimară, Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> argou englez-român, Bucureşti, Paco, 1993;<br />
Traian Tandin, Limbajul infractorilor, Bucureşti, Editura Paco, 1993; Constantin Frosin,<br />
Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> argou francez-român, Bucureşti, Nemira, 1996; Ştefan Balaban, Dicţionar<br />
<strong>de</strong> argou, eufemisme şi expresii familiare, englez-român, Bucureşti, Teora, 1996; Ioan<br />
Lăzărescu, Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> argou şi limbaj colocvial german-român, Bucureşti, Ed.<br />
Niculescu, 1996; Nina Croitoru Bobârniche, Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> argou al limbii române,<br />
Slobozia, Ed. Arnina, 1996; Florica Dimitrescu, Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> cuvinte recente, ed. a II-a,<br />
Bucureşti, Logos, 1997; Anca Volceanov, George Volceanov, Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> argou şi<br />
expresii familiare ale limbii române, Bucureşti, Livpress, 1998; Dan Dumitrescu,<br />
Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> argou francez-român, Bucureşti, Teora, 1998; Nicolae Luca, 1999:<br />
Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> argou şi expresii colocviale italian-român, Bucureşti, Sempre, 1999; George<br />
Volceanov, Dictionar <strong>de</strong> argou al limbii romane, Bucureşti, Editura Niculescu, 2007.<br />
15 Florica Dimitrescu, Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> cuvinte recente, ed. a II-a, Bucureşti, Logos, 1997.<br />
84
Consequently, the lexical borrowings after 1990 represented not only the<br />
will of young people to open to the exterior and assert a cosmopolitan<br />
spirit, but also an escape from provincialism, coming out of the peripheric<br />
areas of juvenile speech in or<strong>de</strong>r to acce<strong>de</strong> to international status.<br />
Neologistic borrowings present in today’s Romanian juvenile speech<br />
are coming largely from English. More than just the <strong>de</strong>sire to be in contact<br />
with young people’s culture around the world, Romanian adolescents are<br />
strongly influenced by American culture. The americanization of musical<br />
and cultural trends and of behavioral patterns represents a macroscopic<br />
phenomenon with important influences on juvenile language throughout<br />
all of Europe.<br />
Anglicisms and americanisms adopted massively in juvenile language<br />
are explained by the importance of anglo-american culture, which has the<br />
last word in fashion, music and behavior for the young Europeans, and not<br />
only for them. Thus youths anywhere in the world, irrespective of the<br />
traditions and language of their country, can recognize and adopt these<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>ls of their generation and feel united with the other youths in the<br />
world. There are various signs of recognition, not only linguistic ones:<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>ls of dressing, haircuts, as well as the grand collective rituals (such as<br />
concerts, pacifist <strong>de</strong>monstrations, no-global, sports contests, flash-mobs),<br />
which promote the myths in music, cinema and sport and constitute<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>ls of life for the youths. This international dimension of juvenile<br />
speech and implicitly, of communication between young people<br />
<strong>de</strong>termines the formation of their tastes, the hierarchy of their values and<br />
above all their solidarity.<br />
Post 1990 were also assimilated frenetically various music styles (rock,<br />
punk, hip-hop, <strong>de</strong>peche), i<strong>de</strong>ntifiable in everyday life by dressing co<strong>de</strong>s,<br />
insignia, gestures and actions. The need to i<strong>de</strong>ntify with certain values, the<br />
passion for one or another musical style <strong>de</strong>termined many Romanian<br />
youths to turn those styles into a life style, and become one with the<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>ls of the respective musical culture. Depeche Mo<strong>de</strong>, which few people<br />
had heard of before the Revolution, had the strongest impact on<br />
highschoolers in the beginning of the ’90-ies. Thus appeared the<br />
<strong>de</strong>pecharii, and with them a new word - <strong>de</strong>pechar/<strong>de</strong>peşar, fan of Depeche<br />
Mo<strong>de</strong> – a new haircut (the hair cut short from the level of the ears up), the<br />
85
outfits that imitate the band style, jeans and leather jackets, the boots with<br />
a metal plate on the tip, the so-called gogoşari, the red rose, one of the<br />
symbols of the band. The phenomenon expan<strong>de</strong>d and in Bucharest was<br />
opened the first <strong>de</strong>peşotecă, „<strong>de</strong>pechoteque”, in the „Power” club,<br />
frequented by almost 300 <strong>de</strong>pechars every night. Almost at the same time<br />
appeared the first Romanian hip-hop bands (R.A.C.L.A., M&G, Paraziţii,<br />
Demonii, Black Un<strong>de</strong>rground, followed by Il-egal, Morometzii, Delikt,<br />
Gangsta Clique, Ghetto Birds and later by B.U.G. Mafia, La Familia and<br />
others), which gave prominence not to the music but to the words – lyrics<br />
with amarked social and protest character, a direct tone, and an obscene<br />
language preferred by the youths from the periphery, the slums, who are<br />
taken into drug, theft or prostitution rackets. The central element of<br />
hip-hop is free thinking and expression, raising questions about the<br />
miserable existence as well as gross insults, but also the pri<strong>de</strong> of being able<br />
to make a living in this way, pri<strong>de</strong> doubled by a disdain for everybody who<br />
is outsi<strong>de</strong> the slums. In this way, at the end of the ’90-ies, in the speech of<br />
young people, as well as in the colloquial one and in slang entered the<br />
expressions with superlative meaning băiat <strong>de</strong> băiat, fată <strong>de</strong> fată, marfă<br />
<strong>de</strong> marfă 16 .<br />
As for the writers who were inspired by the juvenile world in this last<br />
period, reproducing in their novels argotic elements as well as words<br />
circulated by youths, we can mention Adrian Şchiop and Dragoş Bucurenci<br />
with RealK, a novel about drugs, and Cecilia Ştefănescu with Legături<br />
bolnăvicioase, a novel about lesbian relations.<br />
After 1990 also appeared many private radio stations that gave the<br />
word to the listeners, broadcasted live events and took interviews on the<br />
street and organized <strong>de</strong>bates. Free access, the lack of communist<br />
censorship, the direct interventions from these shows, including those of<br />
young people, brought to the fore and spread across the country the terms<br />
and expressions created by the latter. Thus they were known and adopted<br />
by yopuths in all of Romania. This is the reason why linguists have started<br />
to follow up and study the way in which young people speak and the<br />
magnitu<strong>de</strong> with which the mo<strong>de</strong>l imposed by these spreads in all the<br />
country.<br />
86<br />
16 Cf. Rodica Zafiu, op. cit., pp. 251-252.
The contemporary period can be <strong>de</strong>fined as one of many coexisting<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>ls, tastes, ten<strong>de</strong>ncies. In recent years the speech of young people has<br />
entered the focus of linguists preoccupations because sociology has<br />
discovered how important juvenile culture is within society, culture in<br />
general and mass-media. Many publications for the young, television<br />
shows and the advertising business use words belonging to the juvenile<br />
speech. Juvenile culture and especially language, spoken or written in text<br />
messages or internet mediated socializing networks, has gradually become<br />
internationalized, has become a topic of research, investigated with<br />
multiple methods and from various points of view.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1. Agavriloaiei, Gheorghe, (1937), “Din argot-ul şcolarilor”, In<br />
Buletinul Institutului <strong>de</strong> Filologie Română “Alexandru Philippi<strong>de</strong>”, IV, pp.<br />
137-150.<br />
2. Baciu Got, Mioriţa, (2006), Argoul românesc. Expresivitate şi<br />
abatere <strong>de</strong> la normă, Bucureşti, Corint<br />
3. Florea-Rarişte, Dumitru, (1938), „Din limbajul şcolarilor (stu<strong>de</strong>nţi<br />
şi elevi)”, In Buletinul Institutului <strong>de</strong> Filologie Română “Alexandru<br />
Philippi<strong>de</strong>”, V, pp. 194-229.<br />
4. Grigorescu, Constant, (1923), “Contribuţii la argot-ul şcolăresc”,<br />
A<strong>de</strong>vărul literar şi artistic, nr.126, p.5.<br />
5. Iordan, Iorgu, (1935), Recenzie la Alexandru Graur, „Les mots<br />
tsiganes en roumain“, In Buletinul Institutului <strong>de</strong> Filologie Română<br />
“Alexandru Philippi<strong>de</strong>”, I, pp. 271-279.<br />
6. Iordan, Iorgu, (1948), Limba română actuală. O gramatică a<br />
„greşelilor”, ed. a II-a, Bucureşti, (ed. I: 1943).<br />
7. Iordan, Iorgu, (1975), Stilistica limbii române, Bucureşti, Editura<br />
Ştiinţifică, (ed. I: 1944).<br />
8. Lupu, Coman, (1972), “Observaţii asupra argoului stu<strong>de</strong>nţesc”, In<br />
Limbă şi literatură, XVII, nr.3, pp. 349-351.<br />
9. Marinescu, Nicu, “Argot-ul şcolăresc”, A<strong>de</strong>vărul literar şi artistic,<br />
nr.121, from 18 march 1923, p.5 and no. 122, of 25 march 1923.<br />
87
10. Mihai, Petre, (1978), “Noi contribuţii la studiul argoului<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nţesc”, în Limba Română, Anul XXVII, nr.5, pp.489-494.<br />
11. Mihăilescu, Vintilă, (2009), Etnografii urbane. Cotidianul văzut<br />
<strong>de</strong> aproape, Bucureşti, Polirom.<br />
12. Niculescu, Alexandru, (1979), “Umor lingvistic tineresc”, în<br />
România literară, XII, no.29, p.9.<br />
13. Saul, G., (1923), “Argot-ul şcolăresc”, A<strong>de</strong>vărul literar şi artistic,<br />
no. 118 of 23 februry 1923, p.4.<br />
14. Slave, Elena, (1959), “Delimitarea argoului”, in Probleme <strong>de</strong><br />
lingvistică generală (editor Al.Graur), vol. I, Bucureşti, Editura<br />
Aca<strong>de</strong>miei, pp. 109-118.<br />
15. Stoichiţoiu Ichim, Adriana, (2001), Vocabularul limbii române<br />
actuale. Dinamică, influenţe, creativitate, Bucureşti, All.<br />
16. Urusiuc, Ion, (2008), “Natura semiotico-gramaticalã a limbajului<br />
virtual scris al sms-uri- lor“ în Revista <strong>de</strong> Ştiinţă şi Cultură Limba<br />
Română, nr. 3-4, XVII, Chişinău, pp. 153-154.<br />
17. Zafiu, Rodica, (2001), Diversitate stilistică în româna actuală,<br />
Bucureşti, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti.<br />
18. Zafiu, Rodica, “Argou on-line“, România literară, Nr. 6/23<br />
february 2007.<br />
88
CREATIVE TOOLS FOR ADDRESSING<br />
INTERCULTURAL CONFLICTS<br />
Ioana Tinela Huza <br />
tinela1981@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract: Cultural differences often lead to conflicts because they influence<br />
working and communication styles, attitu<strong>de</strong>s and individual values. The<br />
symbolic level of the conflict is most difficult to address because, while material<br />
interests and power asymmetries can be noticed and acknowledged by the<br />
parties, cultural issues, connected to unconscious ways of knowing, are not<br />
easily perceived. Therefore, addressing the symbolic dimension of conflicts<br />
implies using creative tools, with symbolic significance, such as storytelling,<br />
metaphors, rituals and images, able to contribute to the acknowledgement of<br />
cultural sensibilities and the creation of common frames of symbols and<br />
meanings.<br />
Keywords: intercultural conflict, symbolic level of conflict, cultural values,<br />
cultural frames, creativity<br />
In different groups and organizations where people collaborate to<br />
achieve common goals (study groups, professional organizations,<br />
companies, teams, research collaborations or alliances of various kinds),<br />
conflicts may arise from the interaction between people with different<br />
views, goals, values or perceptions.<br />
Cultural differences often lead to conflict because they <strong>de</strong>termine the<br />
working styles, communication, attitu<strong>de</strong>s and individual values. In some<br />
cases, they may interfere with competition for resources and / or power<br />
within the group.<br />
Generally, there are three levels of conflict: material, relational and<br />
symbolic. Conflict can occur at one of these levels or refer to a combination<br />
of more of them. In this case, un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the symbolic dimension,<br />
Assistant “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest<br />
89
elated to the cultural i<strong>de</strong>ntities and perspectives on the world, is essential<br />
to prevent and mitigate escalating a conflict situation. In general, it is<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>red that the symbolic level of conflict is the most difficult to<br />
address because, while material interests and power asymmetries can be<br />
seen and recognized by the parties, cultural characteristics, being rooted in<br />
the sub-conscious, are more difficult to <strong>de</strong>cipher 1 .<br />
In fact, it is consi<strong>de</strong>red that the most notorious international conflicts,<br />
such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the conflicts that accompanied the<br />
disintegration of Yugoslavia or the conflict between India and Pakistan<br />
over Kashmir, owe their complexity to the fact that they are not only about<br />
territorial or political issues, but mainly about irreconcilable differences<br />
rooted in representing and legitimising i<strong>de</strong>ntities and ways of being and<br />
un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the world between nations <strong>de</strong>eply attached to their cultural<br />
traditions.<br />
Cultural meanings are those values and interpretations of the world<br />
that seem implicit and self-evi<strong>de</strong>nt to those who belong to cultural<br />
communities, but may appear as false, counter-intuitive or absurd to<br />
outsi<strong>de</strong>rs. For that reason they are compared with lenses through which<br />
we look at the world, <strong>de</strong>termining perceptions and interpretation of things<br />
and phenomena around us. They create frameworks and mo<strong>de</strong>l our value<br />
judgments and aspirations.<br />
The link between culture and conflict is particularly strong because the<br />
culture in which we formed <strong>de</strong>termines how we frame, interpret and<br />
manage conflicts. The very existence of a conflict may or may not be<br />
recognized <strong>de</strong>pending on the cultural context. Thus, in a Canadian paper 2<br />
is presented the case of an old Chinese emigrant who claimed to have<br />
never experienced any conflicts during the past 40 years, an unusual<br />
statement from the point of view of the Canadian researchers, interpreted<br />
by them as a result of regarding the world in line with specific Confucian<br />
tradition of harmony. Similarly, heated discussions within a community or<br />
family may seem like a form of conflict to an external observer, unfamiliar<br />
1 Kevin Avruch, Black, Peter W. & Scimecca, Joseph A., Conflict Resolution:<br />
Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Green Wood Press, Westport, Connecticut, 1991<br />
2 Michelle, Le Baron, Bridging Troubled Waters: Conflict Resolution from the<br />
Heart, Jossey Bass, 2002<br />
90
with such events, while for the other group members they may be a natural<br />
and <strong>de</strong>sirable form of exchanging views.<br />
For the better un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the cultural aspects of conflict,<br />
researchers use the tool of cultural frameworks as a form of clustering and<br />
comparing cultures and highlighting their main features. The three most<br />
used cultural frames distinguish between individualism and collectivism,<br />
traditionalism and mo<strong>de</strong>rnism, high and low context.<br />
The individualist/collectivist distinction refers to how different<br />
cultures perceive the relationship between individual and group interests.<br />
Individualistic cultures, prevalent in the West, tend to privilege individual<br />
interests, valuing freedom of choice, reward according to merit,<br />
consumption, equity and horizontal open social relations. Collectivist<br />
cultures subordinate individual interest to group interests, valuing<br />
harmony, mo<strong>de</strong>sty, social homogeneity, savings, respect to family and<br />
traditional social hierarchies.<br />
The traditional/mo<strong>de</strong>rn distinction refers to the existence of a set of<br />
features that only some societies have acquired un<strong>de</strong>r the influence of<br />
economic and social changes associated with industrialization, thus<br />
distinguishing from societies less influenced by those <strong>de</strong>velopments. They<br />
manifest through different perspectives on goals, procedures, <strong>de</strong>adlines,<br />
personal relationships, openness to technological processes and<br />
innovation.<br />
For communication and addressing intercultural conflict, particularly<br />
important is the distinction between high and low cultural<br />
contextualization of the meanings transmitted. In cultures with low <strong>de</strong>gree<br />
of contextualization, communication is direct, one says what is thinking,<br />
leaving little room for interpretation. This has the advantage of preventing<br />
misun<strong>de</strong>rstandings, but, on the other hand, there is the risk of generating<br />
confrontation and escalation of conflict. In contrast, in cultures where<br />
communication is highly contextualized, the message is not explicit and<br />
un<strong>de</strong>rstanding it requires a high <strong>de</strong>gree of attention paid to signals sent by<br />
expression, style, tone, allusions and implications, to the non-verbal<br />
communication. Disseminating factual information is a secondary<br />
objective of communication while preserving appearances (saving face) is<br />
paramount. Although this indirect form of communication avoids the risk<br />
91
of a frontal confrontation, the potential to cause problems, especially in<br />
<strong>de</strong>aling with people from other backgrounds, may un<strong>de</strong>rlie smoul<strong>de</strong>ring<br />
and lasting conflicts.<br />
Cultural classification is not limited to these dimensions. According to<br />
other authors, many other distinguishing features are to be taken into<br />
account, as they are un<strong>de</strong>rlying cultural meanings: universalism (attention<br />
to rules, laws, generalizations) or particularism (focus on exceptions and<br />
assessments on a case by case basis); specificity (preference for explicit<br />
<strong>de</strong>finitions, measurements, results) or diffusion (preference for overview<br />
and un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the meaning); inner direction (prioritizing values<br />
related to human behaviour and thinking) or outer direction (valorisation<br />
of natural rhythms, harmony, universe); perception of time as linear and<br />
unidirectional or cyclic and spiral, etc.<br />
It should be noted that the cultural frames mentioned above are just<br />
tools to highlight differences in values and approaches among cultures. It<br />
would be wrong to force inclusion of diverse groups and cultural<br />
backgrounds in these highly generalized frames or to attempt to <strong>de</strong>duce<br />
from them rules of conduct for interacting with people from different<br />
cultures. Such generalizations do not take into account the <strong>de</strong>pth of a<br />
culture and that cultures are dynamic and constantly changing<br />
phenomena. Therefore, they can not replace, un<strong>de</strong>r no circumstances,<br />
building relationships and sharing experiences, processes that take time<br />
but are essential for becoming familiar with other cultures.<br />
Since symbolic inter-cultural conflicts are intimately related to<br />
fundamental aspects of i<strong>de</strong>ntity, knowledge and values, logical approach<br />
and communication skills may be insufficient to overcome them.<br />
Moreover, uncoordinated attempts of the involved parties to alleviate<br />
misun<strong>de</strong>rstandings may be misun<strong>de</strong>rstood due to different systems of<br />
perceptions and cultural meanings, potentially leading to escalation.<br />
Therefore, addressing the symbolic dimension of the conflict requires<br />
creative means, with symbolic contents, such as stories, metaphors, rituals<br />
and images that contribute to the un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of cultural sensitivities<br />
and to the setting up of common frameworks of symbols and meanings.<br />
Participants from different cultures must seek opportunities to look in the<br />
others’ world by sharing information with cultural meaning. This requires<br />
92
an integrated approach, combining objective assessment and subjective<br />
intuition, verbal and non-verbal communication, emotional intelligence and<br />
improvisation, open thinking, creativity and <strong>de</strong>termination not to give up.<br />
Sharing cultural meanings through storytelling is consi<strong>de</strong>red one of<br />
the most effective tools in overcoming inter-cultural barriers to the<br />
communication between people from different backgrounds. Telling<br />
significant life experiences and hearing stories told by the interlocutor are<br />
unique opportunities to open one’s cultural perspective, contributing, at<br />
the same time, to the <strong>de</strong>epening of self-knowledge. A Siberian saying is<br />
relevant in this regard: If you do not know the trees you can get lost in the<br />
woods. But if you do not know the story, you can get lost in life.<br />
Stories are symbolic vehicles that can transport the interlocutor in<br />
context, building, at the same time, an atmosphere of trust and empathy,<br />
by revealing personal motives, intentions, assessments and judgments. As<br />
the storytelling of a life experience communicates the narrator’s<br />
perspective on his behaviour in a specific situation, it does not generate a<br />
rejection reaction from the other party, even if the cultural perspective<br />
may be different.<br />
Whether we come from a culture with rich oral tradition or not,<br />
personal stories provi<strong>de</strong> valuable clues on experience, i<strong>de</strong>ntity and values.<br />
Through them communication connects with the soul, as personal notes<br />
are easier to remember, along with embed<strong>de</strong>d values, than abstract<br />
theories.<br />
Thus, through sharing stories, substantial symbolic messages can be<br />
exchanged without <strong>de</strong>generating into an argument.<br />
A similar role may play the incursions in the history and culture of the<br />
country of origin, or showing reproductions of works of art, photo collages,<br />
films or plays. They are rich in cultural meaning and as the sense of beauty<br />
is universal, they are facilitating connections between different cultures.<br />
Metaphors are creative ways of connecting an i<strong>de</strong>a with another. They<br />
are rich in information about the perceptions and subjective impressions<br />
related to a situation, being at the same time, revealing for the systems of<br />
meanings that come into contact. Through metaphors, we may evaluate<br />
how intense the differences of meaning are in a cross-cultural dialogue and<br />
find new ways of relating. Thus, metaphors can be extremely useful in<br />
93
conflict transformation, as indirect means of communication and<br />
connection at the symbolic level between cultural value systems.<br />
Rituals are routine activities, formal or informal, traditional or<br />
improvised. Celebrating together common religious holidays or attending<br />
public events or more or less formal meetings may be ways of using rituals<br />
in conflict transformation. They draw our attention to what we have in<br />
common and allow shaping of a common i<strong>de</strong>ntity, marking key moments<br />
and facilitating participation.<br />
Creative tools are indirect ways of addressing the symbolic level of<br />
conflicts. Their results are remarkable, but they only occur on long term,<br />
through gradual approximation of i<strong>de</strong>ntities and value systems. Therefore,<br />
they should not replace but complement established conflict management<br />
tools such as negotiation and mediation. For that reason, training<br />
creativity, cultural sensitivity and intuition must be essential in the<br />
formation of a negotiator or mediator, as well as in the formation of all<br />
those aiming to pursue careers in cross-cultural environents.<br />
94<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1. Avruch, Kevin, Black, Peter W. & Scimecca, Joseph A., (1991),<br />
Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Green Wood Press,<br />
Westport, Connecticut<br />
2. Baron, Michelle, (2002), Bridging Troubled Waters: Conflict<br />
Resolution from the Heart, Jossey Bass<br />
3. Lebaron, Michelle & Grundison, Bruce, (1993), Conflict and Culture:<br />
Research in Five Communities in British Columbia, Canada, University of<br />
Victoria, Institute for Dispute Resolution<br />
4. Hall, Edward T., (1976), Beyond Culture, Anchor Press, Gar<strong>de</strong>n City,<br />
NY<br />
5. Hamp<strong>de</strong>n Turner, Charles & Fons Trompenaars, (2000), Building<br />
Cross Cultural Competence. How to Create Wealth from Conflicting<br />
Values, Yale University Press<br />
6. Gaspar-Bates, Julia, (2010), Storytelling. Connecting Cultures<br />
through Creative Media, Intercultural Alliances
THE NOH THEATRE AS INTERCULTURAL<br />
PERFORMANCE - A CASE STUDY<br />
Iulia Waniek <br />
iawaniek@hotmail.com<br />
Abstract: The present paper explores the way in which theatre was used<br />
as a bridge between two cultures, both in the 16th century Japan, where the<br />
traditional Noh theatre was used - in the form of kirishitan noh - to expound<br />
Christian doctrine, by foreign missionaries and Japanese, as well as more<br />
recently. At the beginning of the twentieth century the Irish poet and dramatist<br />
W.B. Yeats was greatly influenced by the classical Noh theatre, while the new<br />
form of shinsaku noh was emerging to span a new bridge between traditional<br />
Japan and the West – bringing foreign elements into the Noh and helping<br />
spread Japanese traditional acting techniques in contemporary theatre .<br />
Keywords: intercultural performance, shinsaku noh, kirishitan noh<br />
The Noh theatre is a classical art form with a tradition of over six<br />
hundred years (if we take the year 1350 as approximate date of its<br />
appearance as performance). Since its beginnings in the 14-th century it<br />
has produced almost three thousand plays of which 250 are in the current<br />
repertoire (genkō kyoku), and can be consi<strong>de</strong>red as “perfect gems, refined<br />
by long years of repeated polishing”, to cite the great master Umewaka<br />
Rokuro 1 .<br />
Some 150 years since its appearance, the Noh theatre has its first<br />
major encounter with another culture. The first Europeans – the<br />
Portuguese missionaries of Saint Francis Xavier – arrived in Japan in<br />
1543. Gaining the support of the local nobility, the Christian missionaries<br />
were very successful in spreading the new religion to a people who was<br />
well accustomed to a multi-layered, syncretic religious experience, and<br />
Senior Lecturer PhD. “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest<br />
1 “kanpeki ni katto sareta daiyamondo …. nagai jikan wo kakete kurikaeshi<br />
kurikaeshi migakikomareta, utsukushii hōseki”, in Hikawa Mariko, Umewaka Rokuro –<br />
“Noh no shinseiki”, Shogakkan, Tokyo, 2003, pag. 23<br />
95
where medieval Buddhist sects like Amidism had already introduced a<br />
salvation doctrine similar to the Christian one.<br />
In this period, called the Azuchi-Momoyama (1573-1603), it seems<br />
that Japanese believers and foreign missionaries used the medium of the<br />
Noh theatre (which was very popular at the time) to create kirishitan noh<br />
(切支丹能), plays with subjects inspired from the Christian doctrine,<br />
somewhat like the medieval European mystery plays. There seem to have<br />
existed quite a few of these plays, but, due to the interdiction and then<br />
severe persecution of Christianity from 1614 onward, all records about<br />
kirishitan noh have disappeared. The subject of kirishitan noh came back<br />
into public discussion in the late 2000-s, when a few noh plays with<br />
Christian subjects appeared. We can thus cite the performance of “Sei<br />
Pauro no kaishin” (「聖パウロの回心」) staged on the 6th of March 2012 in<br />
Tokyo, by the Kanze School Head, Kanze Kiyokazu, in the memory of the<br />
victims of the March 2011 earthquake. With this occasion, Mr. Kanze<br />
<strong>de</strong>clared in some interviews that he had known about kirishitan noh since<br />
childhood, from his father (and pre<strong>de</strong>cessor as Kanze School Head), and<br />
that:”In a distant past Noh merged with Western culture. Won<strong>de</strong>ring how<br />
it was enacted in those times, my curiosity and imagination were stirred,<br />
and it became my dream to be able to play like this some time.” 2<br />
From the three thousand Noh plays written and performed since the<br />
Muromachi (1337-1573) period all through the Edo (17th and 18th century),<br />
the 254 that are in the current repertory (genkō kyoku) are mostly<br />
Muromachi plays, with a <strong>de</strong>ep philosophical/moral content, refined and<br />
polished through more than five hundred years of performance, as<br />
Umewaka Rokuro has noted. Plays written in the Edo period were called<br />
shingi nō or shinsakubutsu (“new pieces”) at the time3 , however most of<br />
them are not consi<strong>de</strong>red very interesting now4 . In the Meiji period there<br />
2 “Haruka mukashi, nō ga seiyō bunka to yūgō shiteita. Ika ni enjita no darō.<br />
Kōkishin to sōzōryoku wo kakitaterare, itsuka jibun no te <strong>de</strong> jōen <strong>de</strong>kitara, to musō shita.”<br />
The Asahi Shimbun of February 9th 2012, digital edition, http://www.asahi.com/<br />
culture/update/0209/TKY201202090238.html<br />
3 Nishino Haruo, Shinsakunō no hyakunen (2), in Nōgaku Kenkyū No. 30/2005,<br />
Hōsei Daigaku Nōgaku Kenkyūjo<br />
4 Noh Theatre Workshop, Orleans Conservatory, May 5th 2012<br />
96
appeared in the world of Noh the i<strong>de</strong>a that by repeating only the perfect<br />
plays in the repertoire the artistic creativity of the Noh could be lost. So,<br />
after the Meiji period new plays came to be written and many innovations<br />
ma<strong>de</strong> their way into the dramatic representation (instruments like the<br />
organ appeared onstage, new scenography was introduced). These new<br />
Noh plays written after 1916 are called today shinsaku nō (noh).<br />
As for the subject matter of these new plays, religious content, i.e.,<br />
episo<strong>de</strong>s taken from the Bible, appear in many plays (Iesu no senrei, “The<br />
Baptism of Jesus”, or Luteru, “Luther”, to cite some of the most recent),<br />
but also many other new themes.<br />
Shinsaku noh written before the Second World War are inspired from<br />
the previous Russo-Japanese or Sino-Japanese wars (and then even the<br />
Pacific War), then another large category are the plays inspired by<br />
twentieth century Japanese literary works (the classical works like Genji<br />
Monogatari being exhausted as a source of inspiration in the Muromachi<br />
period). In this category we have plays like Chieko shō, “About Chieko”,<br />
inspired by the work of poet Takamura Kōtarō, Kusamakura, inspired by<br />
Natsume Sōseki’s novel of the same title, or Eiketsu no asa, “The Morning<br />
of Eternal Separation”, inspired by Miyazawa Kenji, or even a play from<br />
the ballet Giselle, or plays inspired by manga (Kurenai Tennyo, from<br />
“Garasu no kamen”, or Nōmai Evangelion, from “Shinseiki Evangelion”).<br />
These recent innovative Noh plays reflect a very fertile cross-cultural<br />
exchange. Before going into more <strong>de</strong>tail about them, I would like to<br />
present a beautiful case of influence from East to West and then back to<br />
the East that happened between Noh, Yeats’ theatre and again Noh.<br />
In his mature years W. B. Yeats came to be drawn to the world of<br />
theatre, which could be a powerful tool in the Irish Revival (among others<br />
he was one of the foun<strong>de</strong>rs of the Abbey Theatre in Dublin). His friendship<br />
with Ezra Pound and Ernest Fenollosa 5 , who translated and promoted the<br />
Noh theatre in the West, introduced him to this form of art. Yeats<br />
5 Ernest Fennolosa (1853-1916) was professor of philosophy and economy at Tokyo<br />
Imperial University but during his stay in Japan he also became an enthusiast orientalist.<br />
In the climate of Meiji Japan when learning the Western ways was a priority almost to the<br />
<strong>de</strong>triment of native ways, his interest in and study of the Noh helped preserve traditional<br />
Japanese art. His great merit is in explaining and bringing Noh into Western culture.<br />
97
incorporated many elements from Noh into his series of plays based on the<br />
legends of Cuchulain, the mythical hero of Ulster: At the Hawk’s Well<br />
(1917) and The Death of Cuchulain (1935) 6 .<br />
Yeats <strong>de</strong>clared that he wanted to establish a “strange intimacy” in his<br />
plays as opposed to the “familiar distance” evoked by the contemporary<br />
naturalistic productions of his time 7 . The form of Yeats’ plays is stylized,<br />
symbolic, ritualistic, with the bare stage and the patterned screen of Noh.<br />
Actually, these four plays based on the Cuchulain story were called “dance<br />
plays”.<br />
“Critics have differed in assessing the <strong>de</strong>gree to which the Yeats work<br />
captures the effects of the Noh and complain that Yeats misun<strong>de</strong>rstood it<br />
because he did not replicate it. It is important to keep in mind that Yeats<br />
had a limited knowledge of Noh. Everything he knew was based on Ezra<br />
Pound’s work and Ernest Fennolosa’s translations. Yeats conceived of his<br />
plays as a new form, not a copy of the Japanese form but the same in spirit.<br />
Yeats, having never seen a Noh play performed, neither aspired nor<br />
attempted to recreate replicas of Noh plays in his Four Plays for Dancers<br />
(Four Plays). Yeats was an artist not a copier. In 1916, in one of his most<br />
famous essays of drama criticism, “Certain Noble Plays of Japan”, Yeats<br />
<strong>de</strong>scribed his revolutionary conception for a new form of drama:<br />
With the help of Japanese plays … I have invented a form of drama,<br />
distinguished, indirect and, symbolic, and having no need of mob or press<br />
to pay its way – an aristocratic form – W.B.Yeats, 1916” 8<br />
So this was a first stage in the “Westernization” of Noh. But the<br />
fascinating cross-fertilization between the arts of East and West is<br />
illustrated by the fact that, in a way, At the Hawk’s Well, became a part of<br />
Japan’s mo<strong>de</strong>rn Noh repertoire in the post-war period. Yokomichi Mario,<br />
a great Japanese Noh scholar, adapted the Japanese translation of the play<br />
into a shinsaku nō in 1949 - Taka no izumi, and then reworked and<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>rnized it in 1969, as Takahime, “The Hawk Mai<strong>de</strong>n”. Takahime was a<br />
6 Yeats wrote five plays based on the legend of Cuchulain: At the Hawk’s Well, On<br />
Baile’s Strand, The Green Helmet, The Only Jealousy of Emer and The Death of<br />
Cuchulain<br />
7 Sands, Maren. The Influence of Japanese Noh Theatre on Yeats, in<br />
Phantasmagoria, Carol M. Cantrell (ed.), Boul<strong>de</strong>r: Colorado State University, 2005, p. 1<br />
8 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 7<br />
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most <strong>de</strong>bated performance in Japan. It was played by some of the great<br />
masters of Noh, for example the role of the Old Man was performed in the<br />
2005 Tokyo Summer Festival by Kanze Hi<strong>de</strong>o, who, among others, was<br />
Professor at Kyoto University of Art and Design, and wrote serious<br />
scholarship in English explaining Noh, and as a performer strived, through<br />
cross-collaborations, to bring Noh to an international audience.<br />
Consi<strong>de</strong>ring what I have mentioned earlier, namely that the subject<br />
matter of shinsaku nō <strong>de</strong>alt only with events from Japanese history, or<br />
Japanese literature, plus the Bible, Takahime was a revolutionary play,<br />
being the first to take a foreign work of art as inspiration. But the trend of<br />
internationalization of Noh was taken even further this spring, when, in<br />
May 2012, at the Jeanne d’Arc International Festival organized in Orleans,<br />
a Noh play featuring for the first time a foreign historical character,<br />
namely Joan of Arc, was performed in Orleans (and then Paris and Aix en<br />
Provence), for 600–th anniversary of the heroine’s birth.<br />
Just like Taka no Izumi in the post-war period, Jeanne d’Arc was<br />
written by a great specialist of Noh, Professor and former Director of the<br />
Hosei University Noh Institute, Haruo Nishino. The play is staged by great<br />
masters of the Kita Noh school, namely Tanshu Kano, the Head of the<br />
school and Living National Treasure of Japan, and Kyogen Master<br />
Yamamoto Tojiro, also Living National Treasure, and features the story of<br />
Joan of Arc, in traditional Noh style.<br />
Master Kano has <strong>de</strong>clared after the performance: “The pure love that<br />
Joan of Arc had for her country and her people, the strong love that her<br />
mother had for her, is the same in the Christian culture and in the<br />
Japanese culture. I hope that the universality of Noh has been able to<br />
convey this through the character of Jeanne d’Arc.” 9 As Master Kano says,<br />
this performance of Jeanne d’Arc is also <strong>de</strong>dicated to inter-culturality, to<br />
promoting a valuable exchange of aesthetic principles between cultures as<br />
different as those of Japan and France.<br />
I atten<strong>de</strong>d the performance of Jeanne d’Arc and I was greatly<br />
impressed both by the traditional beauty of the performance – I really<br />
9 “Jeanne d’Arc ga hitobito ya kokka ni daiteita junsuina aijō, Jeanne d’Arc no haha<br />
ga musume ni daiteita tsuyoi aijō wa, kirisuto-kyōteki bunka <strong>de</strong>mo, nihonteki bunka<br />
<strong>de</strong>mo onaji. Nō ga motsu fūhensei wo, Jeanne d’Arc wo tsūjite hyōgen <strong>de</strong>kireba” to<br />
katatta, in the article Futsu <strong>de</strong> “Jeanne d’Arc” kōen – Kanō san fushi, Kumanichi News<br />
from 2012/05/08, http://kumanichi.com/news/local/main/20120508004.shtml<br />
99
sensed the flower of yūgen bloom onstage – as well as by the ingenious<br />
innovations in the mise en scene and the structure of the plot. The<br />
innovation in structure is that at the beginning of both acts of the play, a<br />
French actor 10 who has been long trained in the art of Noh, Raphael Trani,<br />
makes a speech in French about the life, battles, and <strong>de</strong>ath of the heroine.<br />
This part is a courtesy for the French public and will be omitted from the<br />
Japanese representation of the play.<br />
The shite, played by Master Kano, enters the stage as an old woman<br />
who comes to pray in an old church, where strangely, there is a shining<br />
helmet right in the middle. As he passes by the shite-bashira he slowly<br />
makes the sign of the cross and then changes his staff from on hand to the<br />
other and, slowly leaning on it as he walks, goes to sit on the chair that is<br />
placed for him at the center of the stage. Even though shite’s recitation was<br />
absolutely extraordinary, for me the moment unspeakable grace – yūgen<br />
coming alive from within the covers of the books – was the sign of the<br />
cross. Right there in the beginning, just as fervent Christians start an<br />
important un<strong>de</strong>rtaking with a “So help us God!” the slow, symbolic gesture<br />
remin<strong>de</strong>d me that silence is the language of God and everything else is but<br />
a poor translation.<br />
Extraordinary as it was, the performance of Jeanne d’Arc in France<br />
was not the only event that marked a very fertile year for inter-cultural<br />
exchange. In February 2011 Warsaw’s Witkiewicz Studio Theatre hosted<br />
the premiere of the first Polish Noh production, Stroiciel fortepianu, “The<br />
Piano Tuner”, performed by the Tessenkai Theatre Company from Tokyo.<br />
As Dr. Diego Pellechia remarked in his review of the play, “Intercultural<br />
theatre plays involving Noh and other performance forms are not mere<br />
artistic en<strong>de</strong>avours but acts with strong political relevance.” 11 The play is<br />
written by Jadwiga Maria Rodowicz, a Noh scholar and, at present, the<br />
Ambassador of Poland in Japan. Ms. Rodowicz was also a long-time<br />
member of the experimental Polish theatre group Gardzienice. The plot of<br />
the play enacts a symbolic meeting of Fre<strong>de</strong>ric Chopin and Eugene<br />
Delacroix in the gar<strong>de</strong>n of George Sand at Nohant. They engage in <strong>de</strong>bates<br />
about art and music, and about Chopin’s attempts to harmonize his Polish<br />
10 Raphael Trani is an actor and director at the Theatre <strong>de</strong> l’Eventail, Orleans,<br />
11 In the article Polish-Japanese Noh Diplomacy: Chopin and “The Piano Tuner”, in<br />
Gaikokujin to Noh, My Journey into Noh theatre: http://nohtheatre.wordpress.<br />
com/2011/02/19/polish-japanese-noh-diplomacy-chopin-and-the-piano-tuner/<br />
100
and French i<strong>de</strong>ntities. To quote again Dr. Pellechia, “the plot and the<br />
characters clearly reveal the attempt to make interculturalism the main<br />
theme of this play.”<br />
The combination of all the elements involved – the position of the<br />
author as Ambassador but also member of the experimental Polish theatre,<br />
that was since Grotowski’s time influenced by Noh, “contains an<br />
east/centre/west triad that marks the sign of the times”. 12<br />
The en<strong>de</strong>avours of shinsaku Noh creators continue, as specialists of<br />
Japanese culture who are also artists or literati produce plays: Kawakatsu<br />
(2007) by Umehara Takeshi, or The Lin<strong>de</strong>n Tree (2011) and Crazy Jane<br />
(2001) by David Crandall.<br />
The issue is: will these plays remain in the repertory? Just as during<br />
the Edo period thousands of plays were produced once and never again<br />
repeated, many of the shinsaku noh have the same fate. It is a matter<br />
worth further study to see which of these plays will be re-enacted and what<br />
are the elements that secure for these plays a place in the repertoire.<br />
However, the very i<strong>de</strong>a of shinsaku noh and the perseverance with which<br />
Japanese artists continued to enrich their tradition is a remarkable<br />
instance of inter-culturality.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1. Anno, Mariko, (2008), Isso-ryu Nohkan (noh flute) – Tradition and<br />
Continuity in the Music of Noh Drama, Doctoral Dissertation, University<br />
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign<br />
2. Brandon, Richard, (1997), Nō and Kyōgen in the Contemporary<br />
World, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu<br />
3. Hikawa Mariko, (2003), Umewaka Rokuro – “Noh no shinseiki”,<br />
Shogakkan, Tokyo<br />
4. Nihon koten geinō to gendai: nō, kyōgen, ed. Yokomichi Mario and<br />
Kobayashi Seki, Iwanami Kōza no. 59, Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo, 1996<br />
5. Sands, Maren, (2005), The Influence of Japanese Noh Theatre on<br />
Yeats, in Phantasmagoria, Carol M. Cantrell (ed.), Boul<strong>de</strong>r: Colorado<br />
State University<br />
12 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m<br />
101
6. Shinsaku nō wo kangaeru, 9-th Annual Seminar hosted by Hosei<br />
Daigaku, Hosei Daigaku, Tokyo, 2004<br />
Internet sites:<br />
http://www.asahi.com/culture/update/0209/TKY201202090238.html<br />
http://kumanichi.com/news/local/main/20120508004.shtml<br />
http://nohtheatre.wordpress.com/2011/02/19/polish-japanese-noh-d<br />
iplomacy-chopin-and-the-piano-tuner/<br />
102
ALTE LUCRĂRI<br />
OTHER WORKS<br />
103
104
LA SCRIITURA DEI MESSAGGI e-mail: ASPETTI<br />
TESTUALI E LINGUISTICI<br />
Frosina Qyr<strong>de</strong>ti <br />
frosinalondo@yahoo.it<br />
Abstract: The e-mail is the most frequently used Internet application that<br />
knows every day an exponential growth of users. The e-mail as a mean of fast<br />
and efficient communication, is used everywhere today: in companies, public<br />
administrations, institutions of different types. But, the e-mail has become an<br />
especially appreciated channel for communication between people just to leave<br />
or confirming an appointment or to simply wish “Happy birthday!” As part of a<br />
more general change in the language, is often highlighted in these last two<br />
characteristics a combination of electronic writing to speech. Although, from a<br />
linguistic point of view, many e-mail messages show typical characteristics of<br />
an oral conversation, the elements of speech which the e-mail manifests cannot<br />
be consi<strong>de</strong>red fast and immediate as in a conversation. These elements, rather<br />
than spontaneous, give the impression of being programmed with the aim of<br />
establishing a more direct contact with your interlocutor who is located away<br />
and in front of another screen. In this work we try to emphasize the way in<br />
which communication produced via e-mail simply does not mirror the language<br />
spoken, but has special features. Some aspects concerning the way of writing<br />
an e-mail do not belong to the classic way of writing, but not even in the<br />
manifestation of speech, because other means are used to express feelings<br />
graphics and content which cannot be transmitted in writing.<br />
Keywords: e-mail, linguistic aspects, writing, speaking.<br />
Abstract: La posta elettronica è l’applicazione Internet più utilizzata che<br />
conosce ogni giorno una crescita esponenziale <strong>de</strong>gli utenti. L’e-mail 1 come un<br />
mezzo veloce ed efficiente di comunicazione, viene utilizzata oggi dappertutto:<br />
<br />
Senior Lecturer PhD., Dipartimento Lingue Straniere, Università “Ismail Qemali”<br />
di Valona, Albania<br />
1 L’e-mail nasce nel 1971, quando Ray Tomlinson, un ingegnere <strong>de</strong>lla società<br />
americana Bolt, Beranek & Newman (BBN), installò sulla rete ARPA net un sistema in<br />
grado di inviare e ricevere messaggi di testo.<br />
105
in azien<strong>de</strong>, nelle pubbliche amministrazioni, in istituzioni di diversi tipi. Ma<br />
l’e-mail si è fatto soprattutto un apprezzabile canale per la comunicazione tra le<br />
persone anche solo per lasciare o confermare un appuntamento oppure fare gli<br />
auguri di compleanno. A seconda <strong>de</strong>gli utenti e <strong>de</strong>l tipo di informazione da<br />
comunicare, ci sono differenti gradi di formalità i quali caratterizzano lo stile di<br />
un’e-mail. Comunque, nonostante i diversi utilizzi a cui può “aprirsi” un’e-mail,<br />
questo strumento viene percepito da chi lo usa come soggetto a un cambiamento<br />
nel modo di comunicare, favorendo informalità e semplificazione.<br />
Nell’ambito di un più generale cambiamento <strong>de</strong>lla lingua si è spesso<br />
evi<strong>de</strong>nziato in queste due ultime caratteristiche un accostamento <strong>de</strong>lla scrittura<br />
elettronica al parlato. Anche se da un punto di vista linguistico molti messaggi<br />
e-mail mostrino caratteristiche tipiche di una conversazione orale, gli elementi<br />
di parlato che manifestano le e-mail non possono essere consi<strong>de</strong>rati veloci e<br />
immediati come in una conversazione. Questi elementi, più che spontanei,<br />
danno l’impressione di essere programmati con lo scopo di stabilire un contatto<br />
più diretto con il proprio interlocutore che si trova lontano e davanti ad un altro<br />
schermo.<br />
In questo lavoro si cerca di sottolineare come la comunicazione che si<br />
produce tramite posta elettronica, non rispecchia semplicemente la lingua<br />
parlata ma, ha <strong>de</strong>lle caratteristiche particolari. Certi componenti di scrittura<br />
<strong>de</strong>lle e-mail, non fanno parte nel classico modo di scrivere, ma nemmeno nelle<br />
manifestazioni di parlato perché, altri mezzi grafici si usano per esprimere<br />
sentimenti e contenuti i quali non possono essere trasmessi con la scrittura.<br />
106<br />
Parole chiavi: posta elettronica, aspetti linguistici, scritto, parlato.<br />
Introduzione<br />
Le scoperte di nuove tecnologie sono risultati <strong>de</strong>i cambiamenti i quali<br />
danno un apporto alle necessità <strong>de</strong>lle persone. Contemporaneamente,<br />
come è naturale, le nuove apparecchiature influenzano fortemente lo<br />
sviluppo <strong>de</strong>lla società umana. Questo processo di sviluppo il quale spetta,<br />
soprattutto al diverso modo organizzare la società e i rapporti economici,<br />
impone un cambiamento nel modo di comunicare <strong>de</strong>lle persone. Lo spazio<br />
in cui opera ogni forma di comunicazione è quindi responsabile <strong>de</strong>lla<br />
struttura concreta che il messaggio assume nel suo manifestarsi. Se si<br />
osserva, per esempio, il percorso evolutivo dai SMS (Short Message
Service) ai MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service) si <strong>de</strong>duce che, mentre<br />
l’SMS permette soltanto la trasmissione di testo, l’MMS (oltre al testo)<br />
consente l’invio di allegati in vari formati. Lo stesso tipo di osservazione è<br />
evi<strong>de</strong>nte anche nella trasmissione <strong>de</strong>i messaggi di posta elettronica. Si è<br />
passati dai messaggi di caratteri a veri e propri “prodotti” multimediali.<br />
Attualmente link e pagine Web si utilizzano per scopi informativi e<br />
pubblicitari e accompagnano le e-mail con testo.<br />
Comunque, nel focus di questo lavoro sarà la scrittura <strong>de</strong>lle e-mail<br />
soffermandosi in alcuni aspetti linguistici e testuali.<br />
Pren<strong>de</strong>ndo in analisi il linguaggio elettronico, è molto interessante<br />
notare come alcuni aspetti tecnici impongono all’utente di sfruttare al<br />
massimo ciò di cui dispone per esprimersi al meglio. Spesso i pochi<br />
caratteri a disposizione <strong>de</strong>ll’utente non bastano per la trasmissione <strong>de</strong>l<br />
messaggio. Ed ecco che vengono in aiuto, per esempio, i segni di<br />
punteggiatura e parentesi per esprimere emozioni, oppure si scrive tutto<br />
maiuscolo per ren<strong>de</strong>re più forte il messaggio ecc.<br />
Il “linguaggio elettronico” sembra un mix tra scritto e parlato e non<br />
solo. La lingua <strong>de</strong>lla posta elettronica sembra come dice la Baron” una<br />
sorta che unisce la dimensione orale e la dimensione scritta”. Secondo la<br />
studiosa, questa lingua potrebbe evolversi in un vero e proprio “creolo<br />
elettronico”. Attualmente questa “neolingua” non esiste ancora (e non si<br />
può immaginare se e quando esisterà), tuttavia risulta evi<strong>de</strong>nte che la<br />
scrittura in rete possieda caratteristiche che vanno ben oltre il semplice<br />
gergo telematico.<br />
Caratteristiche linguistiche <strong>de</strong>i messaggi e-mail<br />
La qualità basilare <strong>de</strong>lla comunicazione elettronica risulta essere il<br />
maggiore coinvolgimento immediato, caratteristica anche <strong>de</strong>l parlato. Il<br />
questo ambito bisogna riconsi<strong>de</strong>rare la scrittura, la quale è consi<strong>de</strong>rata<br />
sempre come canale opportuno a trasmettere informazioni nello spazio,<br />
ma soprattutto nel tempo. A causa <strong>de</strong>lla velocità di invio e ricezione <strong>de</strong>i<br />
messaggi, la scrittura di un’e-mail mostra particolarità i quali non<br />
possono <strong>de</strong>l tutto conferirsi al parlato. Prima di tutto, i regolamenti di<br />
trasmissione <strong>de</strong>i messaggi dominano notevolmente il modo di scrivere,<br />
una scrittura che serve innanzitutto per trasmettere informazioni<br />
immediati.<br />
107
Molto spesso risulta dare all’e-mail aspetti caratteristici <strong>de</strong>l parlato.<br />
Prima di tutto, si <strong>de</strong>ve tenere in consi<strong>de</strong>razione che l’oralità provocata<br />
dall’e-mail cambia a seconda <strong>de</strong>i contesti d’uso, <strong>de</strong>l tipo di <strong>de</strong>stinatario,<br />
<strong>de</strong>lla frequenza <strong>de</strong>i messaggi scambiati ecc. L’oralità <strong>de</strong>ll’e-mail, espressa<br />
soprattutto da un registro informale, oscilla prevedibilmente, quindi,<br />
all’interno di quella dimensione di variazione che Berruto ha <strong>de</strong>finito<br />
“variazione diafasica” 2 , vale a dire la variazione <strong>de</strong>lla lingua in base alla<br />
situazione comunicativa. Si può sostenere, quindi, che i tratti di oralità<br />
<strong>de</strong>lla posta elettronica si trovano, com’è logico, con molta più frequenza in<br />
scritti più informali. Molto spesso, però, è difficile <strong>de</strong>finire il registro da<br />
utilizzare in un messaggio di posta elettronica. Ad esempio, in un<br />
messaggio dal tono o dai contenuti più formali, iniziare con una formula di<br />
introduzione <strong>de</strong>l tipo “Egregio Signore” e chiu<strong>de</strong>re l’e-mail con “Cordiali<br />
saluti”, risulta certamente imposto per un tipo di comunicazione ritenuto<br />
immediato e, anche per questo, più colloquiale. Siccome, però, non è<br />
preferibile in questi casi presentarsi con uno “Ciao”, di solito si sceglie in<br />
tali casi si sceglie sinteticità e ridotta complessità sintattica come nel<br />
seguente messaggio.<br />
1) Gent.ma dott.ssa …..,<br />
Le confermo la nostra intenzione di avviare collaborazioni<br />
scientifiche e didattiche con la Vostra Università. Possiamo proce<strong>de</strong>re, sul<br />
piano istituzionale, attraverso convenzioni nei diversi settori<br />
scientifico-disciplinari.<br />
In attesa di ulteriori <strong>de</strong>terminazioni, La saluto cordialmente<br />
Inoltre, l’e-mail presenta alcuni artifici grafici che risultano difficili<br />
attribuire al parlato e che indubbiamente rappresentano più di un<br />
elemento di scrittura. Si tratta, naturalmente, di quei segni testuali i quali<br />
cercano di riversare all’interno <strong>de</strong>l codice scritto tutti quei tratti<br />
paralinguistici che comunemente fanno da cornice ad una comunicazione<br />
orale. Si pensi all’utilizzo di segni grafici per riprodurre i suoni non<br />
linguistici <strong>de</strong>lla lingua parlata (“mmmmh”, “ooooh”, “ahahahah” ecc.),<br />
l’utilizzo <strong>de</strong>l “tutto maiuscolo” e il prolungamento <strong>de</strong>lle vocali per<br />
accentuare il tono di “voce” (“NOOOOO”, “CIAOOOO” ecc.), ma in<br />
particolar modo le faccine: rappresentazioni scritte, o meglio digitate, che<br />
108<br />
2 Berruto G., “Varietà diamesiche, diastratiche, diafasiche”, 1993, p. 37
cercano di trasmettere contenuti emozionali. Le “faccine” servono<br />
principalmente per rimediare alla mancanza di metacomunicazione che<br />
caratterizza un testo scritto e inserire ogni frase nel contesto emotivo in cui<br />
la si vuole esprimere (scherzoso, arrabbiato, ironico ecc.). È da notare,<br />
inoltre, che “le faccine” vengono utilizzate spesso nello stesso modo in cui<br />
si utilizza l’allungamento <strong>de</strong>lle vocali: ad esempio “:-)))))” può indicare, a<br />
seconda <strong>de</strong>i casi, esagerata soddisfazione o sarcasmo esagerato.<br />
Si accetta, dunque, che ci siano usi <strong>de</strong>lla posta elettronica che uniscano<br />
la scrittura al parlato. Questi usi sono soprattutto ricercati e voluti, più che<br />
immediati e spontanei. Ce lo conferma anche Gaetano Berruto il quale<br />
sottolinea che «non si evi<strong>de</strong>nziano […] nell’e-mail, caratteristiche<br />
macrosintattiche tipiche <strong>de</strong>l parlato <strong>de</strong>rivanti dalla mancata pianificazione<br />
<strong>de</strong>l discorso, da esitazioni, da cambiamenti di progettazione, da false<br />
partenze ecc.» 3 . Inoltre, non si riscontrano di solito usi non corretti <strong>de</strong>lla<br />
lingua da un punto di vista grammaticale e questo potrebbe confermare<br />
successivamente il fatto che la scrittura tramite posta elettronica, presenta<br />
di solito un livello di pianificazione che generalmente si attribuisce al testo<br />
scritto. Come, infatti, osserva Berruto «sembra […] riduttivo consi<strong>de</strong>rare la<br />
comunicazione mediata dal computer come un mero sostituto di una<br />
conversazione parlata; essa pare invece dare luogo a una varietà di lingua a<br />
sé con caratteristiche dal punto di vista macrosintattico, lessicale,<br />
paralinguistico e anche soprasegmentale, in tanto in quanto questo sia<br />
riproducibile e visibile nella scrittura». Risulta, di conseguenza, difficile<br />
valutare la scrittura <strong>de</strong>i messaggi e-mail un mero avvicinamento alla<br />
conversazione, non solo perché la posta elettronica presenta una vasta<br />
varietà d’uso non riconducibile soltanto al dialogo, ma anche perché<br />
questa conce<strong>de</strong> la possibilità di trasmettere segni non propriamente<br />
linguistici – come l’intonazione <strong>de</strong>lla voce, la mimica facciale ecc. – per<br />
mezzo di caratteri digitati, anziché tramite la velocità di un’interazione<br />
faccia-a-faccia.<br />
L’italiano <strong>de</strong>lla posta elettronica: lessico e sintassi<br />
La lingua italiana <strong>de</strong>ll’e-mail presenta <strong>de</strong>lle particolarità linguistiche<br />
che evi<strong>de</strong>nziano il suo il carattere “orale” ma soprattutto le specificità<br />
comunicative.<br />
3 Berruto G., Prima lezione di Sociolinguistica, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 2004, p. 107<br />
109
Con l’intenzione di riflettere su problemi che possono caratterizzare la<br />
lingua italiana <strong>de</strong>i messaggi <strong>de</strong>lla posta elettronica, ho riportato in questo<br />
lavoro e-mail raccolte dalla mia corrispon<strong>de</strong>nza con amici italiani.<br />
Dall’analisi <strong>de</strong>i messaggi risulta che la lingua italiana usata è corretta<br />
dal punto di vista linguistico. Si osserva che l’italiano che si usa e <strong>de</strong>l livello<br />
medio e i possibili errori di grammatica sembrano causati dalla fretta nella<br />
battitura e dalla mancata rilettura.<br />
Il lessico utilizzato è particolare. Ciò grazie anche all’uso di<br />
abbreviazioni e di anglicismi, caratteristiche <strong>de</strong>lla lingua <strong>de</strong>lle chat.<br />
Mentre, però, se il loro utilizzo in chat dipen<strong>de</strong> dalla velocità che impone<br />
questa comunicazione, nella posta elettronica questa motivazione viene<br />
meno. Alcuni esempi di abbreviazioni che vengono trovate nell’e-mail<br />
possono essere “cmq” per comunque, “nn” per non, “msg” per messaggio.<br />
Si riscontrano poi quelle abbreviazioni che utilizzano la combinazione di<br />
simboli o numeri, con lettere: “xkè” per perché, “xò” per però, “6” per sei<br />
(verbo essere) e così via.<br />
Riporto due esempi di messaggi in cui sono utilizzati <strong>de</strong>lle<br />
abbreviazioni, faccine, puntini. Si può notare anche qualche errore è di<br />
battitura.<br />
1) Ciao, come va? Hai trovato casini in ufficio? Sono preoccupato<br />
xche' non mi fai sapere niente <strong>de</strong>l traghetto. Non volete che torni?<br />
Fammi sapere. Abbr. G<br />
2) Ciao Fr....., grazie... le rosse sono divine, adoro ma sono in<br />
pelle? dovrebero andare bene per sett/ottobre giusto? ma anche a rocca<br />
la sera perché no!se i specifichi il tipo di materiale così mi regolo sulla<br />
misura. Bacio e abbraccio a te.<br />
La presenza di anglicismi, invece, si limita ad usi convenzionali come<br />
saluti e altre espressioni tipo bye bye, lol,forever, number one ecc.).<br />
3) Amica mia number one che fine hai fatto? Stai bene? Almeno<br />
spero. Bye Bye.<br />
In quanto alla sintassi <strong>de</strong>ll’italiano nei messaggi di posta elettronica,<br />
dai messaggi analizzati si osservano alcune caratteristiche che danno ai<br />
messaggi un carattere “orale”. Riportiamo un esempio:<br />
4) Cara F…<br />
5) in allegato i file <strong>de</strong>lle nuove sche<strong>de</strong> ….. per le traduzioni <strong>de</strong>l sito<br />
web. I tempi sono un pò stretti quindi dovresti occupartene quanto prima<br />
110
possibile... Non fare troppi bagni a Orikum! Buone vacanze. Un<br />
abbraccio S<br />
Nell’organizzazione sintattica <strong>de</strong>i messaggi si evi<strong>de</strong>nzia, quindi, l’uso<br />
di elementi tipici di una comunicazione orale. I messaggi analizzati sono<br />
composti, in maggior parte <strong>de</strong>i casi, da frasi brevi e si registra, quindi, un<br />
alta percentuale di frasi nominali, le quali vengono consi<strong>de</strong>rate più tipiche<br />
<strong>de</strong>l parlato che <strong>de</strong>llo scritto.<br />
Esempi:<br />
6) Sai che mi è successo? Sono le 8:30 <strong>de</strong>l mattino...<br />
driiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiing telefono...<br />
7) Cara, grazie e, nell'attesa di risentirci, ancora molti auguri a te e<br />
ai tuoi, A<br />
8) grazie, Le faccio sapere. cordiali saluti, AR<br />
Spesso la frase nominale è composta da formule di saluto (“Ciao a<br />
tutti”, “Un caro saluto a tutti”, “Buon compleanno anche a…”), altre volte<br />
invece viene utilizzata per introdurre un nuovo argomento nel modo in cui<br />
si farebbe conversando.<br />
9) Ciao a tutti,<br />
Tra i miei amici ci sono quelli che festeggiano il Natale e quelli che<br />
non. Io credo che sia un bellissimo motivo per amare e per sentirsi piu'<br />
amati. Un abbraccio a tutti!!!!!!<br />
Per quanto riguarda la complessità sintattica, riporterei le osservazioni<br />
fatte dalla studiosa Fiorentino 4 , la quale trattando gli aspetti linguistici <strong>de</strong>l<br />
linguaggio elettronico, mette in evi<strong>de</strong>nza principalmente una ten<strong>de</strong>nza alla<br />
paratassi e molto spesso, inoltre, un succe<strong>de</strong>rsi di frasi <strong>de</strong>l tutto<br />
indipen<strong>de</strong>nti sintatticamente, ma dipen<strong>de</strong>nti dal punto di vista semantico.<br />
Nell’esempio seguente:<br />
10) Per F…:<br />
stasera non esco in chat….<br />
ci sentiamo più avanti ok?<br />
4 Giuliana Fiorentino (2004) ha analizzato, da una prospettiva più squisitamente<br />
linguistica, un corpus formato da messaggi di e-mail di diverso tipo. Il corpus è stato<br />
composto prelevando i messaggi dai tre tipi di strumenti che utilizzano la posta<br />
elettronica come principale mezzo di comunicazione: mailbox personali, newsgroup e<br />
mailing list.<br />
111
se ti va scrivimi!<br />
la Fiorentino ammette che, le due frasi iniziali “stasera non vengo in<br />
chat….” e “ci sentiamo più avanti ok?” risultano prive di collegamenti<br />
sintattici. Inoltre tale esempio mette in evi<strong>de</strong>nza l’avvicinamento <strong>de</strong>i<br />
messaggi di posta elettronica alla modalità parlata. La semplice domanda<br />
“ok?” è la dimostrazione di questo fatto.<br />
Non si può negare <strong>de</strong>l tutto che la posta elettronica assume spesso<br />
caratteristiche tipiche <strong>de</strong>lla comunicazione orale ma d’altra parte, come<br />
sottolinea la Fiorentino, «è chiaro che non si tratta semplicemente di<br />
parlato». Per la Fiorentino, la posta elettronica esige una serie di<br />
competenze tecniche come l’uso di un computer ecc. Per questa ragione<br />
l’autrice, distanziandosi dalle classiche categorie di scritto e parlato,<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>ra la scrittura elettronica una lingua a sé: una «scrittura<br />
conversazionale, <strong>de</strong>finita cioè non dall’asse scritto/parlato, ma dal<br />
carattere interattivo che manifesta” 5 . In questo modo la conversazione,<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>rata un atto <strong>de</strong>l parlare, non facendo più soltanto parte <strong>de</strong>ll’oralità,<br />
porterebbe a riconsi<strong>de</strong>rare le caratteristiche di un testo scritto anche dal<br />
punto di vista <strong>de</strong>lla sua interattività. Il dialogo, inteso principalmente<br />
come uno scambio comunicativo, sì ritiene un elemento presente anche<br />
nello scritto e l’e-mail sarebbe, quindi, una dimostrazione di questo<br />
assunto. Se si tiene conto, però, <strong>de</strong>lla varietà d’impiego <strong>de</strong>lla posta<br />
elettronica risulta difficile consi<strong>de</strong>rare la composizione di un messaggio un<br />
semplice avvicinamento al parlato. Un messaggio inviato ad un amico per<br />
fare gli auguri di compleanno, conterrà certamente tratti di oralità più<br />
segnati rispetto, per esempio, ad un messaggio inviato ad un’azienda per<br />
chie<strong>de</strong>re informazioni sul prodotto X. D’altra parte, è proprio la difficoltà<br />
di stabilire confini d’uso precisi che impedisce di collocare l’e-mail<br />
all’interno <strong>de</strong>ll’asse scritto-parlato. L’e-mail è quindi un trasmettitore<br />
tecnologico che incorpora mansioni diverse: dal biglietto d’auguri, alla<br />
lettera, alla conversazione telefonica e così via. Il mezzo, con la sua varietà<br />
d’uso, incontra quindi difficoltà nell’essere paragonato ad un unico<br />
equivalente cartaceo. «Con i suoi trent’anni di storia, sembra che l’e-mail<br />
si avvii a occupare nella percezione <strong>de</strong>gli scriventi una posizione sempre<br />
112<br />
5 Fiorentino, G., “Scrittura elettronica: il caso <strong>de</strong>lla posta elettronica”, 2004, p. 102
più autonoma» 6 Probabilmente, è proprio a causa <strong>de</strong>lla compresenza di<br />
utilizzi così diversi <strong>de</strong>lla posta elettronica che si ten<strong>de</strong> a scrivere,<br />
solitamente, ricercando un coinvolgimento emotivo maggiore e un minore<br />
distacco con chi si comunica.<br />
Conclusioni<br />
La comunicazione via e-mail è infatti diventata un fenomeno di massa<br />
che tira a sè e interessa a tutti, giovani e meno giovani. Riportando esempi<br />
concreti si è riflettuto in quale misura questo mezzo di comunicazione ha<br />
apportato <strong>de</strong>lle innovazioni nell’uso <strong>de</strong>lla lingua scritta, in particolare di<br />
quella italiana.<br />
In conclusione su quanto si è riflettuto in questo lavoro si può ribadire<br />
che è possibile individuare elementi linguistici i quali attribuiscono ai<br />
messaggi e-mail tratti di oralità.<br />
Inoltre, si sono evi<strong>de</strong>nziate specificità comunicative le quali portano a<br />
riconsi<strong>de</strong>rare le classiche categorie scritto e parlato e proiettano nei<br />
messaggi di posta elettronica scopi diversi da quelli previsti per le lettere<br />
cartacee, riflettendo tratti che è difficile a scrivere agli usi convenzionali di<br />
scritto e parlato.<br />
BIBLIOGRAFIA<br />
1. Berruto G., (1993), “Varietà diamesiche, diastratiche, diafasiche”,<br />
in A.A. Sobrero, Introduzione all’italiano contemporaneo. La variazione e<br />
gli usi, Laterza, Roma-Bari, pp. 37-92.<br />
2. Berruto G. (2004), Prima lezione di sociolinguistica, Laterza,<br />
Roma-Bari.<br />
3. Calvo M., Ciotti F., Roncaglia G., Zela M. A. (2003), Internet 2004,<br />
Laterza, Bari. URL: http://www.laterza.it/internet/leggi/internet2004/<br />
online/in<strong>de</strong>x. htm<br />
4. Carrada L. (2001), “Divagazioni sull’e-mail”, Il mestiere di<br />
scrivere, Appunti, Novembre 2001. URL: http://www.mestiere<br />
discrivere.com/testi/divagazioni.htm<br />
6 Pistolesi E., Il parlar spedito. L’italiano di chat, e-mail e SMS, 2004, p. 185.<br />
113
5. Fiorentino G. (2004), “Scrittura elettronica: il caso <strong>de</strong>lla posta<br />
elettronica”, in F. Orletti (a cura di), Scrittura e nuovi media, Carocci,<br />
Roma, pp. 69-112.<br />
6. Fiormonte D. (2003), Scrittura e filologia nell’era digitale, Bollati<br />
Boringhieri, Torino.<br />
7. Livraghi G. (2001), L’umanità <strong>de</strong>ll’Internet, Hops Libri, Milano.<br />
URL: ttp://gandalf.it/uman/in<strong>de</strong>x.htm<br />
8. Lombardi G. (2006), Come si fa a comunicare con la posta<br />
elettronica, Tecniche Nuove, Milano.<br />
9. Metitieri F. (2003), Comunicazione personale e collaborazione in<br />
rete, FrancoAngeli, Milano.<br />
10. Ong W. (1982), Orality and literacy. The technologizing of the<br />
word, Methuen, London and New York; trad. it. Oralità e scrittura. Le<br />
tecnologie <strong>de</strong>lla parola, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1986.<br />
11. Orletti F. (a cura di) (2004), Scrittura e nuovi media, Carocci,<br />
Roma.<br />
12. Paccagnella L. (2000), La comunicazione al computer. Sociologia<br />
<strong>de</strong>lle reti telematiche, Il Mulino, Bologna.<br />
13. Pistolesi E. (2004), Il parlar spedito. L’italiano di chat, e-mail e<br />
SMS, Esedra, Padova.<br />
14. Riva G. (2004), “Comunicazione e new media”, in L. Anolli (a cura<br />
di), Psicologia <strong>de</strong>lla comunicazione, Il Mulino, Bologna, pp. 363-383.<br />
Siti Internet consultati<br />
Gandalf. Pensieri sulla rete e sulla comunicazione, http://gandalf.it<br />
Garante per la protezione <strong>de</strong>i dati personali,<br />
http://www.garanteprivacy.it<br />
Il mestiere di scrivere, http://www.mestierediscrivere.com<br />
Wikipedia. L’enciclopedia libera, http://it.wikipedia.org<br />
114
POETRY AS EXISTENTIAL CONDITION-THE VOYAGE<br />
OF ANGELO MANITTA AMONG THE STARS<br />
Otilia Doroteea Borcia <br />
otiliaborcia@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract: The essay is <strong>de</strong>dicated to the philosophical and poetical content<br />
of “Orbite d’Ellisse” (Ellipse Orbit), one of the three “prosimetron” (a literary<br />
work in prose and verses as well) composed by Angelo Manitta, an Italian poet,<br />
writer, critic, and essayist who imagined an extraordinary cosmic journey for<br />
visiting our solar system planets (Moon, Venus, Mercury, Sun, Mars, Jupiter,<br />
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto). He meets very important characters of the<br />
culture and civilization of all times, who inhabit these celestial stars. So they<br />
appear, on each of them, with the aura of the contribution they gave humanity<br />
in good, but also in bad. Deities as Astante, Afrodite, Imene, Eros, Ishtar,<br />
women of a poetical <strong>de</strong>stiny (Meriem Ben Atala, Dario Bellezza, Yosano Akiko),<br />
theologians (Madre Teresa, Giovanni XXIII), writers and philosophers<br />
(Bene<strong>de</strong>tto Croce, Friedrich Nietzsche, Gabrielle d’Annunzio, Giovanni Pascoli,<br />
Marcel Proust, Cesare Pavese, Eugenio Montale, Apollinaire, Garcia Lorca,<br />
Pablo Neruda, Simone <strong>de</strong> Beauvoir e Pier Paolo Pasolini), scientists (Einstein,<br />
Henry-Louis Bergson, Irène and Fre<strong>de</strong>rique Curie), artists (Pablo Picasso,<br />
Maria Callas, John Lennon, Josephine Baker) and politicians (Yasser Arafat,<br />
Benito Mussolini, Lenin, Roosvelt, Hitler, Stalin, Aldo Moro, Atatrük, John<br />
Kenedy, Kruscev, Martin Luther King, Mao Zedong, Golda Meir). But the most<br />
original meeting of the poet is with the three American astronauts - Neil<br />
Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin and Michael Collins – who went with the spaceship on<br />
the 16th of July 1969 from Cape Canaveral towards the Moon, and were able to<br />
touch it for the first time in history. The poet <strong>de</strong>dicates to all these characters<br />
that compose a marvelous and unexpected kaleidoscope some verses with<br />
beautiful metaphors, the sweetness of which <strong>de</strong>eply affects the rea<strong>de</strong>r.<br />
Keywords: Ellipse Orbit, universe origins, thoughts spaceship, silhouettes<br />
of inert heavenly bodies and of living beings.<br />
Senior Lecturer PhD., Università Cristiana “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>”, Bucarest<br />
115
Presente nella letteratura contemporanea italiana con opere di poesia,<br />
narrativa, e saggistica, Angelo Manitta ci si rivela nei suoi scritti lirici come<br />
un filosofo che cerca di capire i misteri <strong>de</strong>ll’esistenza, presentandoci una<br />
visione originalissima di questa, in un universo difficilmente da <strong>de</strong>finire, in<br />
cui la vita non può essere concepita fuori <strong>de</strong>lla storia, <strong>de</strong>l mito e <strong>de</strong>lla<br />
religione. A<strong>de</strong>guatissimo alle tematiche scelte, il suo linguaggio poetico,<br />
molto rapido, benché essenziale, mira ai concetti di nascita, morte e<br />
d’anima, ognuno <strong>de</strong>i suoi poemi essendo un sorpren<strong>de</strong>nte intreccio tra<br />
dimensioni temporali e spaziali finite ed infinite.<br />
L’autore <strong>de</strong>i volumi <strong>de</strong>i prosimetron “Big Bang La luce <strong>de</strong>l<br />
Tempo”, “Big Bang - Visione di Luce”, e “Orbite d’ellisse Big<br />
Bang – Sistema solare” compie <strong>de</strong>i viaggi straordinari in un mondo<br />
“fantastico, attraverso il finito e l’infinito, il tempo e l’in<strong>de</strong>finito”. Così,<br />
nell’Orbite d’Ellisse, partito dalla terra “per raggiungere le regioni più<br />
recondite <strong>de</strong>ll’universo”, il poeta misura lo spazio intergalattico usando le<br />
unità terrestri (quattro giorni), benché ad una velocità superiore a quella<br />
<strong>de</strong>lla luce, nella speranza di “intrave<strong>de</strong>re le sagome <strong>de</strong>i corpi inerti o <strong>de</strong>gli<br />
esseri viventi, vissuti ieri, l’altro ieri o migliaia di anni fa”. “Imbattuto in<br />
sentimenti, passioni, vizi, virtù, aspetti morali e fisici di uomini, animali,<br />
piante e cose”, egli vuole scrivere le sue impressioni in un diario che potrà<br />
svelare sia la parte materiale, sia la parte immateriale <strong>de</strong>ll’universo.<br />
Il poeta pensava di compiere questo viaggio cosmico paradossale,<br />
perché umano e “sovrumano”, per arrivare “al primo essere” o ancora più<br />
lontano, “all’origine <strong>de</strong>l nostro universo”, però la coscienza che all’uomo<br />
non è concesso di penetrare i misteri di Dio, gli <strong>de</strong>tta di fermarsi. La<br />
ragione di questa sua rinuncia è innanzi tutto estetica e poi metafisica. Per<br />
il poeta la nostra condizione esistenziale è la poesia stessa (“l’uomo non<br />
esiste senza poesia”) e cercare di fare un’indagine ontologica e<br />
gnoseologica (l’origine e il segreto <strong>de</strong>l creato) sarebbe una vera “follia”.<br />
Il viaggio sulla Luna – il primo pianeta visitato in questo volume con<br />
“l’astronave <strong>de</strong>l pensiero” (che ricorda l’esperienza di Dante nel mondo<br />
<strong>de</strong>ll’al di là e anche il viaggio <strong>de</strong>i personaggi ariosteschi verso il Castello<br />
d’Astolfo, sempre sulla Luna), si produce in uno stato di levitazione, in cui<br />
il poeta s’avvicina a Dio, come un “asceta estatico” che agisce “contro ogni<br />
forza di gravità”.<br />
116
Il sogno di “poggiare il capo sul suolo lunare” e di “passeggiare tra<br />
mondi ignoti, separati dall’infinito nulla”, si avverrà nel primo viaggio<br />
sulla luna intrapreso dai famosi astronauti americani Neil Armstrong,<br />
Edwin Aldrin e Michael Collins il 16 luglio 1969 alle 9,32 dalla rampa 39<br />
gradi di Cape Canaveral (sorpren<strong>de</strong>nte lo stabilire esatto <strong>de</strong>l momento<br />
storico di questa prima conquista reale <strong>de</strong>l “fuori terra” compiuta<br />
dall’uomo, in contrapposizione con la mancanza di temporalità<br />
<strong>de</strong>ll’universo immaginario conquistato solo nell’irrealtà poetica). E così, “il<br />
Nulla”, <strong>de</strong>finito come la concezione intima <strong>de</strong>l ragazzo (imme<strong>de</strong>simato nel<br />
poeta d’una volta), che non si poneva il problema <strong>de</strong>llo spazio, diventa la<br />
“vita riacquisita dalla mente” <strong>de</strong>ll’uomo di quarantotto anni che riesce a<br />
vivere a<strong>de</strong>sso l’età “spartiacque d’umanità dalle incertezze esistenziali”.<br />
E il sogno <strong>de</strong>l bambino ingenuo che costruiva “negli aridi <strong>de</strong>serti”<br />
esistenze umane e “divine” diventa in questo modo “il ripercorrere <strong>de</strong>l<br />
sentiero di San Giacomo, un cammino a ritroso per scoprire la storia<br />
umana.” 1<br />
Il viaggio <strong>de</strong>i tre cosmonauti è <strong>de</strong>scritto come un’avventura attraverso<br />
l’etere, alla quale, partecipe, il poeta (imme<strong>de</strong>simato a<strong>de</strong>sso in ognuno<br />
<strong>de</strong>gli eroi) sospeso tra il Nulla e l’Assoluto, “dove si scava l’anima e si<br />
consuma la mente”, “tra guizzi di dissensi e turbamenti uranici” 2<br />
(bellissima metafora per suggerire il contatto tra la terra e gli altri astri)<br />
non riesce a comunicare con i suoi compagni. E la condizione di trovarsi<br />
solo negli interspazi atemporali <strong>de</strong>termina Edwin Aldrin d’interrogarsi<br />
sulla ragione di questa vicenda straordinaria tra l’universo fisico (evocato<br />
dal ricordo di suo figlio) e metafisico: “… Dove sono io, sperduta molecola<br />
inerte, / pensiero agente di grappoli di stelle?” 3<br />
La risposta negativa ren<strong>de</strong> in forma ripetitiva ancora più drammatica<br />
la sua condizione esistenziale nelle parole di Michel Collins, che turbato<br />
dalla stessa angoscia di Aldrin: “Non lo so. Non so neppure se farò di<br />
1 „Orbite d’ellissi Big Bang – Sistema solare”, Il Convivio, Castiglione di Sicilia,<br />
gennaio 2010, p. 13<br />
2 i<strong>de</strong>m 1, p. 19<br />
3 i<strong>de</strong>m 1, p. 20<br />
117
itorno / dal mio metafisico viaggio. Non lo so. / So solo di essere partito<br />
alla <strong>de</strong>riva, / ma la meta è incerta e labile il <strong>de</strong>stino.” 4<br />
Forse è qui che si trova una <strong>de</strong>lle chiavi maggiori <strong>de</strong>lla lettura di tutti i<br />
“Big Bang” <strong>de</strong>l Manitta. La partenza senza meta, per la semplice<br />
curiosità, per scoprire nuovi spazi, non è la condizione <strong>de</strong>ll’uomo mo<strong>de</strong>rno,<br />
<strong>de</strong>ll’esploratore, che sin dall’antichità non ha fatto che rispon<strong>de</strong>re alla<br />
chiamata <strong>de</strong>ll’orizzonte osando di andare oltre? E non ebbero lo stesso<br />
<strong>de</strong>stino l’Ulisse dantesco nell’ultimo suo viaggio nel “dietro il sol”, e<br />
Leopardi nel suo incontro con “l’Infinito” <strong>de</strong>ll’al di là <strong>de</strong>lla siepe, nel “mar”<br />
<strong>de</strong>lle “morte stagioni” in cui il poeta go<strong>de</strong>va il dolce “naufragar”?<br />
Nel suo “Sistema solare” Angelo Manitta scopre gli astri uno ad<br />
uno: la Luna, Venere, Mercurio, il Sole, Marte, Giove, Saturno,<br />
Urano, Nettuno e Plutone. Tutti questi pianeti vengono popolati dal<br />
poeta con strani, inaspettati personaggi mutati da una realtà terrestre<br />
concreta, in un universo al quale loro potrebbero appartenere<br />
metafisicamente.<br />
Così, a Venere, (che “nutre gli uomini, sostenendo la vita nello<br />
spazioso universo”..), i<strong>de</strong>ntificata anche con Alma Venus (pianeta <strong>de</strong>l<br />
“disperato Amore cercato dalla tenera Psiche”), raccogliente le “esotiche<br />
divinità” che illuminano il cielo all’alba e al tramonto - Astante, Afrodite,<br />
Imene, Eros, Ishtar - appartengono stranissimi personaggi come: Meriem<br />
Ben Atala 5 (“fanciulla d’acqua o di fuoco o di luna” di “un’eterea<br />
tenerezza”), Dario Bellezza 6 (il cui viso è come quello <strong>de</strong>lla “luna che<br />
divi<strong>de</strong> il cielo a mezzanotte” mentre “l’alito disintegra il sole / e scioglie<br />
l’oceano tra perversi pensieri / che saziano gli spiriti inquieti”), Ricarda<br />
4 i<strong>de</strong>m 1, p. 20<br />
5 bella danzatrice sedicenne algerina che conosciuta a Biskra, lasciò straordinari<br />
ricordi sentimentali ad André Gi<strong>de</strong> evocati poi da Pierre Louÿs nella raccolta „Les<br />
chansons <strong>de</strong> Bilitis”, che fu musicata da Debussy. Il nome <strong>de</strong>lla ragazza appare nella<br />
<strong>de</strong>dica fatta a Gi<strong>de</strong>, con le iniziali: „M b A”<br />
6 (Roma, 1944 – Roma, 1996) poeta, scrittore e drammaturgo italiano, Autore di<br />
volumi di poesia: Invettive e licenze, Morte segreta, Garzanti, Milano 1976 (Premio<br />
Viareggio), Libro d'amore, Colosseo, Apologia di teatro, Serpenta, Libro di poesia,<br />
L'avversario, Proclama sul fascino, Poesie 1971-1996, 2002; di narrativa: L'innocenza<br />
(postfazione d’); Lettere da Sodoma, Il carnefice, Angelo, Storia di Nino, Turbamento,<br />
L'amore felice, Nozze col diavolo; e di teatro: Testamento di sangue, Garzanti, Milano<br />
1992<br />
118
Huch 7 (per cui “l’amore è schianto d’albero / che guasta prati / di fiori<br />
sull’orlo <strong>de</strong>l monte”), Agata Francica Nava 8 (dalle “guance / di fanciulla<br />
sbocciata da innate corolle” che si lascia “navigare dal vento per<br />
sperimentare / attimi d’abbandono”), Tomiko 9 (nel cui “giovane sangue /<br />
che i giorni orlati / di bianco dissipano in danzatrici / adolescenti con<br />
voglia di felicità”, “fermenta l’angoscia”) e Yosano Akiko 10 (“la più<br />
donna”, perché “nessuno può strappare” la sua “femminità”, e che ha il<br />
coraggio di gridare: “il corpo è un involucro che non frena / il contenuto<br />
<strong>de</strong>llo spirito”.).<br />
Sulla “discesa sabbiosa” di questo pianeta all’autore compaiono “sei<br />
personaggi” che invece di essere “in cerca d’autore” (come in Piran<strong>de</strong>llo),<br />
sono “in cerca di vita”: all’insistenza di questi, il Manitta ci presenta lo<br />
scenario <strong>de</strong>lla vita <strong>de</strong>l poeta Giovanni Pascoli nell’ambito <strong>de</strong>lla famiglia,<br />
dopo la morte di suo padre, il cui assassino (senza “volto” o “parole”) ne<br />
diventa un partecipe. Similmente alle situazioni dai canti danteschi,<br />
all’autore <strong>de</strong>ll’”Orbite d’Elissi” si avvicinano “ombre” che parlano,<br />
“balzando, avanzando o indietreggiando”, come ad una giostra.<br />
E così appaiono alla ribalta Ruggero Pascoli e Caterina Alloccatelli<br />
Vincenti (i genitori <strong>de</strong>l poeta-fanciullo), Maria (la sorella che sacrificò la<br />
felicità sua per quella <strong>de</strong>l fratello) e pure il poeta-vate il quale, dopo l’uscita<br />
di scena <strong>de</strong>ll’assassino che veniva chiamato con un “non-nome”, e che<br />
resterà condannato in eterno allo stesso <strong>de</strong>stino di Caino, <strong>de</strong>clamerà versi<br />
italiani come “ai suoi alunni” e parlerà in latino! I versi in che presentano<br />
la personalità <strong>de</strong>l Pascoli si fondano sul paradosso di quella vita espressa<br />
nei “Canti” che conobbero troppo presto la morte (di tanti suoi<br />
famigliari..): “… La morte mi ha tolto la vita. / La morte mi ha ridato la<br />
vita, eterna.”<br />
7 (1864 –1947) scrittrice te<strong>de</strong>sca, autrice di romanzi sul Risorgimento, in particolare<br />
su Giuseppe Garibaldi, Silvio Pellico e Fe<strong>de</strong>rico Confalonieri<br />
8 Nobildonna di Catania, figlia <strong>de</strong>i baroni di Bondifé, fu la moglie d’Agostino<br />
Pennini Statela, Barone di Floristella (Acireale 1890 – 1963), uomo politico, Senatore<br />
<strong>de</strong>lla Repubblica, e numismatico italiano<br />
9 attrice e mo<strong>de</strong>llo giapponese, donna poliedrica, produttrice e editrice, nata nel<br />
1979<br />
10 (1878 – 1942), scrittrice e poetessa femminista, pacifista, riformatrice sociale, una<br />
<strong>de</strong>lle più famose e controverse poetesse <strong>de</strong>l post-classicismo<br />
119
I sopravvissuti di Castelvecchio, “ombre accalcate di nuovo attorno”<br />
all’autore, sono contenti d’aver avuto l’occasione di “rivivere parlando”,<br />
quasi come i già accennati personaggi che nell’”Inferno” si avvicinavano ai<br />
due sommi poeti viandanti per raccontare le loro pene… Il frammento<br />
<strong>de</strong>dicato al pianeta Venere, finisce, come questa parte <strong>de</strong>l viaggio, con<br />
l’apparizione <strong>de</strong>l sole, che porta il girovagante per il cosmo, su “un’altra<br />
orbita”. E così comincia una nuova Odissea, legata agli altri pianeti, abitati<br />
da diversi personaggi. Ma su questa si parlerà in un altro spazio e tempo<br />
narrativo, sempre restando sulla nostra Terra…, perché il libro diventa un<br />
succe<strong>de</strong>rsi di canti inneggianti <strong>de</strong>dicati ad inedite figure di ieri e d’oggi<br />
appartenenti alla storia, alla politica ed alla cultura.<br />
Tra i più importanti personaggi che il poeta incontra nel suo viaggio<br />
galattico ci sono Madre Teresa, Giovanni XXIII, Bene<strong>de</strong>tto Croce,<br />
Friedrich Nietzsche, Gabrielle d’Annunzio, Henry-Louis Bergson, Primo<br />
Levi, Anna Frank, Yasser Arafat, Benito Mussolini, Lenin, Roosvelt, Hitler,<br />
Stalin, Aldo Moro, Berlinguer, Atatrük, Kruscev, Martin Luther King, Mao<br />
Zedong, Golda Meir, Einstein e Piran<strong>de</strong>llo, la famiglia di scienziati Curie<br />
ed altri. Non mancano John Kennedy e Aristotelis Onasis, accanto alle<br />
emblematiche figure d’artisti come Marilyn Monroe, John Lenon,<br />
Josephine Baker ed altri. “Le voci <strong>de</strong>lla solitudine” sono Marcel Proust e<br />
Cesare Pavese, Antonio Gramsci ed Eugenio Montale, che insieme agli altri<br />
sommi poeti <strong>de</strong>l dopoguerra – Giuseppe Ungaretti, Salvatore Quasimodo,<br />
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, hanno tracciato la nuova strada <strong>de</strong>lla poesia<br />
europea. Accanto a loro si trovano Apollinaire e Garcia Lorca, Pablo<br />
Neruda e quel poeta straordinario <strong>de</strong>i colori e <strong>de</strong>lle linee composte nella<br />
loro <strong>de</strong>composizione, Pablo Picasso. Maria Callas, la più soave voce <strong>de</strong>l<br />
secolo abita, insieme alla sottile autrice Simone <strong>de</strong> Beauvoir ed a Pier<br />
Paolo Pasolini (visto come un figlio di Me<strong>de</strong>a a causa <strong>de</strong>lla sua<br />
omosessualità), l’ultimo pianeta <strong>de</strong>ll’orbite, Plutone, o “l’ultimo baluardo<br />
<strong>de</strong>l sistema solare”.<br />
Molto interessante è l’apparizione, tra tutte queste figure d’illustri<br />
uomini vissuti sulla terra, sotto il segno sia <strong>de</strong>l bene, che <strong>de</strong>l male (così<br />
come ogni pianeta contenesse in se elementi contrari), anche concetti ed<br />
istituzioni, quali “la religione, la donna, il tradimento, la droga, il<br />
pacifismo, l’infe<strong>de</strong>ltà, l’attesa ed il nulla”. E ancora più interessante è<br />
120
l’apparizione, alla fine di questo fantastico viaggio orbitale di un<br />
personaggio la cui età è quella giusta per chiu<strong>de</strong>re il filo narrativo <strong>de</strong>l libro:<br />
“il nonno”.<br />
A questo suo avo incontrato in una dimensione paradisiaca, il poeta<br />
offre <strong>de</strong>i fiori “..raccolti / dal tuo campo, sono belli, / si, ma emanano un<br />
odore / di tristezza, nonno. Sono / crisantemi cresciuti sulla terra / che<br />
un tempo fu tua che ora / è nostra, purtroppo. La tua / terra ora giace là,<br />
al sole, / abbandonata, i rovi crescono, / le colture muoiono, nonno.” ..<br />
perché gli italiani emigrarono a lavorare terre straniere, non portando con<br />
loro che “un labile filo di speranza”..<br />
Al nonno il poeta si rivolge con tanta tenerezza, … poco prima di<br />
“annegarsi in un’immensità di nulla”, cioè di “non pensieri, non emozioni,<br />
non ombre, non figure”, con le quali invece aveva occupato tutto lo spazio<br />
intellettuale e sensoriale <strong>de</strong>l lettore, che non conoscendo l’avventura che<br />
doveva affrontare, lo ha sempre accompagnato.. L’immaginazione non<br />
permette al poeta di “sognare la luce” o di “figurarsela”. Eppure da questo<br />
“vagare eterno, un sonno eterno e imperituro”, ad un tratto viene “scosso<br />
da un leggero tremolio”, e mentre gli appare “una fievole luce”, torna,<br />
come Dante, “a rive<strong>de</strong>re le stelle”. Nell’”Orbite d’Elisse – Big Bang -<br />
Sistema solare” la bellezza diventa una presenza permanente che<br />
coordina il tempo in cui nasce la poesia “sfiorata” e “trasformata” in<br />
“realtà impalpabile di sublimi emozioni”.<br />
L’esperienza vissuta dal poeta è insieme sensoriale ed intellettuale,<br />
perché questo viaggio straordinario si compie, come svelano i versi di<br />
Rabindranath Tagore nel motto che apre il volume: 11<br />
“ … sopra queste acque tacite e calme<br />
ha inizio la traversata tra astri e stelle ..”<br />
BIBLIOGRAFIA<br />
1. Manitta Angelo, (gennaio 2010), „Orbite d’ellissi Big Bang –<br />
Sistema solare”, Il Convivio, Castiglione di Sicilia<br />
11 „Orbite d’ellissi Big Bang – Sistema solare”, Il Convivio, Castiglione di Sicilia,<br />
gennaio 2010, p. 22<br />
121
2. Manitta Angelo (gennaio 2008), „Big Bang, Visione di Luce”, Il<br />
Convivio, Castiglione di Sicilia<br />
3. Civitareale Pietro, (gennaio 2010), “Il poema etico di Angelo<br />
Manitta”, Prefazione a “Orbite d’Ellisse – Big Bang – Sistema solare”, Il<br />
Convivio, pp. 7 – 10<br />
4. Chiodo Carmine, (gennaio 2008), Prefazione a “Big Bang Visione<br />
di Luce”, Il Convivio, pp. 5 – 12<br />
Sitografia: Ricarda Huch, Agata Francica Nava, Tomino, Yosano<br />
Akiko, Wikipedia - Enciclopedia libera, 20.04.2011, h. 17,03<br />
122
ADVERTISING LANGUAGE – THE REVOLUTION OF<br />
“CAROUSEL”<br />
Andreea Boariu <br />
antoniasgift@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract: Carousel was a transmission from the Italian television, aired<br />
on the National Program and then on the network RAI 1 from February 3rd<br />
1957 to Januaryb 1st 1977. It was transmitted daily from 8:50 PM to 21:00,<br />
except on Good Friday and the 2 nd of November. It consisted of a series of<br />
movies followed by advertisements. The main rule of the Carousel was that the<br />
show section (the "piece", with a duration of 1 minute and 45 seconds), had to be<br />
rigidly separated and distinguishable from the purely advertising part (the<br />
"tail", with a duration of 30 seconds). The passage from the work piece to the<br />
tail was always through a key sentence uttered by the player. The advertised<br />
product could appear only in the final part.<br />
Keywords: Carousel, advertising, RAI 1 television show<br />
Il linguaggio è il più usato tra gli strumenti <strong>de</strong>lla comunicazione e per<br />
lungo tempo è rimasto, nella forma orale, l’unico modo di trasmettere<br />
informazioni, fino all’avvento <strong>de</strong>lla scrittura, che apre la civiltà <strong>de</strong>l libro,<br />
come la <strong>de</strong>finisce David Riesman. 1<br />
Uno <strong>de</strong>i più attivi linguaggi settoriali è quello <strong>de</strong>lla pubblicità, che ci<br />
bombarda quotidianamente attraverso ogni manifestazione divulgativa<br />
<strong>de</strong>lla civiltà <strong>de</strong>i consumi; particolarmente attivo in quanto, a differenza di<br />
altri linguaggi settoriali, quello pubblicitario investe tutti gli aspetti e gli<br />
oggetti <strong>de</strong>lla nostra vita quotidiana, dai cibi ai cosmetici, dai medicinali<br />
all’arredamento, dagli strumenti <strong>de</strong>lla cultura ai mezzi <strong>de</strong>lla locomozione<br />
ecc.<br />
Assistant “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest<br />
1 Riesman, David, La folla solitaria, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1956<br />
123
Bisogna sottolineare che ora - pubblicità, radio, televisione, cinema –<br />
sono le prime manifestazioni <strong>de</strong>lla nuova cultura, le basi di un nuovo<br />
umanesimo più a<strong>de</strong>rente, più congruo al nostro tempo e alla nostra<br />
sensibilità. La pubblicità ugualmente concerne la salute, il confort,<br />
l’agiatezza, il prestigio, la bellezza, la seduzione; si sviluppano o si creano<br />
<strong>de</strong>si<strong>de</strong>ri, voglie, bisogni. Il linguaggio <strong>de</strong>lla pubblicità ha tutto l’interesse di<br />
convincere e persua<strong>de</strong>re un pubblico possibilmente largo di potenziali<br />
acquirenti . Perciò tale linguaggio, per forza, <strong>de</strong>ve essere accessibile a tale<br />
pubblico pur mirando ad una certa originalità nella creazione di<br />
neologismi e nell’uso di costruzioni. La pubblicità può essere spiritosa o<br />
irritante, volgare o stimolante, dura o morbida, antiquata o innovativa,<br />
informativa o martellante.<br />
«La pubblicità, sebbene sia veicolata dai mass media e in particolare<br />
dalla televisione e stia assumendo un carattere sempre più estetico, è<br />
comunque legata a scopi funzionali e mantiene l’aspetto conativo primario.<br />
Diffusa massicciamente a partire dalla fine <strong>de</strong>ll’Ottocento, ha avuto<br />
scarsa influenza sul pubblico italiano che a quell’epoca era in gran parte<br />
analfabeta; attraverso le pagine <strong>de</strong>lla “Domenica <strong>de</strong>l Corriere” ha<br />
raggiunto le fasce <strong>de</strong>lla piccola e media borghesia <strong>de</strong>ll’epoca, ha invece<br />
avuto scarsi sviluppi negli ultimi anni <strong>de</strong>l fascismo.» 2<br />
La data fondamentale per la sua evoluzione in Italia è quella <strong>de</strong>lla sua<br />
prima presenza organizzata sulla TV, il 13 febbraio 1957, su Carosello,<br />
sorta di micro trasmissione che concentrava cinque diversi messaggi<br />
pubblicitari e segnava lo spartiacque tra i programmi per adulti e per<br />
bambini; questi ultimi infatti andavano generalmente a dormire dopo il<br />
Carosello. «In quell’epoca i messaggi erano molto espliciti, con<br />
accentuazione <strong>de</strong>lla referenzialità e predominanza <strong>de</strong>l testo verbale. E’ di<br />
quegli anni l’impiego di superlativi, fenomeni di varia comparazione ed<br />
enfatizzazione prosodica ampiamente conosciuti e studiati ma ormai di<br />
poco effetto per il consumatore smaliziato <strong>de</strong>i giorni nostri.» 3<br />
Per molti motivi Carosello è stata una favola. Ma non soltanto per i<br />
bambini. Prima <strong>de</strong>i Carosello, l’Italia aveva vissuto la pubblicità <strong>de</strong>i<br />
2 Coveri Lorenzo, Benucci Antonella, Diadori Pierangela, Le varietà <strong>de</strong>ll’italiano.<br />
Manuale di sociolinguistica italiana, Bonacci editore, Roma, 1998, p.159<br />
3 I<strong>de</strong>m 1, p.159<br />
124
manifesti, <strong>de</strong>gli annunci grafici, <strong>de</strong>i pocchi film pubblicitari proiettati nelle<br />
sale cinematografiche <strong>de</strong>lla città. «Muri, giornali e cinema assicuravano<br />
alla pubblicità un pubblico cittadino, relativamente ristretto e spesso<br />
distratto. La prima sera <strong>de</strong>l Carosello compaiono: Shell, l’Oréal, Singer,<br />
Cynar. Ma è nata in uno strano modo, con una serie di compromessi,<br />
quindi con una formula ibrida, che avrebbe dovuto attenuare l’impatto <strong>de</strong>l<br />
consumismo: e invece ne fu, paradossalmente, un <strong>de</strong>tonatore di altissima<br />
potenza. Per vent’anni, da quel 13 febbraio fino al 1977, l’Italia è stato<br />
l’unico Paese al mondo che abbia fatto pubblicità televisiva, obbligando le<br />
industrie committenti, le agenzie di pubblicità ed i produttori di film a<br />
inventare uno spettacolo: questo non doveva avere nessun riferimento al<br />
prodotto e si limitava a finire, in modo più o meno giustificato, con un<br />
messaggio pubblicitario appiccicato allo spettacolino.» 4 Erano, agli inizi,<br />
cinque spot per ogni sera. Cinque spot ben separati dal telegiornale che li<br />
prece<strong>de</strong>va e dalle trasmissioni che seguivano. Ogni Carosello era<br />
costituito da un minuto e quaranta secondi d’intrattenimento, o spettacolo<br />
(ridotti a un minuto negli ultimi anni), nei quali era proibito<br />
assolutamente parlare <strong>de</strong>l prodotto. Certo, Carosello non rimase l’unica<br />
rubrica pubblicitaria, e intorno al 1960, furono introdotti gli spot di<br />
Arcobaleno e Tic Tac, di 35 secondi.<br />
«Però, alcuni specialisti avevano orrore <strong>de</strong>lla pubblicità per un<br />
pregiudizio giornalistico, come i vecchi direttori <strong>de</strong>i quotidiani che, allora,<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>ravano ogni annuncio pubblicitario in termini di righe sottratte agli<br />
articoli. E avevano sinceramente paura <strong>de</strong>lle reazioni <strong>de</strong>l pubblico.» 5<br />
Pensavano che non si dovessero annoiare gli spettatori con i messagi<br />
interessati <strong>de</strong>lle industrie, ma che si dovesse divertirli: il divertimento<br />
(cantanti, scenette comiche, cartoni animato) avrebbe dovuto annacquare<br />
la brutalità <strong>de</strong>l messaggio commerciale.<br />
«Nel celebrare il primo <strong>de</strong>cennale di Carosello, la RAI faceva<br />
scrivere:<br />
La pubblicità televisiva è nata e si è sviluppata nel nostro paese in<br />
modo strutturalmente diverso da quanto non sia ad esempio accaduto<br />
4 Falabrino Gian Luigi, Pubblicità serva padrona. Protagonisti, strategie e<br />
battaglie <strong>de</strong>l mercato italiano, Seme S.p.A. – Divisione Libri, Milano, 1989, p.60<br />
5 I<strong>de</strong>m 1, p.61<br />
125
negli Stati Uniti, dove l’anima commerciale ha permeato di sé il<br />
contenuto <strong>de</strong>i programmi, l’articolazione <strong>de</strong>lle reti, la stessa<br />
organizzazione <strong>de</strong>gli enti televisivi. (In AA.VV., Pubblicità e Televisione,<br />
ERI, Roma, 1968, introduzione)» 6<br />
In sostanza, Carosello era il frutto di un’ipocrisia: si accettava di fare<br />
pubblicità, ma con vergogna. Anche il nome doveva essere tradizionale e in<br />
qualche modo “familiare”: forse Carosello fu scelto non tanto perché<br />
significhi torneo, parata, serie di giochi ed esercizi, ma sull’onda <strong>de</strong>llo<br />
strepitoso successo <strong>de</strong>l film Carosello napoletano che per qualche<br />
anno apparve l’inizio <strong>de</strong>l musical italiano.<br />
Per fortuna <strong>de</strong>lle industrie, e per una provvi<strong>de</strong>nziale ven<strong>de</strong>tta <strong>de</strong>lla<br />
psicologia collettiva, questa formula ottene un successo enorme: l’effetto fu<br />
proprio contrario a quella che si sarebbe voluto. Dapprima ebbe successo<br />
per il solo fatto di esserci, per la novità; poì, per la struttura narrativa<br />
molto semplice, per l’ancoraggio ai divi comici e musicali <strong>de</strong>l momento,<br />
per gli spettacoli brevi ed essenziali.<br />
«Se si rivedono oggi, quasi tutti i Caroselli <strong>de</strong>gli inizi sembrano<br />
lunghi, monotoni e ingenui.» 7 Però allora funzionava in tutti un impasto<br />
imprevedibile: un’atmosfera spettacolare e magica collegava il prodotto<br />
all’attore o al cantante di successo che lo aveva preceduto.<br />
La caratteristica principale <strong>de</strong>l Carosello e la chiave <strong>de</strong>l suo<br />
incredibile successo stavano nel fatto che quella particolare formula<br />
pubblicitaria presentava i consumi con il linguaggio e con l’aura <strong>de</strong>lla<br />
favola e <strong>de</strong>l divismo, cioè nei linguaggi familiari alle masse, anche le più<br />
sprovvedute.<br />
Quando si dice che la pubblicità è cambiata dopo il 1980, per effetto<br />
<strong>de</strong>lle televisioni private e <strong>de</strong>i network che ne sono seguiti, ci si dimentica<br />
<strong>de</strong>l resto, cioè si dimentica che la vecchia pubblicità italiana era<br />
caratterizzata non soltanto dalla formula di Carosello e dal suo<br />
razionamento, ma anche – e moltissimo – dalla povertà <strong>de</strong>ll’immagine in<br />
bianco-nero.<br />
6 I<strong>de</strong>m 1, p.62<br />
7 Falabrino Gian Luigi, Pubblicità serva padrona. Protagonisti, strategie e<br />
battaglie <strong>de</strong>l mercato italiano, Seme S.p.A. – Divisione Libri, Milano, 1989, p.63<br />
126
«Ai tempi di Carosello poteva capitare che il legame fra<br />
l’intrattenimento e il prodotto fosse così naturale da garantire un<br />
accoppiamento immediato e saldo fra i due termini <strong>de</strong>llo spot (Con quella<br />
bocca può dire ciò che vuole <strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>ntrificio Chlorodont, Anch’io ho<br />
commesso un errore <strong>de</strong>lla brillantina Linetti, Or che bravo sono stato/<br />
posso fare anche il bucato? diceva il robot di Candy); oppure lo spettacolo<br />
era ripetuto per molto tempo (Caio Gregorio, guardiano <strong>de</strong>l pretorio), o<br />
ancora, il personaggio suscitava divertimento infantile e tenerezze materne<br />
(più di ogni altro, Calimero, il pulcino nero)» 8 Carosello faceva lievitare<br />
le vendite, diffon<strong>de</strong>va in tutta Italia prodotti fino allora poco distribuiti,<br />
imponeva nuove marche, cambiava abitudini di consumo, di vita, di<br />
linguaggio. Unificava il mercato o, in qualche modo, come Mike Bongiorno<br />
e il suo linguaggio stereotipato, ma comprensibile agli incolti, contribuiva<br />
a una unificazione <strong>de</strong>l Paese.<br />
Ripetitivo, ma razionato Carosello era soprattuto rituale. Era un<br />
teatrino che compariva a un’ora fissa, con una musica tradizionale e allegra<br />
e con una serie di svelti siparietti sui luoghi comuni <strong>de</strong>l folklore italiano.<br />
Dove c’è rito, c’è sempre un po’ di religione: così Carosello accreditava e<br />
accentuava la funzione pedagogica <strong>de</strong>lla pubblicità a vantaggio <strong>de</strong>ll’intero<br />
sistema <strong>de</strong>i consumi e di un nuovo modo di vivere, insegnava il distacco<br />
dalla morale <strong>de</strong>lla rinuncia a favore <strong>de</strong>lla voluttosa immersione nel<br />
possesso.<br />
«La pubblicità televisiva ha insegnato a milioni di contadini e pastori<br />
frettolosamente inurbati un minimo di convenzioni sociali; la necessità di<br />
lavarsi i <strong>de</strong>nti e l’opportunità <strong>de</strong>lla carta igienica.» 9<br />
Anche la liberazione <strong>de</strong>lla donna dalla schiavitù <strong>de</strong>l bucato a mano,<br />
fatto col sapone, la liscivia e l’olio di gomito, e la trasformazione di tante<br />
abitudini e fatiche casalinghe, hanno il nome <strong>de</strong>lla pubblicità televisiva.<br />
«Ma c’è molto di più. Come ha scritto Enzo Rava,<br />
la pubblicità rivelò alle donne <strong>de</strong>l Sud, impaludate di nero e umiliate<br />
nella servitù domestica, non soltanto l’esistenza di comodità quali<br />
lavastoviglie e aspirapolvere, ma anche di valori, che come tali venivano<br />
8 Falabrino Gian Luigi, Pubblicità serva padrona. Protagonisti, strategie e<br />
battaglie <strong>de</strong>l mercato italiano, Seme S.p.A. – Divisione Libri, Milano, 1989, p.64<br />
9 I<strong>de</strong>m 1, p.66<br />
127
presentati, quali la salute fisica, la belezza, la femminilità in quanto tale.<br />
Si verificò, rapidamente uno spostamento sismico nella concezione <strong>de</strong>l<br />
mondo in centinaia di migliaia, in milioni di teste. Che scoprirono che<br />
quanto fino allora avevano dovuto nascon<strong>de</strong>re quasi come una vergogna<br />
era, altrove, nel Nord, presentato ad esempio, consi<strong>de</strong>rato titolo di<br />
merito, qualità umana, prestigio. La pubblicità televisiva <strong>de</strong>l reggiseno<br />
ebbe una potenza dirompente, nel campo <strong>de</strong>l costume privato prima,<br />
<strong>de</strong>ll’intero modo di pensare poì, pari – ad esempio – a quella di certi<br />
slogan politici tipo “Occupiamo le terre incolte” tra i già rassegnati servi<br />
<strong>de</strong>lla gleba <strong>de</strong>l latifondo. In conclusione, le pecorelle che introducevano i<br />
Caroselli erano, in quella TV di Bernabei che si illu<strong>de</strong>va di poter fare il<br />
pastore <strong>de</strong>l gregge, veri e propri cavalli di Troia: veicolavano immagini<br />
che dicevano: è falso che il mondo non possa essere che vale di lagrime,<br />
rassegnazione, fatica, vergogna di sè.» 10<br />
Questa era Carosello, favola per gli adulti. Ma ancor era favola per i<br />
bambini. Oggi, il mondo <strong>de</strong>lla pubblicità è un mondo di esseri felici, un<br />
mondo che potrebbe benissimo essere il paradiso se non vi fosse il<br />
problema <strong>de</strong>lla camicia sporca e l’ansia <strong>de</strong>ll’alito cattivo. Il motivo<br />
principale <strong>de</strong>l messaggio pubblicitario ormai non è più la propaganda <strong>de</strong>l<br />
prodotto, ma il tentativo organizzato e sistematico di imporre una precisa<br />
i<strong>de</strong>ologia a cui l’individuo si adatti progressivamente fino a per<strong>de</strong>re la<br />
coscienza <strong>de</strong>l reale, e con essa ogni capacità di critica e di reazione.<br />
«Quando si fa propaganda all’aperitivo X, in realtà si fa propaganda non<br />
all’aperitivo in sé, ma a un modo di vita, in cui l’aperitivo X è un distintivo,<br />
un’allegoria, un segno. Non si dice: “Bevete l’aperitivo X perché così<br />
facendo entrerete come noi nel mondo <strong>de</strong>lla felicità e <strong>de</strong>lla tranquillità; voi<br />
che ora siete inquieti, voi che ora avete <strong>de</strong>i problemi, voi che ora state<br />
cercando, guardate i segni <strong>de</strong>i tempi: bevete come noi l’aperitivo X e la<br />
ricerca sarà finita.» 11<br />
L’ultimo paradosso <strong>de</strong>lla pubblicità è questo: contestata quando era<br />
scarsa, affidata in gran parte alla stampa e limitata in televisione, a<strong>de</strong>sso<br />
10 Falabrino Gian Luigi, Pubblicità serva padrona. Protagonisti, strategie e<br />
battaglie <strong>de</strong>l mercato italiano, Seme S.p.A. – Divisione Libri, Milano, 1989, p. 66<br />
11 Pignotti Lamberto, Il Supernulla. I<strong>de</strong>ologia e linguaggio <strong>de</strong>lla pubblicità,<br />
Guaraldi Editore S.p.A., Firenze, 1974, p.27<br />
128
che straripa da tutte le parti non è più rifiutata, ma è diventata<br />
protagonista, blandita dai politici, argomento di moda.<br />
BIBLIOGRAFIA<br />
1. Beccaria Gian Luigi (a cura di), (1973), I linguaggi settoriali in<br />
Italia, Casa Editrice Valentino Bompiani&C.S.p.A., Milano<br />
2. Borcia Otilia Doroteea, (2003), Percorsi cognitivi traduttologici la<br />
traduzione <strong>de</strong>lle varietà diatopiche e diafasiche, Editura Oscar Print,<br />
Bucureşti<br />
3. Falabrino Gian Luigi, (1989), Pubblicità serva padrona.<br />
Protagonisti, strategie e battaglie <strong>de</strong>l mercato italiano, Seme S.p.A. –<br />
Divisione Libri, Milano<br />
4. Grandi, Roberto, (1987), Come parla la pubblicità. Mo<strong>de</strong>lli<br />
comunicativi <strong>de</strong>gli spot pubblicitari, Edizioni <strong>de</strong>l Sole 24 Ore, Milano<br />
129
130<br />
COUNTERCULTURE INCLUDES TRADITION<br />
Felix Nicolau <br />
felix_nicus@yahoo.com<br />
“When I read it, I don't wince, which is<br />
all I ever ask for a book I write.” -<br />
Norman Mailer<br />
Abstract: By stating that counterculture inclu<strong>de</strong>s tradition we un<strong>de</strong>rstand<br />
that the beat generation is not so disconnected from the message exposed by the<br />
American transcen<strong>de</strong>ntalist writers of the 19 th century. So tradition is present in<br />
a subtle form even in the movements that challenge the literary and artistic<br />
establishment. Counterculture is different from subculture – thus it is normal<br />
that it inclu<strong>de</strong>s a tradition that was thwarted by the cultural mainstream.<br />
Keywords: Beat, transcen<strong>de</strong>ntalism, counterculture, Ken Kesey,<br />
experiment.<br />
Isn’t it clear that the gol<strong>de</strong>n days of counterculture have been<br />
swallowed by the conformist and dry mainstream? The scourging days of<br />
1964, when Timothy Leary urged: “you have to Go out of Your Mind to Use<br />
Your Head” 1 . Those years when the experiments with psyche<strong>de</strong>lic drugs<br />
took place at Harvard and on writers! The counterculture took on to<br />
aesthetic experiments together with a sharp social involvement. The same<br />
Leary professing open hate to the establishment: “To shoot a genocidal<br />
robot policeman in the <strong>de</strong>fense of life is a sacred act” 2 . And keep in mind –<br />
this was the second stage of counterculture, after its pinnacle!<br />
Senior Lecturer PhD., “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest<br />
1 Whitmer, O. Peter and Bruce VanWyngar<strong>de</strong>n, Aquarius revisited: Seven Who<br />
Created the Sixties Counterculture that Changed America: William Burroughs, Allen<br />
Ginsberg, Ken Kesey, Timothy Leary, Norman Mailer, MacMillan, New York, 1987, p. 15.<br />
2 Whitmer, O. Peter and Bruce VanWyngar<strong>de</strong>n, Aquarius revisited: Seven Who<br />
Created the Sixties Counterculture that Changed America: William Burroughs, Allen<br />
Ginsberg, Ken Kesey, Timothy Leary, Norman Mailer, MacMillan, New York, 1987, p. 42.
The authenticity of counterculture is indisputable as writers’<br />
biographies extensively rivalled their fiction. In 1960 Norman Mailer<br />
stabbed his wife. Okay then, he was mentally disturbed. If it had been only<br />
for that! But his private life got re<strong>de</strong>emed by overflowing into the public<br />
realm. In 1969 he ran for mayor of New York. The writer’s status was so<br />
important that he could charge 50 bucks admission to his 50 th birthday<br />
party. What if he had covered Adam’s lifespan?<br />
Dolly culture, crazy counterculture<br />
Within the same interval, Hunter S. Thompson was going for “big<br />
bang psychotherapy” 3 firing rifles out of his window. No won<strong>de</strong>r he was<br />
<strong>de</strong>scribed as “a literary bull in the china shop of western civilization” 4 . Now<br />
we can clearly hear the “hum of the block machinery” 5 , that is the Combine<br />
repressing everything that wanted to be different. What if culture,<br />
especially the aca<strong>de</strong>mic one, has become a Procrustean <strong>de</strong>vice supporting a<br />
hypocrite and dull political correctness? What if this new type of culture,<br />
cemented with piles of red tape – rules, regulations, diplomas and<br />
certificates – has got the appearance of Miss Ratched in One Flew over<br />
the Cuckoo’s Nest? “Her face is smooth, calculated, and precision-ma<strong>de</strong>,<br />
like an expensive baby doll, blend of white and cream and baby-blue eyes,<br />
small nose, pink little nostrils” 6 . A dolly culture imbued with cute and cosy<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>rations, the function of which is more and more didactic, but less<br />
and less challenging and critical.<br />
Now, what is the good of a civilized culture, wherein one writes<br />
keeping the score: number of articles, scholarships, memberships,<br />
committees and so forth? If McMurphy popped in one day and asked us:<br />
“Who’s the bull goose loony here” 7 , how many of us would have the guts to<br />
3 Whitmer, O. Peter and Bruce VanWyngar<strong>de</strong>n, Aquarius revisited: Seven Who<br />
Created the Sixties Counterculture that Changed America: William Burroughs, Allen<br />
Ginsberg, Ken Kesey, Timothy Leary, Norman Mailer, MacMillan, New York, 1987, p. 87.<br />
4 Whitmer, O. Peter and Bruce VanWyngar<strong>de</strong>n. Aquarius revisited: Seven Who<br />
Created the Sixties Counterculture that Changed America: William Burroughs, Allen<br />
Ginsberg, Ken Kesey, Timothy Leary, Norman Mailer, MacMillan, New York, 1987, p. 88.<br />
5 Kesey, Ken. One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Clays Ltd, London. 2002. p. 7.<br />
6 Kesey, Ken. One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Clays Ltd, London. 2002. p. 10.<br />
7 Kesey, Ken. One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Clays Ltd, London. 2002. p. 25.<br />
131
face him? He was battling hammer and tongs against that Big Nurse who<br />
wanted everybody and everything “adjusted”. One way or another, even<br />
we, the intelligentsia, have become the employees of a cultural factory. But<br />
this giving in isn’t sufficient. We have to let ourselves be reformed into “a<br />
bunch of chickens at a peckin’ party” 8 , telling on those still resisting, those<br />
who don’t want to surren<strong>de</strong>r to the snugly rhinoceros condition.<br />
Try and not be polite, try and not be ecumenical and the globalists will<br />
ridicule you as a retrogra<strong>de</strong> factor. Again, we are living in an Age of<br />
Enlightenment relying not that much on Reason, but on conformity to<br />
corporate thinking. As Harding, the philosopher of the loonies put it<br />
allegorically: “All of us in here are rabbits of varying ages and <strong>de</strong>grees,<br />
hippity-hopping through our Walt Disney world” 9 .<br />
A tumultuous ivory tower<br />
The paradox of this Newer World Or<strong>de</strong>r is that all the previously<br />
banished abnormalities and perversities are now accepted as long as they<br />
back up the conjugated efforts of diminishing liberties. You can be<br />
whatever you like if only in small quantities and slumbering intensity. Like<br />
in John Fowles’s The Collector, the thinkers are a Miranda imprisoned<br />
by a Caliban incapable of un<strong>de</strong>rstanding her larger-than-world aspirations.<br />
I think Orwell overestimated the fears of the dominant class. Why would it<br />
be necessary to make people blindly believe the official lie and fanatically<br />
die for it? Religion, not to say philosophy and art, is a strong enemy of<br />
manipulation. Better and easier is to replace these abstract attractions with<br />
superstitions and consumerism.<br />
As for the creators and thinkers, they can brood over whatever they<br />
want as long as they draw the conclusions only in their minds. The mind<br />
stays free, but the expression of it no. Disentangling from all sorts of<br />
manipulations becomes har<strong>de</strong>r and har<strong>de</strong>r. In or<strong>de</strong>r to attain this<br />
capability, one needs (counter)culture, not official and tamed education.<br />
But (counter)culture doesn’t pay anymore. The contemporary free-thinker<br />
has become a famished figure.<br />
132<br />
8 Kesey, Ken. One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Clays Ltd, London. 2002. p. 72.<br />
9 Kesey, Ken. One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Clays Ltd, London. 2002. p. 81.
What we shouldn’t forget is that the Beats didn’t molly-coddle in<br />
literature. Their movement was a reaction against “the stifling conformity<br />
of the Eisenhower presi<strong>de</strong>ncy of the 1950’s” 10 . This political involvement<br />
highlights the seriousness un<strong>de</strong>rlying all their revelries and escapa<strong>de</strong>s.<br />
Then, it was the position taken against the Korean War, immediately after<br />
which many representatives of the (quasi)generation abruptly en<strong>de</strong>d their<br />
public life.<br />
The Beats - hardly a generation<br />
Although the Beat writers dwelled mainly upon their personal<br />
experiences, heavily relying on the first person narrative, they never<br />
enjoyed escapism. In their case, the ivory tower was a travelling <strong>de</strong>vice,<br />
either spatially or in the guise of a drug trip. If their i<strong>de</strong>als converged to a<br />
certain <strong>de</strong>gree, this aspect doesn’t entitle us to crowd them un<strong>de</strong>r the flag<br />
of a generation. Already in the 60’s the genuine spirit of the group had<br />
ma<strong>de</strong> room for the “media-hyped ‘beatnik’ industry” 11 , an appalling<br />
conclusion for the real Beats. We mustn’t forget that the term “beatnik”<br />
was an ironic coinage. In criticizing the dullness of the new post-war<br />
material comfort, the Beats turned to patriarchal values. They are the true<br />
heirs of those Transcen<strong>de</strong>ntalists who had withdrawn to hamlets and<br />
cultivated their own back-gar<strong>de</strong>n food. Ralph Waldo Emerson warned<br />
about the dangers of the economic spirit swallowing the spiritual values. If<br />
we gather together the critiques brought to the American Dream, we shall<br />
notice the common key struck in turns by the Transcen<strong>de</strong>ntalists, the<br />
Beats and the more comprehensive Flower-Power movement. On the one<br />
hand, we have the primitive and Zen attitu<strong>de</strong>, on the other hand the<br />
Fordist enthusiasm for technological progress and social welfare.<br />
Ginsberg’s mantra “first thought, best thought” isn’t that far away from<br />
Henry David Thoreau’s Wal<strong>de</strong>n preaching spontaneity, simplicity, and<br />
pure-heartedness. Now the culture should imply individualism and, at<br />
least, cleavage from, if not protest against, the utilitarian-gregarious vision<br />
10 Gair, Christopher. The Beat Generation: a Beginner's Gui<strong>de</strong>. 2008, Oneworld<br />
Publications. London, p. 25.<br />
11 Gair, Christopher. The Beat Generation: a Beginner's Gui<strong>de</strong>. 2008, Oneworld<br />
Publications. London, p. 5.<br />
133
of the world. And here lies the main difference from subsequent literary<br />
currents inferring themselves from the Beat “canon”. The Beats didn’t pay<br />
homage to literature as to a fetish - as it will be the case with their<br />
preten<strong>de</strong>d successors. Writing was mainly a lifestyle, the capture of<br />
psyche<strong>de</strong>lic and social experiments. This fact is reflected in the Beat<br />
counterculture’s protagonists becoming in time (well-sold) idols of the<br />
popular culture.<br />
Again, the Beat attitu<strong>de</strong> wasn’t strictly a scriptural one. All the arts<br />
shook hands over sabotaging the pon<strong>de</strong>rous mainstream. There came the<br />
Bebop, Marlon Brandon’s Method Acting and Jackson Pollock’s Abstract<br />
Expressionism. Their involvement was so fierce that many exponents of<br />
this reshaping of artistic condition <strong>de</strong>stroyed their lives or others. Lucien<br />
Carr killed David Kammerer, Jackson Pollock suffered a fatal car acci<strong>de</strong>nt<br />
as a result of his chronic alcoholism, Jack Kerouac had a vicious and<br />
premature <strong>de</strong>ath, not to say about William Burroughs who shot Joan<br />
Vollmer and shockingly admitted afterwards: “I am forced to the appalling<br />
conclusion that I would not have become a writer but for Joan’s <strong>de</strong>ath. The<br />
<strong>de</strong>ath of Joan brought me into contact with the inva<strong>de</strong>r, the Ugly Spirit,<br />
and manoeuvred me into a lifelong struggle in which I had no choice<br />
except to write my way out” 12 . “Writing their way out” meant writing on<br />
the brink of craziness; which is somehow paradoxical if we keep in mind<br />
the structural conservatism of the Beats. Their writing techniques may be<br />
avanguardist (see Burroughs’s cut-up method), but their message and<br />
their cultural background stay conservative and romantic.<br />
So, Bebop relaxes the geometry of Swing in jazz, Marlon Brandon’s<br />
impersonating Stanley Kowalski in Tennessee William’s A Street Car<br />
Named Desire epitomized the importance of gesture and of<br />
overwhelming, animal passion, disregarding the clear and self-contained<br />
diction, while Abstract Expressionism reacted against the figurative social<br />
realism prevalent in the painting around 1930. Beat culture meant<br />
especially context. Context is always a kind of shelter, too. One feels<br />
protected, one could slip into improvising. As the new musicians did,<br />
Kerouac used to practise his pen in sketching whatsoever passed by his<br />
12 Gair, Christopher, The Beat Generation: a Beginner's Gui<strong>de</strong>, Oneworld<br />
Publications, London, 2008, p. 11.<br />
134
window. The fragment became momentous. Of course, the power of<br />
fragment lies in its expressivity, not in the complex structure or in<br />
imposing i<strong>de</strong>ational concatenations. Original techniques emerged in every<br />
art, all of them <strong>de</strong>sirous to disrupt continuity, logics, figurativeness, and<br />
bourgeois <strong>de</strong>cency. Maybe the quintessential approach was that of Jackson<br />
Pollock, surnamed “Jack the Dripper” by Time magazine, on account of<br />
his peripatetic and dripping way of painting.<br />
The imperative of paradox<br />
All these instances lead to the conclusion that the Beats lived an<br />
insurmountable paradox. They mo<strong>de</strong>rnized fiction writing – at the level of<br />
phraseology and narrative strategies –, but admitted to the formative<br />
influence of tradition. Alienated or self-exiled, they envisaged constituting<br />
an élite, <strong>de</strong>spising commercial success. Simultaneously, their themes<br />
focused on the lives of cultivated or tormented outcasts. Their<br />
inspirational reality was placed at the outskirts of society. This savage and<br />
apparently incongruous élite was long <strong>de</strong>spised and neglected by the<br />
representatives of mainstream culture. To be sure, the Beats were<br />
extremely sensitive, psychotic, and <strong>de</strong>lirious. Weird enough, Allen<br />
Ginsberg, the most physically flawed between them, persisted most and<br />
was assimilated to a countercultural icon. Even he, the weak one,<br />
embraced a combative, masculine, and energetic stand. Often physically<br />
strong, but emotionally fragile, the Beats ignored Walt Whitman’s<br />
hymning and visionary artistry. Seclu<strong>de</strong>d and anti-social, they didn’t<br />
nurture paramount plans for their country. Actually, they never found the<br />
balance between art and life; in their case, the one consumed the other.<br />
That’s why the temptation to compare the American counterculture<br />
between the 40’s and the 60’s with other countercultures all over the globe<br />
is only a strenuous, not to say illusory, battle. Only the United States of<br />
that period created the atmosphere for such a complex, contradictory, and<br />
courageous phenomenon. Let’s not stretch our illusions behind the point<br />
where they may break! The Beats in the skies won’t credit us - not a snap!<br />
135
136<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1. Gair, Christopher, (2008), The Beat Generation: a Beginner's<br />
Gui<strong>de</strong>., Oneworld Publications, London.<br />
2. Kesey, Ken, (2002), One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest, Clays Ltd,<br />
London<br />
3. Whitmer O. Peter and Bruce Van Wyngar<strong>de</strong>n, (1987), Aquarius<br />
revisited: Seven Who Created the Sixties Counterculture that Changed<br />
America: William Burroughs, Allen Ginsberg, Ken Kesey, Timothy Leary,<br />
Norman Mailer. MacMillan. New York
TEXTUL ANTICHITĂŢII ÎN RE- LECTURA<br />
POSTMODERNĂ, CA TENSIUNE ŞI ECHILIBRU ÎNTRE<br />
CENTRAL ŞI MARGINAL<br />
Răzvan Staicu<br />
razvanstaicu24@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract: In this article, we propose to analyse a work - Omero,<br />
Ilia<strong>de</strong> – by Alessandro Baricco, for the realization of which the writer<br />
starts from the Italian translation of the Iliad in prose, which he reshapes<br />
and processes for public reading. He intervenes in the Homeric text. We<br />
intend to follow here the extent to which such an approach to a classic<br />
text results in a mere "transcription" of the text in question or, conversely,<br />
generates a new text with new meanings and structural cohesion, but<br />
acquiescing a conceptual swing between center and periphery.<br />
Keywords: postmo<strong>de</strong>rn, re-reading, re-writing, myth, periphery,<br />
center, storyteller, lightness<br />
În acest articol, ne propunem analiza unei opere – Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong> 1 – în<br />
realizarea căreia scriitorul italian contemporan Alessandro Baricco<br />
porneşte <strong>de</strong> la o traducere italiană în proză a Ilia<strong>de</strong>i 2 , pe care o<br />
<strong>de</strong>montează şi o montează la loc, într-o formă prelucrată în ve<strong>de</strong>rea<br />
lecturii publice. El intervine asupra textului homeric în patru direcţii (pe<br />
care le vom trata în cele ce urmează). Ne propunem să urmărim aici în ce<br />
măsură o astfel <strong>de</strong> abordare a unui text clasic are ca rezultat o simplă<br />
“transcriere” a textului respectiv sau, dimpotrivă, generează un text nou,<br />
cu semnificaţii noi sau recompuse, cu o coeziune a componentelor<br />
Lecturer, “<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>” Christian University, Bucharest<br />
1 Homer, Iliada, trad. ns. a titlului din lb. italiană. Ediţia operei lui Alessandro<br />
Baricco utilizată pentru referinţe şi citate in prezentul text este cea indicată şi în<br />
bibliografie: Alessandro Baricco, Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, Feltrinelli, I edizione, Milano, 2004.<br />
2 Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, traducere <strong>de</strong> Maria Grazia Ciani, Marsilio Editori, 1990<br />
137
structurale care să-l confirme ca atare, în sensul unei <strong>de</strong>plasări<br />
pendulatorii între două concepte: centralul şi marginalul.<br />
Ne-am referit mai pe larg în alte ocazii 3 la distincţia făcută <strong>de</strong> Italo<br />
Calvino 4 între trei forme diferite ale <strong>de</strong>spovărării 5 şi la modalităţile în<br />
3 Răzvan Staicu, Conceptul “lejerităţii” lui Italo Calvino în opera narativă a lui<br />
Alessandro Baricco, în Analele Universităţii – Seria Ştiinţele limbii, literaturii şi<br />
didactica predării, Universitatea Creştină <strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>, Pro Universitaria,<br />
Bucureşti, 2009, pp. 267-296; Răzvan Staicu, Poetica narativă a lui Alessandro Baricco<br />
– o viziune originală asupra “Lecţiilor americane” ale lui Italo Calvino. “Supleţea” (“la<br />
leggerezza”) în “Novecento”, în Studia doctoralia – vol.I/2007, Ed. Universităţii din<br />
Bucureşti, pp. 186-202.<br />
4 Italo Calvino, Lecţii americane – Şase propuneri pentru mileniul următor; titlul<br />
în trad.ns.; ed. originală: Italo Calvino, Lezioni americane – Sei proposte per il prossimo<br />
millennio, I ed., Einaudi, Torino, 1988; scrierea nu a fost tradusă în limba română.<br />
5 Traducerea termenului leggerezza, în contextul formulării acestui concept al lui<br />
Italo Calvino în Lezioni americane…, ne-a ridicat o problemă, generată <strong>de</strong> semantica<br />
sensibil mai complexă a termenului italian, în comparaţie cu posibilele interpretări din<br />
limba română (uşurinţă, uşurătate, lipsă <strong>de</strong> greutate, lejeritate, <strong>de</strong>spovărare, graţie,<br />
rarefiere, vaporos, impon<strong>de</strong>rabilitate, inconsistenţă, plutire, levitare etc.). Opţiunea<br />
noastră iniţială a fost termenul <strong>de</strong> lejeritate, dar pentru a întâmpina obiecţia privind<br />
semantica peiorativă a termenului, oarecum mai pregnantă în limba română, faţă <strong>de</strong><br />
limba italiană, am optat în final pentru termenul <strong>de</strong>spovărare. Calvino opune acest<br />
termen conceptului <strong>de</strong> peso (rom. greutate), <strong>de</strong> o concreteţe puternică în italiană, chiar<br />
ţinând cont <strong>de</strong> conotaţia figurată (rom. apăsare, povară, împovărare etc.).<br />
Calvino distinge trei forme ale <strong>de</strong>spovărării. Prima constă într-o “<strong>de</strong>spovărare a<br />
limbajului, prin care semnificaţiile sunt purtate pe o ţesătură verbală ce pare lipsită <strong>de</strong><br />
greutate, până la acel punct în care ele ajung să dobân<strong>de</strong>ască aceeaşi consistenţă<br />
rarefiată”. Exegetul Alberto Asor Rosa consi<strong>de</strong>ră un exemplu ilustrativ pentru această<br />
formă a <strong>de</strong>spovărării în opera calviniană scrierea Oraşele invizibile.<br />
A doua formă a “<strong>de</strong>spovărării” constă în “nararea unui raţionament sau a unui<br />
proces psihologic în care acţionează elemente subtile ori imperceptibile, sau orice<br />
<strong>de</strong>scriere care ar implica un grad înalt <strong>de</strong> abstractizare”. Aici, Alberto Asor Rosa consi<strong>de</strong>ră<br />
că ar corespun<strong>de</strong> acestui mo<strong>de</strong>l unele proze din Palomar.<br />
În sfârşit, a treia formă <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>spovărare constă într-o “imagine figurată a<br />
<strong>de</strong>spovărării care capătă o valoare emblematică, precum, în nuvela lui Boccaccio [VI, 9],<br />
imaginea lui Cavalcanti…”, ori cea a lui Don Quijote care se luptă cu moara <strong>de</strong> vânt, ori<br />
cea a lui Mercuzio…, când îl sfătuieşte pe Romeo să împrumute “aripile lui Cupidon”<br />
pentru a se ridica <strong>de</strong> sub “apăsarea iubirii”. Pentru această situaţie, Alberto Asor Rosa<br />
exemplifică prin “invenţiile eterice din Cosmicomicării şi prin unele figuri rarefiate şi<br />
simbolice din Castelul <strong>de</strong>stinelor încrucişate”, cărora le-am putea adăuga construcţia<br />
protagonistului din Cavalerul inexistent.<br />
138
care opera narativă a lui Alessandro Baricco le ilustrează. Categoria<br />
<strong>de</strong>spovărării este asumată <strong>de</strong> Baricco în manieră originală, mai ales atunci<br />
când cele trei forme ale acesteia (<strong>de</strong>finite <strong>de</strong> Calvino) se intersectează în<br />
textul literar. În acest sens, am ales pentru analiză o operă – Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong><br />
– cu anumite caracteristici care poartă amprenta specifică a creaţiei<br />
autorului italian.<br />
Pe Alessandro Baricco îl remarcăm în prezentarea <strong>de</strong> faţă ca narator<br />
cu fascinaţia spectacularului, atras în egală măsură <strong>de</strong> scenă şi <strong>de</strong><br />
naraţiune, <strong>de</strong> vizualizare şi <strong>de</strong> scriitură. Ne vom opri aici asupra unui<br />
anumit tip <strong>de</strong> “proiect <strong>de</strong> lectură”, care îl atrage tot mai mult pe Baricco.<br />
Experimentând episodic lectura în public atât în cadrul şcolii sale narative<br />
Hol<strong>de</strong>n, cât şi în emisiuni <strong>de</strong> televiziune ori radiofonice realizate <strong>de</strong> el sau<br />
la care a participat, <strong>de</strong>finitivează trei proiecte <strong>de</strong> spectacol bazat tocmai pe<br />
i<strong>de</strong>ea lecturii. Astfel, primul este Totem (<strong>de</strong> fapt, o serie <strong>de</strong> spectacole<br />
inovatoare, prin care aduce în sala <strong>de</strong> teatru “bucăţi <strong>de</strong> lume” din muzică<br />
ori literatură, puse în scenă, interpretate, comentate, articulate în<br />
construcţia spectacolului în sine), urmat <strong>de</strong> City Reading Project (realizat<br />
cu colaborarea unui grup francez şi bazat pe lectura unor părţi<br />
semnificative dintr-un roman propriu, City).<br />
Cel <strong>de</strong>-al treilea proiect, Il racconto <strong>de</strong>ll’Ilia<strong>de</strong> (Povestirea Ilia<strong>de</strong>i) 6 , a<br />
fost prezentat pentru prima dată pe scenă în versiune completă la Roma în<br />
toamna anului 2004, pe durata a trei zile, în cadrul unui eveniment<br />
cultural anual intitulat Romaeuropa Festival 2004. Spectacolul a fost<br />
anticipat <strong>de</strong> lansarea cărţii Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong> (Homer, Iliada), al cărei text<br />
face obiectul spectacolului respectiv.<br />
Actul artistic <strong>de</strong> rescriere a unei opere clasice din istoria literaturii<br />
universale nu este, evi<strong>de</strong>nt, unul <strong>de</strong>scoperit <strong>de</strong> Alessandro Baricco. Prin<br />
repovestirea Ilia<strong>de</strong>i, el se înscrie într-un lung şir <strong>de</strong> atitudini culturale<br />
similare, specifice postmo<strong>de</strong>rnismului. Astfel, îl amintim aici, în spaţiul<br />
european, pe Tom Stoppard; el rescrie Hamlet în maniera absurdului<br />
parodic, prin piesa Rosencrantz and Guil<strong>de</strong>nstern Are Dead 7 .<br />
6 http://www.racconto<strong>de</strong>llilia<strong>de</strong>.it' (Il racconto <strong>de</strong>ll’Ilia<strong>de</strong>, Romaeuropa Festival<br />
2004)<br />
7 Tom Stoppard, Rosencrantz and Guil<strong>de</strong>nstern Are Dead, Faber and Faber, 1967<br />
139
Dincolo <strong>de</strong> Ocean, în literatura postmo<strong>de</strong>rnă americană, amintim<br />
opera unei controversate autoare, Kathy Acker, care a atras atenţia criticii<br />
printr-un re-writing. Romanul său, Great Expectations 8 , este o<br />
reinterpretare a operei omonime a lui Charles Dickens, Marile speranţe, în<br />
cheie autobiografică. Acker este autoarea unor alte scrieri narative: Don<br />
Quixote 9 , o replică parodică a operei lui Miguel <strong>de</strong> Cervantes, şi Empire of<br />
the Senseless 10 , roman ce păstrează în subsidiar i<strong>de</strong>ea re-scrierii operei lui<br />
Mark Twain, Aventurile lui Huckleberry Finn.<br />
Îl menţionăm aici şi pe scriitorul american John Updike; el<br />
reinterpretează, în aşa-numita “trilogie a Scrisorii purpurii” 11 , cunoscutul<br />
roman al lui Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter.<br />
Dacă luăm în consi<strong>de</strong>rare spaţiul literar italian, ne limităm la a<br />
enumera şi aici doar câteva repere: Italo Calvino concepe o viziune proprie<br />
asupra poemului Orlando furioso al lui Ludovico Ariosto 12 , Aldo Busi<br />
<strong>de</strong>-construieşte şi recompune textul Decameronului lui Boccaccio 13 , în<br />
timp ce Piero Chiara oferă o re-scriere a operei lui Alessandro Manzoni, I<br />
promessi sposi 14 .<br />
Ulterior apariţiei proiectului Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, Alessandro Baricco<br />
implică (in ultima parte a anului 2010) Scuola Hol<strong>de</strong>n, într-un <strong>de</strong>mers<br />
editorial, alături <strong>de</strong> grupul editorial L’ Espresso: o colecţie intitulată Save<br />
the Story, care cuprin<strong>de</strong> reelaborarea a cinci opere clasice din literatura<br />
universală, în realizarea a cinci naratori contemporani: Umberto Eco 15 şi<br />
8 Kathy Acker, Great Expectations, Grove Press, New York, 1983<br />
9 Kathy Acker, Don Quixote: Which Was a Dream, Grove Press, New York, 1986<br />
10 Kathy Acker, Empire of the Senseless, Grove Press, New York, 1988<br />
11 John Updike, The Scarlet Letter trilogy: A Month of Sundays (Alfred A. Knopf,<br />
New York, 1975), Roger's Version (Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1986), S. (Alfred A. Knopf,<br />
New York, 1988)<br />
12 Italo Calvino, Orlando furioso di Ludovico Ariosto raccontato da Italo Calvino,<br />
Einaudi, Torino, 1970<br />
13 Aldo Busi, Giovanni Boccaccio, Decamerone. Da un italiano all'altro (2 volume),<br />
Rizzoli, Milano, 1990-1991<br />
14 Piero Chiara, I promessi sposi, Mondadori, Milano,1996<br />
15 Umberto Eco, La storia <strong>de</strong> I promessi sposi raccontata da Umberto Eco, Scuola<br />
Hol<strong>de</strong>n – La Biblioteca di Repubblica-l’Espresso, colecţia Save the story, 30 septembrie<br />
2010<br />
140
Alessandro Baricco 16 , apoi Stefano Benni 17 şi Andrea Camilleri 18 . La o dată<br />
nestabilită, proiectul va încheia prima sa fază cu o rescriere a autorului<br />
israelian Abraham Yehoshua. 19<br />
Întorcându-ne la Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, scrierea din 2004 a lui Alessandro<br />
Baricco, încercăm să lămurim: ce anume este <strong>de</strong> fapt această carte? Ca şi în<br />
alte situaţii anterioare, opera lui Baricco este dificil <strong>de</strong> încadrat ca specie.<br />
Volumul se naşte dintr-un în<strong>de</strong>lung gândit proiect <strong>de</strong> relectură şi rescriere<br />
a poemului homeric. Aşa cum am menţionat <strong>de</strong>ja, Alessandro Baricco îşi<br />
alege ca “material” <strong>de</strong> lucru traducerea în proză a poemului antic (semnată<br />
<strong>de</strong> Maria Grazia Ciani), <strong>de</strong>structurându-l şi restructurându-l apoi, în<br />
scopul lecturii publice pe scena teatrală. Intervenţia scriitorului asupra<br />
acestui text în proză, <strong>de</strong> care se simte stilistic mai apropiat, constă în patru<br />
aspecte, cu pon<strong>de</strong>re diversă la nivelul semnificaţiei textuale.<br />
Primul tip <strong>de</strong> intervenţie pe care scriitorul îl face este acela <strong>de</strong> a<br />
efectua “tăieturi” în textul traducerii <strong>de</strong> la care porneşte. Scopul <strong>de</strong>clarat<br />
este acela <strong>de</strong> a păstra lectura în spaţiul unei durate compatibile cu<br />
răbdarea unui public mo<strong>de</strong>rn. Nu sunt în<strong>de</strong>părtate <strong>de</strong>cât rareori scene<br />
întregi, Baricco limitându-se la a în<strong>de</strong>părta acel conţinut <strong>de</strong> tip repetitiv şi<br />
la a reduce construcţia frazei la o dinamică esenţială. În felul acesta, el<br />
evită rezumarea “poveştii” şi creează mai <strong>de</strong>grabă secvenţe concentrate,<br />
folosind secţiuni originale din poem, astfel încât “cărămizile – afirma<br />
scriitorul – sunt cele homerice, dar zidul apare acum redus la esenţă” 20 ,<br />
într-o arhitectură nouă. Această arhitectură nu este altceva <strong>de</strong>cât aplicarea<br />
în practica literară a principiului “<strong>de</strong>spovărării” al lui Calvino: “eliminare a<br />
16 Alessandro Baricco, La storia di Don Giovanni raccontata da Alessandro<br />
Baricco, Scuola Hol<strong>de</strong>n – La Biblioteca di Repubblica-l’Espresso, colecţia Save the story,<br />
30 septembrie 2010<br />
17 Stefano Benni, La storia di Cyrano <strong>de</strong> Bergerac raccontata da Stefano Benni,<br />
Scuola Hol<strong>de</strong>n – La Biblioteca di Repubblica-l’Espresso, colecţia Save the story, 4<br />
noiembrie 2010<br />
18 Andrea Camilleri, La storia <strong>de</strong> Il naso raccontata da Andrea Camilleri, Scuola<br />
Hol<strong>de</strong>n – La Biblioteca di Repubblica-l’Espresso, colecţia Save the story, 9 <strong>de</strong>cembrie<br />
2010<br />
19 Cf. comunicatului grupului editorial Repubblica – l’Espresso, postat pe pagina<br />
web http://temi.repubblica.it/iniziative-save-the-story a site-ului său oficial.<br />
20 Alessandro Baricco, Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, text introductiv, p.7 (trad.ns.)<br />
141
consistenţei”, “mai ales din încărcătura structurii povestirii” 21 .<br />
Există totuşi un anumit tip <strong>de</strong> scene care au fost în<strong>de</strong>părtate cu totul<br />
din textul original: toate apariţiile zeităţilor. Aceasta este amprenta netă a<br />
subiectivităţii artistice a unui scriitor aparţinând epocii actuale. Un gest<br />
banal, al “tăieturii din ziar”, capătă semnificaţii <strong>de</strong>osebite, smulgând un<br />
text aparţinând milenar unei civilizaţii şi proiectându-l, ca “moştenire”, în<br />
sensul dat conceptului <strong>de</strong> J.Derrida, în spaţiul propriei civilizaţii, ca o<br />
îndreptare a percepţiei către “celălalt”, ca o asimilare a alterităţii unei lumi<br />
radical în<strong>de</strong>părtate până atunci într-un timp mitic. Este elocventă<br />
argumentaţia lui Baricco prin care îşi explică raportarea la textul homeric<br />
original. “Actualizarea” acestuia ar trebui să aibă loc, în opinia autorului<br />
italian, în forma unei lecturi publice a Ilia<strong>de</strong>i, structurate pe monologuri:<br />
[…] o lectură–fluviu şi colectivă. Să o citeşti publicului <strong>de</strong> astăzi nu poate<br />
însemna altceva <strong>de</strong>cât să o rescrii, într-un anume fel. M-am gândit că ar fi o<br />
aventură care merita încercată: să traduc din nou ‘Iliada’, adaptând-o la<br />
exigenţele unei lecturi publice. Să o scurtez, asta cu siguranţă. Să apropii limba<br />
italiană a textului <strong>de</strong> cea vorbită în prezent. Eventual să reduc la strictul<br />
necesar partea supranaturală, aducând totul la emoţia unei pure povestiri <strong>de</strong><br />
război. M-a fascinat tot<strong>de</strong>auna munca aceluia care, în secolul al XIX-lea, se<br />
apuca <strong>de</strong> tradus întreaga ‘Iliada’ în versuri poetice. Era o Epocă, o cultură, care<br />
îşi revendicau propria ‘Iliada’: contrar oricărei logici şi ca un omagiu pur şi<br />
simplu adus propriului gust şi propriilor convenţii lingvistice. M-am gândit că<br />
şi noi ar trebui să <strong>de</strong>prin<strong>de</strong>m acea obrăznicie <strong>de</strong> a pretin<strong>de</strong> ‘Iliada’ noastră. 22<br />
Pe fundalul mai complex al <strong>de</strong>spovărării calviniene, este momentul în<br />
care Alessandro Baricco pune implicit în discuţie un alt tip <strong>de</strong> problematică,<br />
şi anume aceea a confruntării dintre conceptele <strong>de</strong> central şi marginal.<br />
Scriitorul îşi alege <strong>de</strong>loc întâmplător ca punct <strong>de</strong> referinţă epopeea<br />
homerică, o operă care vine dintr-o lume a trecutului în<strong>de</strong>părtat, dintr-o<br />
civilizaţie cu o anumită structură, guvernată <strong>de</strong> legi şi <strong>de</strong> valori proprii.<br />
Civilizaţia greacă a Ilia<strong>de</strong>i lui Homer avea ca valoare centrală, războiul, iar<br />
ca exponent al acesteia, eroul: Ahile. Într-o astfel <strong>de</strong> civilizaţie, elementul<br />
21 Italo Calvino, Lezioni americane – Sei proposte per il prossimo millennio, I<br />
ed.Oscar Opere di Italo Calvino, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, 1993, p.7 (trad.ns.)<br />
22 Alessandro Baricco, citat <strong>de</strong> Alessandro Scarsella, în Alessandro Baricco, p.32.<br />
(trad.ns.)<br />
142
masculin este central, în timp ce elementul feminin ocupă un loc marginal.<br />
Autoritatea centrului este una covârşitor masculină.<br />
În altă ordine <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>i, autoritatea centrală aparţine zeităţilor, care îi<br />
sprijină pe oameni sau, dimpotrivă, le sunt ostili, hotărăsc războaie, <strong>de</strong>cid<br />
învingători, conduc <strong>de</strong>stinele celor ce li se închină şi ocupă zona<br />
marginalului: muritorii. Autoritatea zeilor era cea care dă<strong>de</strong>a greutate<br />
(conceptul <strong>de</strong> peso în viziunea lui Calvino) acelei lumi: în sensul<br />
consistenţei, substanţei, dar şi al “poverii”, presiunii exercitate asupra<br />
<strong>de</strong>stinelor oamenilor.<br />
Dar cele două lumi, lumea autoritară <strong>de</strong> zei şi zeiţe a lui Homer şi cea<br />
marginală a oamenilor, coexistă, ajunse împreună la o vârstă a maturităţii,<br />
<strong>de</strong>parte <strong>de</strong> un mit al Genezei. De aceea, zeii sunt o prezenţă comună printre<br />
oamenii acelei vremi. În modul cel mai firesc, ei nu lipsesc niciodată din<br />
poveste iar prezenţa lor se îmbină ontologic cu cea a oamenilor. Încet-încet,<br />
poziţia centrului se atenuează şi se relativizează, centralul ajunge să<br />
interacţioneze cu marginalul. Din interacţiunea lor, o nouă figură începe să<br />
revendice poziţia <strong>de</strong> centru: eroul. Ahile, a cărui mânie este în fapt tema<br />
Ilia<strong>de</strong>i, este fiul lui Peleu – nepotul lui Zeus – şi al lui Tetis, divinitatea<br />
marină. Zeii se manifestă permanent în povestea conflictului dintre oameni,<br />
îi ajută, îi apără sau îi lovesc. Îi urmărim pe Afrodita, protectoarea Elenei, şi<br />
pe Apollo, protectorul Troiei, luptând în van împotriva “planului lui Zeus”.<br />
Odiseea, la rândul ei, este impregnată <strong>de</strong> divin, <strong>de</strong> miraculosul şi <strong>de</strong><br />
supranaturalul care se integrează în modul cel mai firesc existenţei umane.<br />
Astfel, înfăţişându-şi zeii şi zeiţele drept bărbaţi şi femei nemuritori, trăind<br />
însă toate patimile, îndrăznelile, fricile şi speranţele omeneşti, grecii au<br />
făcut ca bărbaţii şi femeile să semene mai mult cu zeii înşişi. “Natura hibridă<br />
a omului – afirmă Daniel J. Boorstin – va rămâne tema dominantă a<br />
iudaismului şi a creştinismului”. Grecii, însă, “şi-au mo<strong>de</strong>lat zeii după chipul<br />
şi asemănarea omului. Ei au făcut omul punctul lor <strong>de</strong> plecare, iar pentru ei<br />
problemele Creaţiei erau doar reflexii târzii” 23 .<br />
În acest sens, al elementului uman care, în dinamica istorică a<br />
civilizaţiei, îşi revendică tot mai puternic poziţia centrală în faţa elementului<br />
divin, trebuie înţeles gestul lui Alessandro Baricco <strong>de</strong> a scoate zeii din<br />
povestirea Ilia<strong>de</strong>i. Aceste părţi ale poemului homeric, în care zeităţile<br />
23 Daniel J. Boorstin, Creatorii – O istorie a eroilor imaginaţiei, vol.I, p.47<br />
143
intervin pentru a da un anume curs evenimentelor, pentru a le îndrepta<br />
către împlinirea unui <strong>de</strong>stin şi pentru a <strong>de</strong>termina <strong>de</strong>znodământul<br />
războiului sunt consi<strong>de</strong>rate <strong>de</strong> scriitor “părţile cele mai străine sensibilităţii<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>rne”. Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong> nu mai este Iliada lui Homer, ci <strong>de</strong>vine o poveste a<br />
lumii actuale. Autorul <strong>de</strong>vine titlu, creatorul – creaţie, la rândul său, a unui<br />
alt creator, mo<strong>de</strong>rn, dintr-o altă epocă, <strong>de</strong> peste timpuri, al cărui <strong>de</strong>mers se<br />
<strong>de</strong>sfăşoară mai <strong>de</strong>parte în sensul în care Calvino îi <strong>de</strong>fineşte meseria, prin<br />
în<strong>de</strong>părtarea “când din încărcătura figurilor umane, când din cea a<br />
corpurilor cereşti, a oraşelor...” 24 . Acest tip <strong>de</strong> “<strong>de</strong>spovărare” conceptuală<br />
aplicată personajelor – oameni ori zei – şi prelungită în extrem chiar asupra<br />
autorului primordial face ca raportul imobil dintre centru şi periferie să<br />
intre ireversibil în disoluţie, în lumea actuală.<br />
Motivaţia opţiunii narative a lui Alessandro Baricco este şi una<br />
tehnică. Ritmul intern al unei naraţiuni este un element consi<strong>de</strong>rat<br />
esenţial şi urmărit permanent <strong>de</strong> Baricco, aproape obsesiv în toată creaţia<br />
sa. Gestul pe care încearcă să şi-l asume <strong>de</strong> cele mai multe ori în<br />
construcţia unei “poveşti” (această “storia” – văzută ca un fel <strong>de</strong> mit al<br />
individului, care se constituie ca element esenţial în statutul său ontologic,<br />
este o temă constantă până la obsesie în opera autorului) este acela al<br />
unuia care “pedalând pe bicicleta sa, urmăreşte un tren” şi, sătul brusc <strong>de</strong><br />
“a pedala în urma trenului”, se hotărăşte să găsească “un mod <strong>de</strong> a pedala<br />
în faţa lui” 25 . Acesta este ritmul pe care el încearcă să-l atingă în actul<br />
narativ. Astfel, nu mai poate fi surprinzător la Baricco faptul că resimte<br />
apariţia zeilor ca o “rupere în bucăţi” a naraţiunii, o fragmentare a acesteia,<br />
ce face să se risipească o “viteză” a poveştii care, altfel, “ar fi cu totul<br />
excepţională”. Povestea vine dintr-o epocă în<strong>de</strong>părtată, dar “viteza”<br />
spunerii trebuie adaptată noii epoci în care aceasta a ajuns. Renunţarea la<br />
zei a lui Baricco este în ultimă instanţă şi o opţiune care îi facilitează<br />
acestuia exprimarea într-un alt ritm, curgerea naraţiunii cu o altă viteză,<br />
mai a<strong>de</strong>cvată schimbării <strong>de</strong> epoci, şi <strong>de</strong>ci asumarea “<strong>de</strong>spovărării” în<br />
sensul în care Calvino o ve<strong>de</strong>a ca “<strong>de</strong>spovărare a limbajului, prin care<br />
semnificaţiile sunt purtate pe o ţesătură verbală ce pare lipsită <strong>de</strong> greutate,<br />
24 Italo Calvino, Lezioni americane – Sei proposte per il prossimo millennio, op.cit.,<br />
p.7 (trad.ns.)<br />
25 Alessandro Baricco, Barnum. Cronache dal Gran<strong>de</strong> Show, p. 134 (trad.ns.)<br />
144
până la acel punct în care ele ajung să dobân<strong>de</strong>ască aceeaşi consistenţă<br />
rarefiată” 26 .<br />
În sfârşit, o altă motivaţie a scriitorului <strong>de</strong> a în<strong>de</strong>părta zeii din spaţiul<br />
poveştii este enunţată sec <strong>de</strong> acesta: nu sunt “necesare”. Este concluzia la<br />
care ajunge, în “rescrierea” sa mo<strong>de</strong>rnă a vechiului text, în momentul în<br />
care constată “puternica structură laică” a Ilia<strong>de</strong>i lui Homer, care “iese la<br />
suprafaţă imediat ce zeii sunt puşi în paranteză” 27 , <strong>de</strong>plasaţi <strong>de</strong>ci din<br />
central, în marginal. Oricât <strong>de</strong> mult ar transmite gesturile divine din Iliada<br />
dimensiunea incomensurabilului şi a inexorabilului care se manifestă <strong>de</strong><br />
multe ori în viaţă, epopeea homerică <strong>de</strong>monstrează o surprinzătoare<br />
obstinaţie centrifugă <strong>de</strong> a căuta o logică a evenimentelor care să-l aibă pe<br />
om drept ultim artizan. Omul şi zeul fac treptat schimb <strong>de</strong> locuri.<br />
În<strong>de</strong>părtând elementul divin din “poveste”, Alessandro Baricco re-creează<br />
o lume care <strong>de</strong>vine, în perspectiva “moştenirii” mo<strong>de</strong>rne, doar în aparenţă<br />
orfană şi inexplicabilă, însă mai <strong>de</strong>grabă una profund umană, în care<br />
oamenii îşi trăiesc propriul <strong>de</strong>stin încercând să-l <strong>de</strong>codifice. Dar spre<br />
<strong>de</strong>osebire <strong>de</strong> grecii antici, aceşti oameni din Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong> par a cunoaşte<br />
codul după care acel limbaj încifrat al <strong>de</strong>stinului li se poate <strong>de</strong>zvălui.<br />
Scoaterea zeilor din povestirea Ilia<strong>de</strong>i a fost <strong>de</strong>ja vehement acuzată <strong>de</strong> o<br />
mare parte a criticilor lui Baricco, aceştia observând că elementul divin din<br />
epopee este capital pentru înţelegerea civilizaţiei homerice. Ei omit însă<br />
faptul că, prin alegerea narativă a autorului mo<strong>de</strong>rn, povestea din Iliada<br />
este recuperată într-o structură nouă, care implică o schimbare <strong>de</strong> centru, o<br />
răsturnare radicală a raportului dintre central şi marginal. Povestea, astfel<br />
remo<strong>de</strong>lată, capătă arhitectura naraţiunilor lumii contemporane, în sensul<br />
în care Georg Lukács afirma că “romanul este epopeea lumii pustiite <strong>de</strong><br />
zei” 28 . Astfel, pe <strong>de</strong> altă parte, naratorul Baricco, re-povestitorul epopeii, îşi<br />
<strong>de</strong>zvăluie i<strong>de</strong>ntitatea <strong>de</strong> romancier. Evenimentele din epopeea homerică –<br />
marca <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificare a unei civilizaţii şi a unei epoci – pot fi re-povestite în<br />
sens artistic re-creator doar prin asumarea distanţei unei alte epoci (cea<br />
actuală, fie că o numim mo<strong>de</strong>rnă, postmo<strong>de</strong>rnă sau pur şi simplu contemporană)<br />
şi a unei alte mărci <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificare, pe care o recunoaştem în roman.<br />
26 Italo Calvino, op.cit., pp.20-21 (trad.ns.)<br />
27 Alessandro Baricco, Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, text introductiv, p.8 (trad.ns.)<br />
28 Georg Lukács, Estetica, vol. I, ed. Meridiane, Bucureşti, 1972, p. 164<br />
145
Din această perspectivă, formulăm consi<strong>de</strong>raţia că textul Omero,<br />
Ilia<strong>de</strong> al lui Alessandro Baricco poate fi abordat ca un roman (evi<strong>de</strong>nt, un<br />
roman <strong>de</strong> tip postmo<strong>de</strong>rn, <strong>de</strong>fragmentat prin diferite tehnici narative<br />
specifice, în care autorul stabileşte relaţiile intertextuale cu textul antic în<br />
toate formele predilecte postmo<strong>de</strong>rnismului: pastişă, citare, parafrază,<br />
aluzie). În ciuda unei structuri monologate, modulare, concepute pe voci<br />
multiple, <strong>de</strong>stinate scenei (dar această tehnică hibridă între dramatic şi<br />
narativ nu este străină nici romanelor “<strong>de</strong>clarate” ale lui Baricco!),<br />
re-povestea îşi revendică marca.<br />
Prin “re-scriere” (aşa cum am văzut anterior, conceptul <strong>de</strong> re-writing<br />
este unul tipic postmo<strong>de</strong>rn), Baricco transformă specia literară, din<br />
epopee, în roman, după canoanele postmo<strong>de</strong>rnismului, lăsând însă într-un<br />
plan secund, puţin semnificativ, intenţia parodică, predominantă în<br />
majoritatea cazurilor <strong>de</strong> re-writing. Pentru scriitorul italian, <strong>de</strong>vine<br />
centrală finalitatea actului <strong>de</strong> “re-scriere”, şi anume “re-lectura”, în cadrul<br />
unui spectacol <strong>de</strong> lectură publică. Astfel, mitul antic homeric este transpus<br />
într-unul al postmo<strong>de</strong>rnităţii, în spiritul conceptului <strong>de</strong> mit formulat <strong>de</strong><br />
Roland Barthes, cu <strong>de</strong>plasarea dinspre fond spre forma discursivă: “[...]<br />
mitul este un mod <strong>de</strong> semnificare, o formă”, care “nu se <strong>de</strong>fineşte prin<br />
obiectul mesajului, ci prin felul în care-l spune” 29 , nu se realizează în<br />
planul <strong>de</strong>notativ, ci în cel conotativ, al punerii în context a limbii, al<br />
actualizării sale prin “performanţă”, adică prin rostire.<br />
Astfel, în proiectul său <strong>de</strong> re-lectură – Il racconto <strong>de</strong>ll’Ilia<strong>de</strong> –, Baricco<br />
gân<strong>de</strong>şte i<strong>de</strong>ea <strong>de</strong> mit ca pe un act <strong>de</strong> rostire a unei poveşti într-un spaţiu<br />
pre<strong>de</strong>finit (pe scenă), în faţa unei asistenţe supuse iniţierii (publicul), după<br />
canoanele unui paradoxal ritual al contemporaneităţii.<br />
Al doilea tip <strong>de</strong> intervenţie pe care Alessandro Baricco îl face în textul<br />
homeric se referă la stilul scriiturii. Varianta traducătoarei Maria Grazia<br />
Ciani, <strong>de</strong> la care porneşte el, nu întâmplător tocmai pentru că era realizată<br />
în proză, folosea <strong>de</strong>ja o limbă italiană vie, mo<strong>de</strong>rnă, fără excese <strong>de</strong><br />
recuperare filologică. Lui Baricco îi convine această direcţie, pe care o duce<br />
mai <strong>de</strong>parte, eliminând – în sensul <strong>de</strong>spovărării ca sublimare stilistică a<br />
vechiului text epopeic – orice arhaisme lexicale care ar fi putut trimite ca<br />
formă la i<strong>de</strong>ea <strong>de</strong> apartenenţă la încărcata lume homerică. Pe <strong>de</strong> altă parte,<br />
146<br />
29 Cf. Roland Barthes, Mitologii, op.cit., p.235
fraza lui Baricco din Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong> are o ca<strong>de</strong>nţă interioară <strong>de</strong>finită,<br />
proprie, o coerenţă a unui pas metric, care oscilează între o anume<br />
rapiditate şi schimbări <strong>de</strong> ritm care sugerează mai <strong>de</strong>grabă lentoare, aşa<br />
cum <strong>de</strong> la încleştarea dinamică a luptătorilor în război se trece la<br />
momentele <strong>de</strong> răgaz, <strong>de</strong> gândire, <strong>de</strong> discuţie între personaje. Este o i<strong>de</strong>e pe<br />
care Baricco o poartă cu sine încă <strong>de</strong> la realizarea proiectului Totem: a<br />
primi un text (adică nu doar a-l recepta, ci şi a-l asimila), mai ales când<br />
acesta ajunge la noi din direcţia unei alterităţi foarte în<strong>de</strong>părtate,<br />
înseamnă a-l “cânta” cu o “muzică” particulară, care este a noastră, care<br />
ne <strong>de</strong>fineşte. Este aici modul scriitorului <strong>de</strong> a asimila “moştenirea” (în<br />
sensul conceptualizat <strong>de</strong> J. Derrida 30 ) prin împlinirea “datoriei” în dublul<br />
ei sens: faţă <strong>de</strong> ce a fost (lumea Ilia<strong>de</strong>i lui Homer) şi faţă <strong>de</strong> ce va fi (lumea<br />
tuturor re-lecturilor posibile, viitoare ale textului homeric). “Muzica”<br />
noastră, ce trebuie să aducă la noi, cei <strong>de</strong> azi, povestea trecutului, este <strong>de</strong><br />
fapt tocmai “ţesătura verbală ce pare lipsită <strong>de</strong> greutate”, purtătoare a<br />
“semnificaţiilor [...] până la acel punct în care ele ajung să dobân<strong>de</strong>ască<br />
aceeaşi consistenţă rarefiată”, la care se referea Calvino în <strong>de</strong>finirea primei<br />
accepţiuni a <strong>de</strong>spovărării.<br />
Pentru a surprin<strong>de</strong> mai exact trecerea “poveştii” din vremea<br />
în<strong>de</strong>părtatei sale origini în epoca actuală, pusă <strong>de</strong> Baricco pe acea “altă<br />
muzică”, a noastră, ne oprim asupra unui episod al ei, din cântul I. Nevoit<br />
să renunţe la prada sa <strong>de</strong> război – Hriseis, fiica preotului lui Apollo –,<br />
Agamemnon se răzbună pe Ahile şi i-o ia acestuia, ca pradă <strong>de</strong> război, pe<br />
frumoasa troiană Briseis. Ahile, jignit şi mânios, îi părăseşte pe greci în<br />
războiul lor cu troienii şi se retrage în cort, invocând ajutorul mamei sale,<br />
zeiţa Tetis. Am ales să redăm fragmentul <strong>de</strong> mai jos, parte din întâlnirea<br />
lui Ahile cu mama sa, din traducerea clasică în română a lui George<br />
Murnu 31 , care păstrează metrul original al Ilia<strong>de</strong>i, tocmai pentru a putea<br />
avea comparativ o imagine cât mai clară asupra modificării <strong>de</strong> canon<br />
suportată <strong>de</strong> mitul antic, <strong>de</strong> la textul clasic la cel re-construit în viziunea lui<br />
Baricco:<br />
cu fapta ori graiul./ Te-am auzit doar acasă la tata eu însumi a<strong>de</strong>se/<br />
Cum te mândreai povestind că pe Zeus cel negru <strong>de</strong> nouri/ Singură tu<br />
între zei îl ferişi <strong>de</strong> prăpăd şi ocară,/ Când s-apucaseră-n lanţuri odată<br />
să-l ferece zeii,/ Hera, Poseidon şi Palas Atena. Căci tu, o, zeiţă,/<br />
Dusu-te-ai şi-ai izbutit pe marele zeu să-l <strong>de</strong>zlănţui […]/ Ast-aminteşte-i,<br />
în faţă-i te-aşterne şi-apucă-i genunchii,/ Roagă-l <strong>de</strong> vrea pe troieni la<br />
arme cumva să-i ajute/ Şi cu înfrângeri pe-ahei să-i împingă spre mal la<br />
corăbii,/ Pentru ca astfel <strong>de</strong> craiul lor toţi să se bucure-aheii/ Şi ca să<br />
vadă ce orb a fost marele Domn Agamemnon,/ Când a făcut <strong>de</strong> ruşine pe<br />
cel mai viteaz din Ahaia.>>/ Tetis, cu plânsul în ochi, aşa i-a răspuns lui<br />
Ahile:/ / Asta zeiţa grăind, s-a dus<br />
părăsind pe Ahile […]<br />
Este sugestiv să urmărim în paralel cum rezultă acest fragment în<br />
re-scrierea lui Alessandro Baricco din Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>:<br />
Ahile o întrebă: .<br />
Dar mama îi spuse numai . Apoi dispăru, şi Ahile rămase acolo, singur […]. 32<br />
În textul homeric, se manifestă o relaţie pe verticală, între erou şi<br />
divinitate, în care Ahile imploră ajutor <strong>de</strong> la Zeus, prin mama sa, Tetis.<br />
Centrul <strong>de</strong> autoritate este clar ocupat <strong>de</strong> zeul suprem. Muritorul, fie el şi<br />
eroul-exponent, “cel mai viteaz din Ahaia”, nu i se poate adresa acestuia<br />
<strong>de</strong>cât prin intermediar (o zeitate mai mică), dintr-o condiţie marginală, <strong>de</strong><br />
inferioritate.<br />
148<br />
32 Alessandro Baricco, Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, p.17, (trad.ns.)
În textul lui Baricco asistăm la acea disoluţie a centrului pe care o<br />
aminteam anterior, odată cu eliminarea cu <strong>de</strong>săvârşire a elementului<br />
divin. Nu doar Zeus dispare aici. Prezenţa feminină este mereu a mamei,<br />
nici o clipă nu se face referire la condiţia <strong>de</strong> zeiţă a acesteia, nici măcar nu<br />
este numită: Tetis este un personaj din Homer, nu din Baricco. Pe <strong>de</strong> altă<br />
parte, un alt centru nu se mai generează în opoziţie cu marginalul. Asistăm<br />
acum la o relaţie pe orizontală, între doi poli ce <strong>de</strong>vin alternativ centru si<br />
periferie: eroul şi mama sa. În absenţa divinităţii, centrul, rămas vacant,<br />
tin<strong>de</strong> să fie ocupat <strong>de</strong> elementul cel mai puternic: principiul masculin –<br />
eroul. Întrebarea lui Ahile – Poţi să mă salvezi, tu, mamă?, poţi s-o faci? –<br />
pare să transfere centrul autorităţii către principiul feminin: mama, <strong>de</strong><br />
data aceasta nemaiaflată în poziţia <strong>de</strong> intermediar, ar putea fi cea capabilă<br />
să rezolve <strong>de</strong>cisiv criza eroului, să încline balanţa. Din această poziţie<br />
neaşteptat centrală, ce îi este transferată, ea nu acţionează, ci îşi sfătuieşte<br />
fiul cum să acţioneze, fără însă a-i garanta rezolvarea crizei; apoi dispare.<br />
Dispariţia ei abruptă o poartă din nou în marginal, reatribuind brusc<br />
eroului poziţia centrală: Apoi dispăru, şi Ahile rămase acolo, singur.<br />
Retragerea mamei nu este asemănătoare cu cea a zeităţilor lui Homer, care<br />
se fac nevăzute din faţa vreunui muritor, pentru a veghea asupra lui, a-l<br />
ajuta sau a-l lovi din înaltul cerului lor. Ahile rămâne “singur”, într-o<br />
singurătate <strong>de</strong>plină a centrului pe care îl ocupă, cu un cer <strong>de</strong>asupra sa<br />
pustiu şi dizolvat în marginal. Pendularea permanentă a centrului, <strong>de</strong> la un<br />
personaj la altul, le conferă acestora dimensiunea actuală. Personajele –<br />
toate întruchipând muritori – îşi asumă condiţia umană, încărcându-se cu<br />
responsabilitatea propriului <strong>de</strong>stin.<br />
Ceea ce frapează la prima ve<strong>de</strong>re în alăturarea celor două texte este<br />
diferenţa dintre întin<strong>de</strong>rile lor. La o comparaţie fugară, pare să fie vorba <strong>de</strong><br />
o simplă scurtare (dacă nu chiar trunchiere) a textului antic, aşa cum s-au<br />
grăbit să remarce unii autori <strong>de</strong> recenzii şi cronici culturale. 33 Rescriindu-l<br />
pe Homer, însă, Baricco îl trece prin filtrul <strong>de</strong>spovărării lui Calvino. În<br />
mod evi<strong>de</strong>nt, textul nou astfel rezultat apare mult mai concentrat, redus la<br />
33 Cf. Eva Cantarella, Strana Ilia<strong>de</strong> senza <strong>de</strong>i, în Corriere <strong>de</strong>lla Sera, 30.09.2004;<br />
Gianni Bonina, Un'“Ilia<strong>de</strong>” umana troppo umana, în Stilos, 5.10.2004; Bene<strong>de</strong>tto<br />
Marzullo, Ma nel cielo di Baricco Omero non brilla, în l’Unità, 23.10.2004; Paola Pariset,<br />
Baricco: l’“Ilia<strong>de</strong>” per tutti, în Il Giornale d’Italia, 22.09.2004<br />
149
esenţialitate în ţesătura sa verbală, în consistenţa personajelor şi în<br />
arhitectura “poveştii”. Consecinţa imediată este rapiditatea 34 textuală a<br />
lui Baricco. De aici rezultă impresia <strong>de</strong> vitalitate a textului, generată la<br />
intersecţia dintre această rapiditate şi dinamica sa internă, întreţinută <strong>de</strong><br />
pendularea permanentă între centru şi periferie. Într-o astfel <strong>de</strong><br />
arhitectură textuală, centrul nu mai este unic, se multiplică, iar centralul şi<br />
marginalul fac permanent schimb <strong>de</strong> locuri, până ajung să se confun<strong>de</strong> şi<br />
să se relativizeze.<br />
Un al treilea tip <strong>de</strong> intervenţie a lui Baricco în textul traducerii lui<br />
Homer se evi<strong>de</strong>nţiază imediat încă din <strong>de</strong>butul cărţii Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>.<br />
Modificarea ţine aici <strong>de</strong> subiectivarea şi <strong>de</strong> relativizarea perspectivei<br />
narative. Naraţiunea este generată secvenţial, în cadrul unei evocări la<br />
persoana I a eului narator, altul în fiecare capitol. Textul renunţă la<br />
structura <strong>de</strong> 24 <strong>de</strong> cânturi a epopeii homerice, înlocuind-o cu o structură <strong>de</strong><br />
17 capitole, purtând ca titlu, fiecare, numele câte unui personaj. Scriitorul<br />
alege o serie <strong>de</strong> personaje ale lui Homer (Ahile, Elena, Patrocle, Ulise,<br />
Hector, Priam, Andromaca… ori aedul Demodokos) şi le face să “spună”<br />
povestea 35 , fiecare în capitolul care îi poartă numele, substituindu-le<br />
naratorului exterior, homeric.<br />
Evi<strong>de</strong>nt, aici este vorba şi <strong>de</strong>spre un artificiu tehnic menit să<br />
reorganizeze textul în mod a<strong>de</strong>cvat rostirii lui, aducerii lui pe scenă în<br />
cadrul unui spectacol <strong>de</strong> lectură publică. Publicul (este vorba <strong>de</strong> publicul<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>rn, actual!) primeşte “povestea” fără intermediar, în mod direct <strong>de</strong> la<br />
cel care a trăit-o, cumva într-o formă <strong>de</strong> confesiune, lăsându-se astfel mult<br />
34 Rapiditatea este una dintre caracteristicile <strong>de</strong>finitorii ale prozei “următorului<br />
mileniu” introduse <strong>de</strong> Calvino în Lecţii americane şi preluate <strong>de</strong> Baricco.<br />
35 Povestea spusă, rostită, şi nu povestea scrisă, este o altă temă fundamentală şi<br />
obsesivă, urmărită <strong>de</strong> Baricco în spaţiul variat al întregii sale opere. Povestea ca mit<br />
individual, cum am caracterizat-o mai înainte în această prezentare, îşi cunoaşte<br />
împlinirea în momentul în care este şi rostită, în care iese în lume, prin intermediul vocii<br />
celui care o <strong>de</strong>ţine. Povestea este <strong>de</strong> fapt legătura acestuia cu lumea în care există, felul lui<br />
<strong>de</strong> a-fi-in-lume. Tema, recurentă în romanele lui Baricco, este reluată <strong>de</strong> altfel <strong>de</strong> acesta<br />
în toate acele spectacole – “proiecte <strong>de</strong> lectură” – la baza concepţiei cărora stă tocmai<br />
această i<strong>de</strong>e. În mod special, proiectul <strong>de</strong> lectură bazat pe textul din Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>,<br />
intitulat Il racconto <strong>de</strong>ll’Ilia<strong>de</strong>, este relevant pentru această temă şi evi<strong>de</strong>nt nu<br />
întâmplătoare este opţiunea scriitorului pentru o sursă <strong>de</strong> inspiraţie precum epopeea, dat<br />
fiind caracterul ei originar <strong>de</strong> creaţie orală, într-o epocă în care scrierea nu exista.<br />
150
mai uşor atras în interiorul poveştii, în pielea personajului care i se<br />
adresează.<br />
Acest artificiu <strong>de</strong> artă dramatică, are şi o relevanţă în plan narativ.<br />
Aparent, perspectiva centrală, a autorului omniscient, asimilabilă aedului în<br />
textul homeric, este dislocată în multiple perspective marginale, ale vocilor<br />
narative ce <strong>de</strong>zvoltă firul epic la persoana I, în textul lui Alessandro Baricco.<br />
Urmărind atent <strong>de</strong>rularea firului epic în Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, constatăm însă că,<br />
<strong>de</strong> fapt, avem <strong>de</strong> a face cu un autor omniscient ciudat, ce intră pe rând în<br />
pielea oricărui personaj – masculin, feminin ori chiar alegoric (Râul) –<br />
pentru a surprin<strong>de</strong> episodic evenimente, personaje, locuri, trăiri, gânduri, ce<br />
se leagă apoi într-o perspectivă totalizantă, după mo<strong>de</strong>lul puzzle-ului 36 .<br />
Astfel, nu avem <strong>de</strong> a face cu fracţionarea centrului în perspective marginale,<br />
cum ar fi părut iniţial, ci cu o multiplicare a centrului. Există o singură<br />
perspectivă, centrală, caracterizată nu doar <strong>de</strong> omniscienţă, ci şi <strong>de</strong><br />
ubicuitate. Amprenta divinului, pe care Baricco o refuză textului său, este în<br />
mod paradoxal asumată <strong>de</strong> perspectiva auctorială.<br />
Pe <strong>de</strong> altă parte, prin această tehnică a vocilor multiple, personajul<br />
care îşi spune povestea, în plus, şi-o asumă. Din perspectiva poveştii ca<br />
mit individual (adică aparţinând individului), în viziunea artistică a lui<br />
Baricco, este indusă aici subtil i<strong>de</strong>ea unui <strong>de</strong>stin asumat, a unei opţiuni<br />
individuale şi intime a omului <strong>de</strong> a se situa înăuntrul propriei vieţi, care nu<br />
se mai conduce după o soartă aflată la bunul plac al zeilor.<br />
În sfârşit, a patra intervenţie pe care Baricco o face în Iliada apare<br />
firesc în <strong>de</strong>mersul unui creator original. Ea constă în adăugirile – <strong>de</strong>stul <strong>de</strong><br />
puţine, <strong>de</strong> altfel – făcute la textul-sursă. În forma tipărită, <strong>de</strong>ci în cartea<br />
Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, acestea sunt marcate cu caractere cursive, constituind<br />
asumarea unei intervenţii exterioare în poveste. După cum afirmă<br />
scriitorul însuşi, folosind o metaforă sugestivă, aceste părţi <strong>de</strong> text sunt “ca<br />
nişte restaurări <strong>de</strong>clarate, din oţel şi sticlă, pe o faţadă gotică” 37 . Aceste<br />
adăugiri conţin fie unele aluzii sau nuanţe pe care autorul consi<strong>de</strong>ră că<br />
Iliada le-ar conţine “printre rânduri” dar că nu le putea “gândi” şi exprima<br />
explicit din spaţiul civilizaţiei pe care o reprezenta, fie ecouri din surse<br />
36 Puzzle-ul este un alt motiv recurent al operei lui Baricco, asociabil mai ales<br />
categoriei multiplicităţii a lui Calvino.<br />
37 Alessandro Baricco, Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, text introductiv, p.9 (trad.ns.)<br />
151
posterioare naraţiunii în sine (din Euripi<strong>de</strong>, Filostratos sau Apolodor din<br />
Pergam).<br />
Adăugirea cea mai importantă în Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, însă, este cea a<br />
monologului final aparţinând lui Demodokos. Aceasta pare nefirească, din<br />
punctul <strong>de</strong> ve<strong>de</strong>re al poveştii Ilia<strong>de</strong>i. Epopeea homerică se încheie cu<br />
moartea lui Hector şi cu restituirea corpului acestuia lui Priam. Povestea<br />
spusă <strong>de</strong> Baricco simte nevoia <strong>de</strong> a fi completă, <strong>de</strong> a avea nu numai un<br />
început, ci şi un sfârşit. Nevoia <strong>de</strong> final a lui Baricco (una firească, am<br />
spune, într-o epocă a epilogului, cum <strong>de</strong>fineşte Peter Sloterdijk postmo<strong>de</strong>rnitatea<br />
38 ) îl <strong>de</strong>termină pe scriitor să aducă în încheierea textului său o<br />
situaţie care se regăseşte originar în Odiseea, când, în Cântul VIII, aedul<br />
Demodokos evoca în faţa lui Ulise că<strong>de</strong>rea Troiei, acesteia adăugându-i un<br />
fragment care îşi găseşte originea în Trifiodoros (Halosis Iliu). 39<br />
În Iliada lui Homer nu se vorbea <strong>de</strong>spre calul lui Ulise şi <strong>de</strong>spre<br />
episodul că<strong>de</strong>rii Troiei. Dar Baricco, gândindu-se că şi-ar “trăda” publicul<br />
(dar şi propria poetică) nepovestindu-i cum se terminase acel război, îi<br />
construieşte romanului său (cum am numi noi Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>) un epilog.<br />
Toate poveştile lui Alessandro Baricco au epilog, scriitorul nu le lasă<br />
niciodată neîncheiate, cu posibilitatea continuării.<br />
Ca mit aparţinând individului, povestea trebuie să fie <strong>de</strong>săvârşită,<br />
completă, închisă. Tot astfel precum centrul are nevoie <strong>de</strong> referinţa la<br />
periferie tocmai pentru a-şi <strong>de</strong>fini semnificaţia în arhitectura unei lumi.<br />
Dar care este semnificaţia mitului, <strong>de</strong>spre ce vorbeşte el? Cheia <strong>de</strong><br />
lectură ne-o oferă Baricco însuşi, într-un “Comentariu <strong>de</strong>spre război”, un<br />
fel <strong>de</strong> mini-eseu plasat în chip <strong>de</strong> glosă la sfârşitul cărţii Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong> 40 .<br />
Scriitorul pare să constate că epoca actuală nu ar fi a<strong>de</strong>cvată lecturii – cu<br />
atât mai puţin în public – a Ilia<strong>de</strong>i, pe care o <strong>de</strong>fineşte fără minime ezitări<br />
“un monument al războiului”, compus pentru a cânta “o umanitate<br />
războinică” precum şi valorile centrale ale acelei lumi, printre care<br />
“solemna frumuseţe […] care fusese în acele vremuri războiul” 41 .<br />
38 Peter Sloterdijk, Eurotaoism, cap.VI După mo<strong>de</strong>rnitate, pp.129-157<br />
39 Cf. Alessandro Baricco, Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, text introductiv, p.9<br />
40 Alessandro Baricco, Un’altra bellezza. Postilla sulla Guerra, în Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>,<br />
op.cit., pp.157 – 163 (trad.ns.)<br />
41 Ibid., p.157<br />
152
Lumea Ilia<strong>de</strong>i lui Homer este o lume în care centralul este reprezentat<br />
în primul rând <strong>de</strong> elementul divin; apoi <strong>de</strong> vocea masculină, ce se afirmă<br />
predilect în cadrul vieţii publice, a cărei expresie supremă este războiul,<br />
care impune eroul ca profil i<strong>de</strong>al. Dintr-o astfel <strong>de</strong> lume, Alessandro<br />
Baricco alege povestea şi o <strong>de</strong>spovărează <strong>de</strong> presiunea centrului,<br />
orientându-se exact către ceea ce logic rezultă ca marginal: o laicizare ce<br />
dă surprinzător ocazia <strong>de</strong> exprimare vocii feminine, care îşi găseşte spaţiul<br />
predilect <strong>de</strong> afirmare în viaţa privată, a cărei formă esenţială este familia,<br />
care propune ca valoare profilul mamei, al tatălui, al copilului, aspect<br />
asupra căruia vom insista în cele ce urmează. Marginalul acelor vremuri<br />
<strong>de</strong>vine centralul timpului actual şi cu această revelaţie, Baricco – în<br />
Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong> – translatează povestea din epoca ei originară în epoca<br />
prezentă.<br />
Referindu-se la “funcţia existenţială” a literaturii, Calvino i<strong>de</strong>ntifica în<br />
actul căutării <strong>de</strong>spovărării (la ricerca <strong>de</strong>lla leggerezza), o reacţie la<br />
“povara vieţii” (il peso di vivere) 42 . În acest sens, Baricco se dove<strong>de</strong>şte a fi<br />
– asemeni multor personaje ale sale – un “căutător al <strong>de</strong>spovărării” (un<br />
“ricercatore di leggerezza”, <strong>de</strong> tipul celor prezentaţi în finalul<br />
subcapitolului anterior). Dintr-o asemenea perspectivă, <strong>de</strong>spovărarea<br />
capătă semnificaţia existenţială a unei soluţii <strong>de</strong> salvare din “greul” vieţii,<br />
<strong>de</strong> sub apăsarea lumii reale, cu care se luptă personajele lui Baricco, dar şi<br />
Baricco însuşi. Apăsarea centrului şi tendinţa centrifugă spre marginal ca<br />
o uşurare, pentru a transforma tocmai marginalul salvator într-un nou<br />
centru generator <strong>de</strong> consistenţă pare a fi dinamica <strong>de</strong>finitorie condiţiei<br />
umane în viziunea lui Alessandro Baricco.<br />
Ceea ce surprin<strong>de</strong> în Iliada lui Homer, remarcă autorul, este<br />
compasiunea cu care sunt prezentate motivaţiile învinşilor, într-o poveste<br />
“scrisă <strong>de</strong> învingători”: “…în memorie rămân şi, sau poate chiar mai ales,<br />
figurile umane ale troienilor. Priam, Hector, Andromaca…”. Şi continuă:<br />
Capacitatea aceasta, supranaturală, <strong>de</strong> a se face voce a întregii umanităţi<br />
şi nu numai a propriei existenţe, am regăsit-o lucrând la text şi <strong>de</strong>scoperind cum<br />
grecii, în Iliada, au transmis, printre rândurile unui monument al războiului,<br />
memoria unei iubiri obstinate pentru pace. […] din penumbra reflecţiei, iese la<br />
42 Italo Calvino, op.cit., p.33<br />
153
suprafaţă o Iliada la care nu te aştepţi […]: latura feminină a Ilia<strong>de</strong>i. Femeile<br />
[…], rămase la marginea luptei, întrupează i<strong>de</strong>ea obstinată şi aproape<br />
clan<strong>de</strong>stină a unei civilizaţii alternative, eliberată <strong>de</strong> necesitatea războiului. 43<br />
Baricco găseşte ilustrativ Cântul VI, “o mică operă <strong>de</strong> geometrie<br />
sentimentală”. Într-un timp suspendat, răpit bătăliei, Hector intră în<br />
cetate şi întâlneşte trei femei. Urmărind cu atenţie, toate trei rostesc<br />
“aceeaşi rugăminte: pace”, dar fiecare foloseşte o altă tonalitate<br />
sentimentală. Mama îl în<strong>de</strong>amnă la rugăciune. Elena îl în<strong>de</strong>amnă la<br />
odihnă, lângă ea. Andromaca, în sfârşit, îi cere să fie tată şi soţ, înainte <strong>de</strong> a<br />
fi luptător şi erou. Observând aceste atitudini convergente ale personajelor<br />
feminine, Alessandro Baricco remarcă faptul că:<br />
Două lumi posibile stau faţă în faţă, fiecare cu argumentele sale […] mai<br />
oarbă, cea a lui Hector: mo<strong>de</strong>rnă, mult mai umană, cea reprezentată <strong>de</strong><br />
Andromaca. Nu este uimitor – se întreabă scriitorul – că o civilizaţie masculină<br />
şi războinică precum cea a grecilor a ales să transmită, pentru eternitate, vocea<br />
femeilor şi dorinţa lor <strong>de</strong> pace? 44<br />
Iliada lui Homer lasă la un moment dat să se întrevadă o civilizaţie <strong>de</strong><br />
care grecii nu au fost capabili, dar pe care totuşi “o intuiseră, o cunoşteau<br />
şi chiar o păstrau într-un colţ secret şi apărat al sufletului lor” 45 . Şi în acest<br />
punct preia Baricco în textul său “moştenirea” ce ajunge la noi cu textul<br />
homeric:<br />
Să împlinim noi acea intuiţie, probabil, este exact ceea ce în Iliada ni se<br />
propune ca moştenire, ca misiune şi ca datorie. 46<br />
Civilizaţia grecilor îşi fixase o valoare ontologică în frumuseţea<br />
războiului, care a fost transmisă peste epoci. Misiunea noastră ar fi, în<br />
epoca actuală, în viziunea lui Baricco, aceea <strong>de</strong> a găsi o “altă frumuseţe”,<br />
capabilă să o înlocuiască pe cea a războiului. Acesta ar fi unicul drum către<br />
o “pace a<strong>de</strong>vărată”:<br />
43 Alessandro Baricco, Un’altra bellezza. Postilla sulla guerra, în Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>,<br />
op.cit., p.158 (trad.ns.)<br />
44 Ibid., p.159 (trad.ns.)<br />
45 Ibid., p.160 (trad.ns.)<br />
46 Ibid. (trad.ns.)<br />
154
Vom reuşi, mai <strong>de</strong>vreme sau mai târziu, să-l scoatem pe Ahile din acel<br />
război ucigător. Şi nici frica, nici oroarea nu vor fi cele care îl vor aduce acasă.<br />
Aceea va fi o anume frumuseţe, diferită, mai orbitoare <strong>de</strong>cât a lui, şi infinit mai<br />
blândă. 47<br />
Citind textul lui Baricco, Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, observăm cum povestea spusă<br />
pare să aparţină la început altcuiva. La acest nivel al aparenţei s-au oprit<br />
mulţi dintre criticii săi, aceştia văzând în <strong>de</strong>mersul autorului doar o reluare<br />
lipsită <strong>de</strong> inspiraţie artistică, un act ratat <strong>de</strong> originalitate al unui “traduttor<br />
<strong>de</strong>i traduttor d’Omero” 48 . Este a<strong>de</strong>vărat că acest text al lui Baricco pare<br />
mai <strong>de</strong>grabă început “cu foarfeca unui croitor, <strong>de</strong>cât cu pana<br />
scriitorului” 49 . Încet-încet, însă, fiecare gest al său în construcţia narativă<br />
se justifică, îşi <strong>de</strong>zvăluie semnificaţiile.<br />
La început, este povestea lui Homer, Iliada. Dar treptat, fără să ne<br />
dăm seama când şi cum, autorul <strong>de</strong>vine el însuşi titlu: Homer, Iliada.<br />
Coerenţa <strong>de</strong> viziune semnificativă a construcţiei textului poartă o marcă<br />
uşor i<strong>de</strong>ntificabilă: Alessandro Baricco. Se regăseşte aici acel “cântec”<br />
propriu ce este necesar cuiva care ar primi o poveste <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>mult. Homer,<br />
intrând în titlul poveştii, <strong>de</strong>vine mit, la rândul lui: mitul povestitorului.<br />
Altfel spus, mitul individual al lui Baricco însuşi, care dacă nu şi-ar spune<br />
povestea, şi-ar nega însăşi existenţa. De aceea, poate, în nenumărate ocazii<br />
înaintea punerii în scenă a Povestirii Ilia<strong>de</strong>i, Baricco afirma, când i se<br />
adresau întrebări <strong>de</strong>spre la proiectele sale, că “trebuie” să realizeze acel<br />
47 Ibid., p.163 (trad.ns.). În eseul publicat în volum în 2002 (Alessandro Baricco,<br />
Next. Piccolo libro sulla globalizzazione e sul mondo che verrà, I ed., Giangiacomo<br />
Feltrinelli Editore, Milano, 2002), Alessandro Baricco apreciază fenomenul globalizării ca<br />
pe un “proiect” al lumii actuale care, pentru a se impune, propune ca mo<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong> civilizaţie a<br />
viitorului, o civilizaţie a păcii, care ar putea avea şansa să înlocuiască, pentru prima dată<br />
în istoria planetei, o civilizaţie a războiului care ne vine ca moştenire din trecutul cel mai<br />
în<strong>de</strong>părtat (pp.25-26).<br />
48 v. articolul Recitar cantando (Vittorio Coletti, în L’Indice, <strong>de</strong>cembrie 2004).<br />
Sintagma, preluată cu referire la Baricco din V. Coletti şi din alte recenzii (v. <strong>de</strong> ex.<br />
recenzia din Sole 24 ore, 26 septembrie 2004), este pusă în discuţie <strong>de</strong> către Eugenio<br />
Scalfari pentru a interpreta într-un mod argumentat şi mult mai puţin superficial, actul<br />
artistic al scriitorului (în articolul La guerra tra orrore e bellezza, în la Repubblica, 13<br />
octombrie 2004).<br />
49 Vittorio Coletti, Recitar cantando, în L’Indice, <strong>de</strong>cembrie 2004<br />
155
proiect. Scrierea Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, privită în ansamblul operei lui Alessandro<br />
Baricco, este asumarea unei “moşteniri”, în accepţiunea lui Derrida, cu o<br />
dublă direcţionare a “datoriei”: din prezent spre trecut, ca <strong>de</strong>schi<strong>de</strong>re spre<br />
Celălalt, spre alteritate; iar din prezent spre viitor, ca <strong>de</strong>stin subiectiv şi<br />
irepetabil al povestitorului.<br />
156<br />
BIBLIOGRAFIE<br />
I. Opera lui Alessandro Baricco<br />
a) Opera literară<br />
1. Alessandro Baricco (2004), Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, Feltrinelli, I edizione,<br />
Milano<br />
2. Alessandro Baricco (2010), La storia di Don Giovanni raccontata<br />
da Alessandro Baricco, Scuola Hol<strong>de</strong>n – La Biblioteca di Repubblica<br />
-l’Espresso, colecţia Save the story<br />
b) Eseistică şi publicistică<br />
1. Alessandro Baricco, (2002), Barnum – Cronache dal Gran<strong>de</strong><br />
Show, XVIII ed. Universale Economica, Giangiacomo Feltrinelli Editore,<br />
Milano, (I ed. Feltrinelli 1995)<br />
2. Alessandro Baricco, (1998), Barnum 2 – Altre cronache dal<br />
Gran<strong>de</strong> Show, Giangiacomo Feltrinelli Editore, Milano<br />
3. Alessandro Baricco, (febbraio 2002), Next. Piccolo libro sulla<br />
globalizzazione e sul mondo che verrà, I ed. Giangiacomo Feltrinelli<br />
Editore, Milano, (III edizione Universale Economica, Giangiacomo<br />
Feltrinelli Editore, Milano, aprile 2002)<br />
4. Alessandro Baricco, (2008), I barbari. Saggio sulla mutazione,<br />
Universale Economica, Giangiacomo Feltrinelli Editore, Milano, (I ed.<br />
Fandango Libri, Roma, 2006)<br />
c) Proiecte multimedia, spectacol, lectură narativă<br />
Alessandro Baricco, (2004), Omero, Ilia<strong>de</strong>, messa in scena di Gabriele<br />
Vacis<br />
http://www.racconto<strong>de</strong>llilia<strong>de</strong>.it' (Il racconto <strong>de</strong>ll’Ilia<strong>de</strong>, Romaeuropa<br />
Festival 2004)
II. Bibliografie critică<br />
a) Monografii şi studii critice <strong>de</strong>dicate operei lui Alessandro<br />
Baricco<br />
1. Giulio Ferroni – Profondità di superficie (in vol. Giulio Ferroni, M.<br />
Onofri, Filippo La Porta, A. Berardinelli – Sul banco <strong>de</strong>i cattivi. A<br />
proposito di Baricco e di altri scrittori alla moda, Donzelli, Roma, 2006)<br />
2. Claudio Pezzin, (2001), Alessandro Baricco, Cierre,<br />
Sommacampagna<br />
3. Alessandro Scarsella (2003), Alessandro Baricco, Cadmo, Fiesole<br />
(Firenze)<br />
4. Daniele Zangirolami, (2008), Alessandro Baricco. Il <strong>de</strong>stino e le<br />
sue traiettorie, Libreria Editrice Cafoscarina, Venezia<br />
b) Studii critice şi eseuri cu caracter general<br />
1. Alberto Asor Rosa, (2001), Stile Calvino – Cinque studi, Einaudi,<br />
Torino<br />
2. Anca Balaci, (2002), Dicţionar mitologic greco-roman, ed. Li<strong>de</strong>r<br />
3. Roland Barthes, (1997), Mitologii, Institutul european, Iasi,<br />
(Mythologies, Editions du Seuil, 1957)<br />
4. Daniel J. Boorstin, (2001), Creatorii – O istorie a eroilor<br />
imaginaţiei, vol.I, Ed. Meridiane, Bucureşti<br />
5. Italo Calvino, (1988), Lezioni americane – Sei proposte per il<br />
prossimo millennio, prima edizione, Einaudi, Torino<br />
6. Italo CalvinO, (1993), Lezioni americane – Sei proposte per il<br />
prossimo millennio, prima edizione Oscar Opere di Italo Calvino, Arnoldo<br />
Mondadori Editore, Milano<br />
7. Italo Calvino, (1995), Perché leggere i classici, Arnoldo Mondadori<br />
Editore, I edizione Oscar, Milano<br />
8. Jacques Derrida, (1999), Spectrele lui Marx, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi<br />
9. Umberto Eco, (1996), Limitele interpretării, Editura Pontica,<br />
Constanţa<br />
10. Linda Hutcheon, (2002), Poetica postmo<strong>de</strong>rnismului, trad. Dan<br />
Popescu, Univers, Bucureşti<br />
11. Linda Hutcheon, (1997), Politica postmo<strong>de</strong>rnismului, trad. Mircea<br />
Deac, Univers, Bucureşti<br />
157
12. Jean–François Lyotard, (1988), La condition post-mo<strong>de</strong>rne,<br />
Minuit, Paris (ed. rom.: Jean–François Lyotard, Condiţia postmo<strong>de</strong>rnă,<br />
trad. şi cuvânt înainte Ciprian Mihali, I<strong>de</strong>a Design, Cluj-Napoca, 2003)<br />
13. Georg Lukács, (1972), Estetica, vol. I, Ed. Meridiane, Bucureşti<br />
14. Peter SloterdijK, (2004), Eurotaoism, I<strong>de</strong>a Design & Print,<br />
Cluj-Napoca<br />
c) Articole, cronici, recenzii, interviuri etc.– extrase din<br />
presa culturală<br />
1. Gianni Bonina, (5 octombrie 2004), Un’“Ilia<strong>de</strong>” umana troppo<br />
umana, Stilos<br />
2. Ida Bozzi, (18 iunie 2003), Quando il libro dà spettacolo, Corriere<br />
<strong>de</strong>lla Sera<br />
3. Eva Cantarella, (30 septembrie 2004), Strana Ilia<strong>de</strong> senza <strong>de</strong>i,<br />
Corriere <strong>de</strong>lla Sera<br />
4. Vittorio Coletti, (<strong>de</strong>cembrie 2004), Recitar cantando, L’Indice<br />
5. Bene<strong>de</strong>tto Marzullo, (23 octombrie 2004), Ma nel cielo di Baricco<br />
Omero non brilla, l’Unità<br />
6. Paola Pariset (22.09.2004), Baricco: l’“Ilia<strong>de</strong>” per tutti, Il Giornale<br />
d’Italia<br />
158
CAT IMAGERY IN HARUKI MURAKAMI'S FICTION<br />
A<strong>de</strong>lina Vasile <br />
a<strong>de</strong>linavasile@yahoo.com<br />
Abstract: The cat is a recurrent and significant presence in the lives of<br />
Haruki Murakami's characters. This essay aims to enrich the already abundant<br />
criticism on Murakami by exploring the use of cat symbolism in his major<br />
fiction. Revisiting psychoanalytical theories, the article explores the images<br />
projected by Murakami onto his fictional cats. Split into good and painful or bad<br />
images, cats serve as substitutes for children and as dreadful father (parental)<br />
and female figures in the unconscious zoo of the characters' psyche. This<br />
analysis reveals that, tracking down the symbolism of Murakami's elusive cats,<br />
the rea<strong>de</strong>r can obtain valuable insight into the dark mean<strong>de</strong>rs of the<br />
labyrinthine human mind.<br />
Keywords: cat, animal, symbolism, the unconscious, human mind,<br />
sadism, i<strong>de</strong>ntity<br />
The animal as archetype represents the <strong>de</strong>ep layers of the<br />
subconscious and of instincts. Animals are consi<strong>de</strong>red to have relations<br />
with the three levels of the universe: hell, earth, sky.<br />
According to Jung, animals symbolize the “divine” si<strong>de</strong> of the human<br />
psyche and are much more connected than human beings to a “secret”<br />
or<strong>de</strong>r in nature itself and to “absolute knowledge” of the unconscious.<br />
Animal symbolism abounds in the unconscious, where a vast zoo is<br />
concealed. Paraphrasing Freud, Vamik Volkan affirms that “the mind is<br />
first and foremost an animal mind!” (Animals as Large – Group Symbols,<br />
31)<br />
As psychoanalytic literature shows, people use animals - real or<br />
imaginary - to express a wi<strong>de</strong> range of unconscious processes. Volkan<br />
believes that there is “complex and intertwined relationship of mankind’s<br />
Lecturer, ''<strong>Dimitrie</strong> <strong>Cantemir</strong>'' Christian University, Bucharest<br />
159
internal and external world that we find expressed in animal symbols” and<br />
“the symbolic significance of animals is sometimes obvious and primal,<br />
such as those associated with fertility, warfare, wisdom, or specific<br />
behaviors, while in other cases animals are used as symbols for complex<br />
and abstract i<strong>de</strong>as and beliefs.”<br />
It is impossible not to notice that in Haruki Murakami's novels animal<br />
imagery and symbolism are a major presence. His rich fictional zoo is<br />
teeming with real and fantastical animals, animals that can also be found<br />
in the Chinese zodiac: the (phantom) sheep, the cat, the dog, the fish, the<br />
dolphin, the whale, the (super)frog, the bird, the unicorn, the kangaroo,<br />
the elephant, the inkling or darkling (闇黒), the leech, etc. Some of them<br />
play key roles in the characters' lives and figure prominently in the<br />
relationship between the individual's inner map and outer physical reality.<br />
Jay Rubin argues that animals fascinate Murakami for what they have in<br />
common with the subconscious life of the human mind: they lack rational<br />
thinking and they are connected to mysterious forces. Unfortunately, they<br />
are unable to communicate (51). Murakami remedies this latter aspect in<br />
the case of cats, which he endows with the ability to talk.<br />
The most recurrent and meaningful animal presence in Murakami's<br />
fiction is the cat. Whoever or<strong>de</strong>red the <strong>de</strong>sign of one of the sites1 <strong>de</strong>dicated<br />
to the great author, must have noticed this significant aspect, since the<br />
bottom of the site's pages is patrolled by three cats.<br />
Cats are elusive creatures in Murakami's fiction because not only do<br />
they tend to disappear from their owners' lives, but also elu<strong>de</strong><br />
un<strong>de</strong>rstanding, owing to the richness of i<strong>de</strong>as and images that merge into<br />
Murakamian cat symbolism.<br />
Cat imagos oscillate between positive/diurnal and negative/nocturnal<br />
aspects. The characters' overall interaction with cats reveals the good cat/<br />
bad cat split. Characters and cats solace, haunt, hunt and <strong>de</strong>vour each<br />
other.<br />
Murakami's profound attachment to cats is well known. Besi<strong>de</strong>s<br />
owning cats, the author wi<strong>de</strong>ly used the cat as a lucky charm, a mascot.<br />
Cat imagery and cat figurines represent(ed) a significant part of the<br />
Murakami family's home <strong>de</strong>corations.<br />
160<br />
1 The site's address is http://www.randomhouse.com/features/murakami/site.php.
In 1974, Murakami and his wife also played with cat theme when they<br />
set up a coffee-bar-cum-jazz-club called “Peter Cat” (named after<br />
Murakami's late and much beloved tomcat pet) in a Tokyo suburb. At that<br />
time, the “original” tomcat had been sent to a friend's country house to<br />
recover from the stress of city life. In 1977 the Murakamis moved the bar<br />
more centrally and when they <strong>de</strong>corated it, they played again with cat<br />
imagery. Outsi<strong>de</strong>, customers could enjoy the big, smiling face of the<br />
Cheshire Cat; insi<strong>de</strong>, they could admire cat figurines lying on all tables and<br />
on the piano, cat pictures and paintings.<br />
In the comic-realistic <strong>de</strong>scription of the <strong>de</strong>crepit cat in A Wild Sheep<br />
Chase Murakami may have used as a source of inspiration his own<br />
tomcat's aspect:<br />
The cat was anything but cute. Rather, he weighed in at the opposite<br />
end of the scale, his fur was scruffy like an old, threadbare carpet, the tip<br />
of his tail was bent at a sixty <strong>de</strong>gree angle, his teeth were yellowed, his<br />
right eye oozed pus from a wound three years before so that by now he<br />
could hardly see. It was doubtful that he could distinguish between a<br />
tennis shoe and a potato. The pads of his feet were sriveled-up corns, his<br />
ears were infested with ear lice, and from sheer age he farted at least<br />
twenty times a day. He'd been a fine young tom the day my wife found<br />
him un<strong>de</strong>r a park bench and brought him home, but in the last few years<br />
he'd rapidly gone downhill. Like a bowling ball rolling toward the gutter<br />
(151-152).<br />
Asked why cats play such a consi<strong>de</strong>rable role in his characters' lives,<br />
Murakami mo<strong>de</strong>stly claims to know nothing about cat symbolism:<br />
Cats appear frequently in your fiction, and in this book 2 they play a<br />
particularly memorable role, what with the <strong>de</strong>tailed <strong>de</strong>scription of how a<br />
<strong>de</strong>ranged sculptor preys on cats. Why are cats so important to your<br />
characters and your stories?<br />
It must be because I'm personally fond of cats. I've always had them<br />
around since I was little. But I don't know whether they have any other<br />
significance.<br />
2 The interviewer refers to the novel Kafka on the Shore.<br />
161
A pervasive presence in the lives of Murakami's characters, the cat<br />
becomes part of human i<strong>de</strong>ntity. This is how the narrator in A Wild Sheep<br />
Chase introduces to the rea<strong>de</strong>r his friend J., the owner of a bar: “He had a<br />
cat, smoked a pack of cigarettes a day, never touched a drop of alcohol.<br />
That's the sum of everything I know about J” (87-88).<br />
Not all of the characters have cats but, wherever there is a couple,<br />
usually there is also a cat. Like Murakami, married couples in his fictional<br />
world have no children - they have a cat instead.<br />
In A Wild Sheep Chase the narrator's marriage is broken up and the<br />
cat is visibly weakened by illness and old age. The tomcat had been found<br />
by his wife and is all that is she leaves behind, besi<strong>de</strong>s a dying geranium.<br />
Before leaving, she had taken everything that belonged to her and cut out<br />
the parts with her from the shots of both of them, leaving behind only the<br />
narrator's image or photos of him alone, “as if I'd been alone at birth, alone<br />
all my days, and would continue alone. A slip! She could have at least left a<br />
slip!” (20). He not only laments, but also projects his <strong>de</strong>jection on the cat,<br />
attributing his own feelings to it: “[...] probably even the cat would feel<br />
more comfortable having her things around” (19). The comforting thought<br />
that “[...] all in all, this was hardly what you could call a tragedy” (22)<br />
disguises the fact that he subconsciously wishes that the relationship were<br />
not over. This <strong>de</strong>sire is reflected in the protagonist's special concern for the<br />
cat's well-being. Here are the indications he gives over the phone to an<br />
yakuza to whom he has to entrust the cat before leaving in search of a<br />
mysterious sheep:<br />
“Don't feed him fatty meat. He throws it all up. His teeth are bad, so<br />
no hard foods. In the morning, he gets milk and canned cat food, in the<br />
evening a handful of dried fish or meat or cheese snacks. Also please<br />
change his litter box daily. He doesn't like it dirty. He often gets diarrhea,<br />
but if it doesn't go away after two days the vet will have some medicine to<br />
give him.” [...] “He's starting to get lice in his ears”, I continued, “so once a<br />
day you should give his ears a cleaning with a cotton swab and a little<br />
olive oil. He dislikes it and fights it, so be careful not to rupture the<br />
eardrum. Also, if you're worried he might claw the furniture, trim his<br />
claws once a week. Regular nail clippers are fine. I'm pretty sure he<br />
doesn't have fleas, but just in case it might be wise to give him a flea bath<br />
162
every so often. You can get flea shampoo at any pet shop. After his bath,<br />
you should dry him off with a towel and give him a good brushing, then<br />
last of all a once-over with a hair dryer. Otherwise he'll catch cold” (146).<br />
For a character prone to passivity like the narrator, keeping the cat<br />
alive is the only way he can control the situation externally and preserve<br />
what is left of his relationship with his wife. The cat becomes a transitional<br />
object meant to provi<strong>de</strong> the narrator with comfort, to ease the pain of<br />
separateness and aloneness.<br />
The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle begins with a domestic drama - the<br />
disappearance of the Okada family's tomcat, which prece<strong>de</strong>s the wife's<br />
disappearance. Here, the cat is a symbol of the bond between man and<br />
woman, of what unites them. As Kumiko Okada points out, the cat is very<br />
important to them both because they had found it in the week after their<br />
wedding. Conscious of its value as an element that cemented their<br />
relationship, as a symbol of the union between her and Tōru, of what was<br />
good and beautiful between them, Kumiko urges Tōru to go and search for<br />
the missing cat.<br />
As Jonathan Dil remarked in Woman as Symptom and the Void at the<br />
Heart of Subjectivity: A Lacanian Reading of Murakami Haruki's 'The<br />
Wind-up Bird Chronicle', “the cat is a symbol of the domestic harmony<br />
that Tōru and Kumiko have established in their six years together, but<br />
their marriage quickly unravels with the cat's disappearance.”<br />
What Kumiko does not realize is that the cat is also a substitute for the<br />
baby she aborted. Thus, the triad husband-wife-child is translated as<br />
husband-wife-cat in Murakami's fiction.<br />
The cat's disappearance is a bad omen, it signifies a damaged or a<br />
dying relationship. Tōru thinks that cats have a special way of living and, if<br />
a cat <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>s to leave home, it knows very well why it acts like this. Deeply<br />
troubled, Kumiko feels that the cat has died and his body is rotting among<br />
weeds. When Toru's search for the cat turns out to be fruitless, she accuses<br />
him of not really wanting to find it. Unable to accept the loss of the cat,<br />
Kumiko even resorts to a clairvoyant's help. Shortly after the cat goes<br />
missing, Kumiko leaves her husband for another man. Eventually, after a<br />
long time, the cat returns. Its appearance is related to Tōru's hope for a<br />
possible reconciliation with his wife. In the end, Tōru succeeds in<br />
163
contacting Kumiko, although the question of whether she will return to<br />
him remains unanswered.<br />
In Kafka on the Shore cats are also child(-like) figures (victims). The<br />
author anthropomorphizes them by bestowing them with an important<br />
attribute that characterizes human beings: capability for speech. Cats are<br />
able to converse with Nakata - a mentally <strong>de</strong>fective old man who is<br />
illiterate, and thus “a kind of animalized human” (Willmott. 72) - who is<br />
endowed with the capacity of communicating with cats. He uses this ability<br />
to gather information from them and find missing cats in his<br />
neighborhood. To make interaction easier, Nakata gives the cats human<br />
names (Otsuka, Kawamura, Okawa), not because he wants to mark<br />
ascendancy and domination, but because he reveres and respects them.<br />
The infantile Nakata allows cats to rank as his full equals or even<br />
superiors, which can be noticed in the way he speaks to cats about<br />
members of their species - he uses the word 猫さん 3 , as though they were<br />
human beings.<br />
In some of the scenes, cats appear as smaller versions of naïve,<br />
helpless little children 4 that can be easily lured and lead astray by<br />
malevolent people and risk becoming subject to maltreatment. As the<br />
Siamese cat Mimi <strong>de</strong>scribes her own species, “cats are powerless, weak<br />
little creatures that injure easily” (104).<br />
In this novel cats also vanish mysteriously. The cause of the<br />
disappearance turns out to be a malevolent spirit, a monstrous, hollow<br />
apparition that kidnaps them and takes them to an alien reality.<br />
The search for a particular runaway cat called Goma leads the<br />
simple-min<strong>de</strong>d Nakata to the house of “the infamous cat-killer Johnnie<br />
Walker”, an icon with human form, the literal embodiment of the<br />
3 The word 猫さん(nekosan) is composed of 猫 (neko) = 'cat' and さん (san) - a<br />
honorific suffix that is used for addressing or referring to people and can be attached both<br />
to first names and surnames.<br />
4 Murakami's language associates cats with children. A lost/ stray/ missing cat is 迷<br />
子の猫 (maigo no neko). 迷子 means 'lost child'. In this context, the word 'lost' is a<br />
combination of 迷う(mayou) = to lose one's way and 子(ko) = child. For cats that go<br />
missing, the author also uses the verb 迷子になる(maigo ni naru) = to be (get) lost, to<br />
lose one's way.<br />
164
enowned Johnnie Walker logo from the whiskey bottle. This mysterious<br />
figure is in fact the i<strong>de</strong>ntificatory projection of a famous sculptor named<br />
Koichi Tamura, who uses it to activate in a nightmarish, surrealistic world<br />
that overlaps with the real world and has effects in it.<br />
Like Tamura, Walker follows his own inner laws, which are beyond<br />
notions of good an evil. The sculptor's artistic force stems from his<br />
connection “to something very unusual”, “something beyond good an evil”,<br />
“the source of power” (267). He is a creator who treats his fellow humans<br />
as if they were his own creations, which he can “make or break as he sees<br />
fit” (266). Creative though he is in relation to inanimate matter from which<br />
he obtains “original, provocative, powerful” and “uncompromising” pieces,<br />
he is <strong>de</strong>structive in inter-human relationships: “[...] the dregs left over<br />
from creating these he spread everywhere, like poison you can't escape.<br />
[He] polluted everything he touched, damaged everyone everyone around<br />
him” (267).<br />
Johnnie Walker, Tamura's strange version in the metaphysical world,<br />
is as sinister a figure as the sculptor is. The insensate Walker is a master of<br />
extreme sadism, guilty of “horrific genoci<strong>de</strong> enacted upon animals”<br />
(Willmott 72). If his behavior - very much resembling one resulting from a<br />
paroxysm of brain dysfunction - were that of a real human being, the<br />
diagnosis would probably be sadistically tinged paranoid personality<br />
disor<strong>de</strong>r.<br />
He lures stray felines in a vacant plot of land, throws them into a sack<br />
and takes them home, where he injects them with a paralyzing substance<br />
which does not prevent them from feeling “unimaginable” pain. He drinks<br />
whiskey and then starts slicing open the cats' bellies, tears out the<br />
still-beating hearts, pops them into his mouth and chews them slowly,<br />
savoring the taste, his eyes glistening “like those of a child enjoying a<br />
pastry hot from the oven” (190), while whistling “Heigh-Ho!” - the jolly<br />
tune associated with Disney's Seven Dwarfs from Snow White 5 . The<br />
work's final stage <strong>de</strong>scribes Walker as a type of twisted artist:<br />
5 In a striking way, cat-torturing, whiskey-drinking and music are elements that also<br />
figure in a psychopathological case reported by Volkan, about a man with “a background<br />
of severe frustrations in childhood”, who has sadomasochistic, erotic interactions with the<br />
165
Still whistling his jolly tune, Johnnie Walker sawed the cat's head off.<br />
The teeth of the saw crunched through the bone and severed it. He seemed<br />
to know exactly what he was doing. The neck bone wasn't very thick, so<br />
the whole operation was quickly finished. But the sound had a strange<br />
weight to it. Johnnie Walker lovingly placed the severed head on the<br />
metal tray. As if relishing a work of art, he narrowed his eyes and gazed<br />
at it intently (190).<br />
The incomprehensible, <strong>de</strong>monic Walker leads himself by the rule of<br />
meaningless, unjustified violence, remorse-free cruelty and <strong>de</strong>structiveness<br />
that can be terrifyingly <strong>de</strong>ep and intense: “There has to be pain. That's the<br />
rule” (189).<br />
His art consists in a collection of still-nature pieces - severed cat heads<br />
– which he arranges neatly in a freezer. By collecting the heads he means<br />
to harvest the cats' souls/ spirits (猫の魂) and use them to construct a<br />
bizarre, magical flute:<br />
“Listen - I'm not killing cats just for the fun of it. I'm not so disturbed<br />
I find it amusing,” he went on. “I'm not just some dilettante with time on<br />
his hands. It takes a lot of time and effort to gather and kill this many<br />
cats. I'm killing them to collect their souls, which I use to create a special<br />
kind of flute. And when I blow that flute it'll let me collect even larger<br />
souls. Then I collect larger souls and make an even bigger flute. Perhaps<br />
in the end I'll be able to make a flute so large it'll rival the universe. But<br />
first come the cats. Gathering their souls is the starting point of the whole<br />
project. There's an essential or<strong>de</strong>r you have to follow in everything. It's a<br />
way of showing respect, following everything in the correct or<strong>de</strong>r. It's<br />
what you need to do when you're <strong>de</strong>aling with other souls. It's not<br />
pineapples and melons I'm working with here, agreed?” (184).<br />
The world-renowned sculptor and his doppelgänger, Johnnie Walker,<br />
share the same the search for absolute power over life, over what animates<br />
all living being and represents the essence of the human/animal being.<br />
family pet – a cat. He tortures the animal while drinking whiskey and listening to classical<br />
music and <strong>de</strong>rives sexual pleasure from the cat's pain ( 20-21).<br />
166
Tamura's maltreatment of his human fellows in the “real” world has a<br />
correspon<strong>de</strong>nt in Walker's parallel world - it translates to torture and<br />
execution of feline fellows.<br />
The two characters' violent behavior conceals a <strong>de</strong>sire to wield<br />
absolute power over human beings, over beings endowed with what they<br />
lack: soul.<br />
According to Erich Fromm, the <strong>de</strong>sire to have complete power over<br />
someone reflects an extreme <strong>de</strong>sire for knowledge that can lead to extreme<br />
sadism. The psychoanalyst consi<strong>de</strong>rs that cruelty is motivated by<br />
something more profound: the <strong>de</strong>sire to find out the secret of things and of<br />
life (32).<br />
Walker's psychopathological (ab)use of cats echoes animal sacrifice in<br />
satanic rituals and the form it takes discloses an involvement of cultural<br />
factors. The gruesome and agonizing ritual of evisceration and beheading<br />
enacted by the serial cat killer is reminiscent of the long and bloody<br />
Japanese tradition of ritual disembowelment (seppuku 切腹 or harakiri 腹<br />
切) carried out by an executioner.<br />
The fragments of the body that are assailed, exposed, consumed or<br />
preserved are precisely the three parts regar<strong>de</strong>d as the seats of the<br />
individual's essence in Eastern and Western conceptions of the body: the<br />
viscera6 , the heart7 and the head8 .<br />
The act of spilling and exposing the labyrinth of reddish intestines can<br />
be interpreted as an attempt to bring to light what is concealed, to get to<br />
the essence of things, to explore the inner maze of the self and the<br />
mysteries of the unconscious. An allusion to the layout of the labyrinth,<br />
guts represent the complex, hid<strong>de</strong>n aspects of inner consciousness, the<br />
maze of the mind that stands between the individual and (knowledge of)<br />
the real. The exposure of the inner labyrinth of guts may also symbolize<br />
the discovery of a way out of the labyrinth of <strong>de</strong>stiny where the individual<br />
often has to face dangerous elements.<br />
6 The abdominal region (腹) was consi<strong>de</strong>red to be the seat of thought and emotion.<br />
This is an i<strong>de</strong>a that may have old Japanese roots.<br />
7 The heart was once wi<strong>de</strong>ly recognized as the house of the human soul.<br />
8 Some ancient cultures viewed the head or skull to be the seat of the soul, the seat<br />
of power.<br />
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In Kafka on the Shore the sculptor's main theme of exploration in his<br />
works is the subconscious and he is best known for a piece entitled<br />
Labyrinth.<br />
The i<strong>de</strong>a of the labyrinth is a recurrent obsession in Murakami's<br />
fiction. In Kafka on the Shore some characters discuss the origin of the<br />
notion of labyrinth that stems from an ancient Mesopotamian ritual of<br />
exposing the disembowelled intestines of an enemy on the sand to divine<br />
the course of the future.<br />
Eventually, Nakata finds a way out of the lab(yrinth) of pain that is<br />
Walker's home. When Walker starts to perform his usual, grisly ritual of<br />
macabre killing in front of Nakata, the normally innocuous old man loses<br />
control and stabs the catnapper in or<strong>de</strong>r to stop the cat-killing orgy. Thus,<br />
the remaining feline children are rescued.<br />
As psychoanalysis suggests, in stories featuring an animal or a human<br />
relation with an animal, the primary or direct referent is not the fictional<br />
animal. The animal is only a vehicle or receptacle of meaning<br />
unconsciously projected onto it. Real and imagined animals play an<br />
important role in hiding and expressing human fears and anxieties.<br />
Although it seems that Murakami <strong>de</strong>liberately chose not to have<br />
children 9 , he blessed himself and his fictional couples with feline children.<br />
For the author himself, cats may also be symbolic substitutes for the<br />
children he doesn't have. The author's play with hurting the cat/rescuing<br />
the cat in Kafka on the Shore, the way he chooses to manage the gory<br />
cat-killing scenes – the cat killer is killed - may suggest the existence of an<br />
intrapsychic conflict, of some unconscious impulses and repudiated<br />
<strong>de</strong>sires that return, may express a subconscious anxiety over the <strong>de</strong>cision<br />
he took.<br />
In chapter eight of his novel 1Q84, “Time for the Cats to Come”,<br />
Murakami introduces a fantastical story entitled “Town of Cats” by a<br />
German author. The tale is fictionally written in the period between the<br />
9 It seems that children were out of question when the Murakamis were running the<br />
jazz club and when Murakami began writing, but he seems to have had reservations about<br />
the i<strong>de</strong>a anyway. 'I can't have children,' he told an interviewer in 1984. 'I simply don't<br />
have the confi<strong>de</strong>nce my parents' generation had after the war that the world would<br />
continue to improve.'<br />
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two world wars in Germany, being inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the anthology of short<br />
stories that Tengo, the main male character, reads on the train to his<br />
father’s sanatorium. The story looks very much like a record of the<br />
<strong>de</strong>lusions, hallucinations and persecutory dreads experienced by a<br />
disrupted human mind in which cats escape from the mental zoo, inva<strong>de</strong><br />
the psyche and assume control over it.<br />
It is the story of a young man on vacation “traveling alone at his whim<br />
with no <strong>de</strong>stination in mind” who gets off the train at a station where<br />
no-one else does to explore an unknown town. The town seems<br />
abandoned, “utterly still” and “totally uninhabited” - there is literally no<br />
one around (426). Things change after sunset, when over-sized cats 10<br />
inva<strong>de</strong> and occupy the town, imitating the behavior of the people who once<br />
lived there and engaging in all sorts of human activities. Thus, the young<br />
man finds out that the entire town is ruled by talking cats. Taken aback, he<br />
takes refuge into the bell tower. He hi<strong>de</strong>s himself for days, even though his<br />
good senses are telling him to leave the town. Although trains stop at the<br />
town station twice a day, his sense of adventure and curiosity about the<br />
town of cats prevent him from boarding them. On the third night he is<br />
sensed by cats:<br />
“Hey, do you smell something human?” one of the cats says. “Now<br />
that you mention it, I thought there was a funny smell the past few days,”<br />
another chimes in, twitching his nose. “Me, too,” yet another cat says.<br />
“That’s weird. There shouldn’t be any humans here,” someone adds. “No,<br />
of course not. There’s no way a human could get into this town of cats.”<br />
“But that smell is <strong>de</strong>finitely here” (427).<br />
The fearful man thinks that a tragic fate awaits him if he is discovered<br />
by cats in this dimension where he is not supposed to be - “he is sure that<br />
they will never let him leave the town alive now that he has learned their<br />
secret” (428).<br />
10 Huge, monstrous cats - mythical “cat <strong>de</strong>mons” (猫股) - also appear in Japanese<br />
legends of cat sorcery. They are <strong>de</strong>scribed as creatures endowed with a forked tail and the<br />
power to assume human form and bewitch mankind. The ability to bewitch human beings<br />
is a quality the cat shares with foxes and badgers in Japanese myths and legends.<br />
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The cats form groups to hunt him down, clearly angry over the<br />
intrusion of a human. However, they don’t seem to be able to find him.<br />
They can smell him, but they can't see him, as if he were transparent. He<br />
realizes that his stay there has become dangerous and <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>s to leave the<br />
Town of Cats, but when the train comes the next day, it doesn’t stop for<br />
him, as if he has become invisible to everyone-else - the engineer seated at<br />
the controls and the passengers. Then, it sud<strong>de</strong>nly dawns on him that he is<br />
stuck forever in the town of cats, that “[...] he is irretrievably lost. This is<br />
no town of cats, he finally realizes. It is the place where he is meant to be<br />
lost. It is a place not of this world that has been prepared especially for<br />
him. And never again, for all eternity, will the train stop at this station to<br />
take him back to his original world” (428).<br />
Tengo re-reads the story, because the phrase “the place where he is<br />
meant to be lost” attracts his attention. He seems to grasp some clear<br />
similarities between the dreadful situation of the young man and himself.<br />
Tengo's own Town of Cats is his relationship with his (non-biological?)<br />
father. The young traveller in the German story appears to be invisible to<br />
the cats and then to humans, which means he is nothing to them, just like<br />
Tengo has been to his father.<br />
When Tengo gets to his father’s bedsi<strong>de</strong> at the sanatorium, his father<br />
doesn’t recognize him, as if he too were invisible. When Tengo's arrival is<br />
announced by the nurse, “[...] he looked straight at Tengo as if he were<br />
reading a bulletin written in a foreign language” (431). Mirrored in his<br />
father's “expressionless eyes”, Tengo is ma<strong>de</strong> to suspect once more what he<br />
has always suspected - that the old man is not his biological father, that<br />
there is no blood connection between them: “You are nothing,” his father<br />
repeated the words, his voice <strong>de</strong>void of emotion. “You were nothing, you<br />
are nothing, and you will be nothing” (432).<br />
Tengo reads the story to his father. The two men speculate that the<br />
town had been built by human beings who left it or died in an epi<strong>de</strong>mic.<br />
The possibility of men having been <strong>de</strong>voured by cats is not taken into<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>ration here. The vacuum that resulted when the town was <strong>de</strong>serted<br />
was then filled by cats simply because, as his father says, “when a vacuum<br />
forms, something has to come along to fill it. Because that's what<br />
everybody does” (436). This is precisely what Tengo's father did: he filled<br />
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the father's place, but did not bond normally with his son, turned a blind<br />
eye to his needs and was unable to love him.<br />
The Town of Cats is a place of <strong>de</strong>solation, fear, alienation,<br />
powerlessness, a place where one is not oneself, where one feels<br />
ina<strong>de</strong>quate. The interest shown by Tengo in the German story is caused by<br />
the fact that the story evokes the inner and outer atmosphere he<br />
experienced in his childhood, in which he felt trapped and which he hated<br />
with all his heart. The cats are (potentially) <strong>de</strong>structive, alien presences,<br />
like Tengo's parents, who were emotionally absent from his life, didn't<br />
recognize Tengo's i<strong>de</strong>ntity or kinship and tried to obstruct his individual<br />
<strong>de</strong>velopment. Thus, the cats stand for primal parental figures imbued with<br />
cannibalistic powers.<br />
Being a toothed animal, the cat can be associated with ferocity,<br />
ravenousness, eating and being eaten. In the short story Man-Eating Cats<br />
the cat appears as a symbolic mental imago of oral sadism. Man-Eating<br />
Cats begins with a creepy story in a newspaper article that the male<br />
narrator reads to his lover. The article is about a seventy year old woman<br />
in Athens who was eaten by her three beloved cats. The woman lived alone,<br />
had no relatives or friends that paid her regular visits and she died<br />
probably from a heart attack, leaving three cats trapped in her apartment<br />
with no food for a whole week. On the verge of starvation, the animals<br />
were forced to feed off the woman's corpse.<br />
The narrator in Man-Eating Cats is an adulterous man who has fled to<br />
an obscure Greek island with his lover, Izumi, after the illicit love affair is<br />
exposed and their happy marriages break down.<br />
Izumi shows curiosity about the fate of the three cats, wanting to know<br />
if they were freed or killed because they'd eaten human flesh. She also<br />
remembers a strange parable from the Catholic school she atten<strong>de</strong>d, about<br />
what you are supposed to do if you are marooned on a <strong>de</strong>sert island with a<br />
cat and have very limited food supplies. She remembers feeling shocked to<br />
hear that you shouldn’t share the food but let the cat starve.<br />
The narrator painfully realizes that he is trapped in “an alien reality”<br />
on the island and feels disconnected from everything around him. He is<br />
there not because he really wanted to, but because Izumi shows an interest<br />
in Greece. By letting himself be completely absorbed/ consumed in the<br />
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new relationship and discarding his former Tokyo life - including his wife,<br />
his 4-year-old son, his job, his country - he has discar<strong>de</strong>d essential parts of<br />
his i<strong>de</strong>ntity. He is now totally <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt on Izumi, who is the only human<br />
being he knows, the only link to his past life and his sense of himself.<br />
A few days after reading the newspaper article, the narrator<br />
remembers his childhood cat, which “disappeared in the strangest way”.<br />
She scrambled up an “ancient pine tree in the gar<strong>de</strong>n, so tall you could<br />
barely see the top of it” and never went down. Later that night, Izumi<br />
disappears from the bed and he goes out to search for her. While walking<br />
in the moonlight, “without warning”, the narrator feels as if he has also<br />
disappeared, as if his i<strong>de</strong>ntity has vanished. He sud<strong>de</strong>nly hears Izumi's<br />
voice explaining to him that “The real you has been eaten by the cats.<br />
While you've been standing here, those hungry cats have <strong>de</strong>voured you -<br />
eaten you all up. All that's left is bones.”<br />
Unable to find Izumi, the narrator returns to the apartment alone,<br />
drinks alcohol and imagines the three cats from the newspaper story<br />
<strong>de</strong>vouring him entirely:<br />
I returned to the cottage and downed a glass of brandy. I tried to go<br />
to sleep, bit I couldn't. Until the eastern sky grew light, I was held in the<br />
grip of the moon. Then, sud<strong>de</strong>nly, I pictured those cats, starving to <strong>de</strong>ath<br />
in a locked apartment. I - the real me - was <strong>de</strong>ad, and they were alive,<br />
eating my flesh, biting into my heart, sucking my blood, <strong>de</strong>vouring my<br />
penis. Far away, I could hear them lapping up my brains. Like Macbeth's<br />
witches, the three lithe cats surroun<strong>de</strong>d my broken head, slurping up that<br />
thick soup insi<strong>de</strong>. The tips of their rough tongues licked the soft folds of<br />
my mind. And with each lick my consciousness flickered like a flame and<br />
fa<strong>de</strong>d away.<br />
In this story the cat imago signifies dangerous oral-sadistic impulses,<br />
discloses the narrator's castration anxiety and pinpoints the cannibalistic<br />
nature of the narrator’s relationship with Izumi, who has <strong>de</strong>voured him<br />
and stripped him of his i<strong>de</strong>ntity. Here, the cat becomes a psychic<br />
representation of the dangerous (<strong>de</strong>vouring and castrating) female lover.<br />
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In Murakami's fictional world cats are associated with disappearance,<br />
(oral) sadism and mysterious, alien worlds 11 . As John Updike noted, “cats<br />
frequently figure in Murakami’s fiction, as <strong>de</strong>legates from another world.”<br />
They are central to the story and their disappearance propels the story<br />
forward. The cats in Kafka on the Shore mediate between the “real” world<br />
and a parallel world that <strong>de</strong>fies rational explanation. In Kafka on the Shore<br />
the search for a lost cat leads to a series of gruesome events and<br />
discoveries that take place both in the “real” world and in a metaphysical<br />
world; in The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle the protagonist's search for his<br />
missing tomcat leads him to a <strong>de</strong>serted backyard with a <strong>de</strong>ep well that<br />
serves as a portal to another world, to inner darkness or the <strong>de</strong>pth of the<br />
unconscious.<br />
Cats also function as barometers that register or predict the evolution,<br />
the ups and downs of inter-human relationships. A cat's disappearance is a<br />
bad omen, being usually associated with or predicting the disappearance of<br />
a female figure. Cats also stand for human figures: child surrogates seeking<br />
rescue, castrative father (parental) and female figures. Murakami's<br />
fictional cats are enchanting and intriguing creatures that set the story in<br />
motion. Even when they disappear, they play the part of heralds issuing<br />
the call to adventures that disrupt the day-to-day existence of the<br />
protagonist and of the rea<strong>de</strong>r, inviting them to difficult journeys into the<br />
fantastic maze of the human mind.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Primary Literature<br />
1. Murakami, Haruki, (2000) [1982], A Wild Sheep Chase. Alfred<br />
Birnbaum (trans.), London: Harvill Press, Print.<br />
2. ---, (2005) [2002], Kafka on the Shore. Philip Gabriel (trans.).<br />
London: Vintage, Print.<br />
3. ---, (2002), 海辺のカフカ. 東京:株式会社新潮社, Print.<br />
4. ---, (1997) [1995], The Wind-up Bird Chronicle. Jay Rubin (trans.).<br />
New York: Vintage, Print.<br />
11 The cat is, in fact, primarily a nocturnal creature. Being a night creature, secret<br />
knowledge and otherworldliness are attributes contained in its philosophical symbolism.<br />
173
5. ---, (2011), 1Q84. Jay Rubin (trans.). London: Harvill Secker, Print.<br />
6. ---, “Man-Eating Cats”. Philip Gabriel (trans.). The New Yorker. 4.<br />
Dec. 2000. Web. 20 Dec. 2012.<br />
Secondary Literature<br />
Books<br />
1. Akhtar Salman, Volkan, Vamik (ed.), (2005), Mental Zoo: Animals<br />
in the Human Mind and its Pathology. Madison: International Universities<br />
Press, Inc.<br />
2. Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Alain, (1993), Dicţionar <strong>de</strong> simboluri.<br />
Bucureşti: Artemis.<br />
3. Davis, F. Hadland, (1992) [1913], Myths and Legends of Japan.<br />
New York: Dover Publications Inc.<br />
4. From, Erich, (1995) [1956], Arta <strong>de</strong> a iubi. Bucureşti: Anima<br />
5. Rubin, Jay, (2005), Haruki Murakami and the Music of Words.<br />
London: Vintage<br />
6. Willmott, Glenn, (2011), Mo<strong>de</strong>rn Animalism: Habitats of Scarcity<br />
and Wealth in Comics and Literature. Toronto: University of Toronto<br />
Press<br />
Internet Resources<br />
1. Brown, Mick. “Tales of the unexpected”. The Telegraph. 15. Aug.<br />
2003. Web. 21. Dec. 2012.<br />
2. Dil, Jonathan. “Woman as Symptom and the Void at the Heart of<br />
Subjectivity: A Lacanian Reading of Murakami Haruki's 'The Wind-up<br />
Bird Chronicle'”. electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies. 30<br />
Nov. 2009. Web. 22 Dec. 2012.<br />
3. Updike, John. “Subconscious Tunnels: Haruki Murakami’s<br />
dreamlike new novel”. The New Yorker. 24 Jan. 2005. Web. 28 Dec. 2012.<br />
4. Volkan, Vamik. “Animals as Large-Group Symbols”. Web. 28 Dec.<br />
2012.<br />
5. Questions for Murakami about Kafka on The Shore.<br />
Randomhouse.com. 2004. Web. 29 Dec. 2012.<br />
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