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New Opportunities for Tin Use (cont’d)<br />
leaD-FRee BeaRIngS<br />
Tin is replacing lead in bearings used in cars. Lead-bronze<br />
white metal bearings have been used for decades in cars and<br />
other applications but lead is being phased out in this market.<br />
Up to 12% tin is now being used in new lead-free bearings<br />
launched by major European automotive suppliers Federal<br />
Mogul, Miba and ECKA.<br />
SolaR cellS<br />
Tin is ahead in the race for the next generation of cheaper<br />
solar cell materials. Today solar cells use expensive and rare<br />
elements such as gallium and more ‘earth-abundant’ materials<br />
are needed. Kesterite, containing 30% tin, was the first to cross<br />
the 10% efficiency barrier in an IBM research laboratory.<br />
Solar cell technology (often referred to as ‘photovoltaics’)<br />
is advancing rapidly and is recognised as being the leading<br />
alternative energy source. Conventional bulk silicon modules<br />
are being superseded by thin film photovoltaic assemblies and<br />
this new technology is expected to dominate the solar cell<br />
market in the years ahead.<br />
Tin oxide already has a modest use in transparent conducting<br />
oxide top layers (used extensively in current technologies).<br />
These are mainly indium – tin oxide (ITO) conductive films,<br />
but gradual replacement of ITO by more sustainable fluorine<br />
doped tin oxide could increase consumption.<br />
Potential replacement materials for cadmium telluride (CdTe)<br />
and copper – indium – gallium – selenide (CIGS) in the light<br />
absorbing layer itself could include the 30% tin containing<br />
material, kesterite (copper – zinc – tin sulphide) if the 10%<br />
efficiency measured by IBM can be increased further.<br />
MALAYSIA SMELTING CORPORATION BERHAD (43072-A) • ANNUAL REPORT 2011 43