24.10.2013 Views

ALL Contents in PDF File, Click Vol. 7 Issue 1 - FisheriesSciences.com

ALL Contents in PDF File, Click Vol. 7 Issue 1 - FisheriesSciences.com

ALL Contents in PDF File, Click Vol. 7 Issue 1 - FisheriesSciences.com

SHOW MORE
SHOW LESS

Create successful ePaper yourself

Turn your PDF publications into a flip-book with our unique Google optimized e-Paper software.

J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Journal<br />

of<br />

E-ISSN 1307‐234X<br />

<strong>Vol</strong>. 7 <strong>Issue</strong> 1<br />

2013<br />

<strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

© 2013 www.<strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong>


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

is published <strong>in</strong> one volume of four issues per year by www.<strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong>.<br />

Contact e-mail: fisheries@fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong> and ozden@istanbul.edu.tr<br />

Copyright © 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong> All rights reserved/Bütün hakları saklıdır.<br />

Aims and Scope<br />

The Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> publishes peer-reviewed articles that cover all<br />

aspects of fisheries sciences, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g fish<strong>in</strong>g technology, fisheries management, sea foods,<br />

aquatic (both freshwater and mar<strong>in</strong>e) systems, aquacultural systems and health<br />

management, aquatic food resources from freshwater, brackish and mar<strong>in</strong>e environments<br />

and their boundaries, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the impact of human activities on these systems. As the<br />

specified areas <strong>in</strong>evitably imp<strong>in</strong>ge on and <strong>in</strong>terrelate with each other, the approach of the<br />

journal is multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary, and authors are encouraged to emphasise the relevance of their<br />

own work to that of other discipl<strong>in</strong>es.<br />

This journal published articles <strong>in</strong> English or Turkish.<br />

Chief editor:<br />

Prof. Dr. Özkan ÖZDEN<br />

(Istanbul University, Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Responsible editor from English paper:<br />

Prof. Dr. Fatih ÖZOĞUL<br />

(Çukurova University, Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Editorial assistant:<br />

Dr. Ferhat ÇAĞILTAY<br />

(Istanbul University, Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Cover photo:<br />

Dr. Deniz D. TOSUN<br />

(Istanbul University, Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

I


Editorial board:<br />

Prof. Dr. Levent BAT (S<strong>in</strong>op Univ., Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Prof. Dr. Bela H. BUCK (Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Mar<strong>in</strong>e Research, Germany)<br />

Prof. Dr. Fatih CAN (Mustafa Kemal Univ., Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Prof. Dr. Şükran ÇAKLI (Ege Univ., Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Prof. Dr. Carsten HARMS (Applied University Bremerhaven, Germany)<br />

Prof. Dr. Sedat KARAYÜCEL (S<strong>in</strong>op Univ. Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Prof. Dr. G. Michael KONTOMINAS (University of Ioann<strong>in</strong>a, Department of Chemistry, Greece)<br />

Prof. Dr. Sevim KÖSE (K.T. Univ., Faculty of Mar<strong>in</strong>e Sciences, Turkey)<br />

Prof. Dr. Robert E. LEVIN (University of Massachusetts, School of Mar<strong>in</strong>e Sciences, USA)<br />

Prof. Dr. Cengiz METİN (Ege Univ., Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Prof. Dr. Mohan J. MODAYIL (Central Mar<strong>in</strong>e Fisheries Research Institute Coch<strong>in</strong>, India)<br />

Prof. Dr. Sühendan MOL (Istanbul Univ., Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Prof. Dr. Jörg OEHLENSCHLÄGER (Max Rubner Institut and University Hohenheim, Germany)<br />

Prof. Dr. Zdzisław E. SIKORSKI (Gdańsk University of Technology, Department of Food Chemistry, Poland)<br />

Prof. Dr. Josef STOCKEMER (Applied University Bremerhaven, Germany)<br />

Prof. Dr. Hartmut REHBEIN (Federal Research Centre for Nutrition and Food, Department of Fish Quality, Germany)<br />

Prof. Dr. Krzysztof SURÓWKA (Agricultural University of Krakow, Poland)<br />

Prof. Dr. Aydın YAPAR (Pamukkale Univ., Faculty of Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, Turkey)<br />

Prof. Dr. Mustafa YILDIZ (Istanbul Univ., Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hatice TORCU KOÇ (Balıkesir Univ., Faculty of Science and Arts, Turkey)<br />

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hüsey<strong>in</strong> ÖZBİLGİN (Mers<strong>in</strong> Univ., Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Murat YİĞİT (Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Univ., Faculty of Fisheries, Turkey)<br />

Dr. Mark G. J. HARTL (Heriot-Watt Univ., School of Life Sciences, Scotland, UK)<br />

Dr. Muammer KAPLAN (TÜBİTAK MAM, Turkey)<br />

Abstract<strong>in</strong>g/Index<strong>in</strong>g<br />

::: ASFA ::: Oceanic Abstracts ::: Water Resources Abstract<br />

::: FSTA ::: Fish & Fisheries Worldwide ::: CABI Abstracts<br />

::: Chemical Abstracts ::: Ecology Abstracts ::: Academic Search Complete<br />

::: ULAKBİM (Yaşam Bilimleri Veri Tabanı) ::: DOAJ (Direktory of Open Access Journals)<br />

II


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

All rights reserved/Bütün hakları saklıdır.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

<strong>Vol</strong>. 7 <strong>Issue</strong> 1 Page 1-98 (2013)<br />

Table of <strong>Contents</strong>/İçerik<br />

1. Denizatlarının (Hippocampus spp.) Biyolojisi, Populasyon Durumları<br />

ve Yetiştiricilik Alanındaki Yeri<br />

(Seahorses (Hippocampus spp.); Biology,Population Status and Their<br />

Place <strong>in</strong> Cultivation)<br />

Zafer Kuşatan, Bedii Cicik<br />

pp. 1-11<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013001<br />

2. Ortam Şartlarında (23 ±4°C) Birden Fazla Uygulanan Çözündürme<br />

İşlem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> Levrek Balığı (Dicentrarchus labrax, L.1758)' nın Et<br />

Kalites<strong>in</strong>e Etkisi<br />

(Effect of Multiple Thaw<strong>in</strong>g Process <strong>in</strong> Ambient Conditions (23 ±4°C)<br />

on Quality of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax, L., 1758))<br />

Yunus Alparslan, Hatice Hasanoğlu, Taçnur Baygar<br />

pp. 12-21<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013002<br />

III


3. Munzur Nehri’ndeki Kırmızı Benekli Alabalığın (Salmo<br />

trutta macrostigma (Dummeril, 1858)) Otolit Boyutları-Balık Boyu<br />

Arasındaki İlişki<br />

(Otolith Dimensions-Fish Lenght Relations Between Of Red-Spotted<br />

Trout (Salmo trutta macrostigma (Dummeril, 1858)) <strong>in</strong> Munzur<br />

River)<br />

Asiye Başusta, Ebru İfakat Özer, Hülya Girg<strong>in</strong><br />

pp. 22-29<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013003<br />

4. 353-Nonylphenol Induces Expression of the T-BOX6 Gene<br />

<strong>in</strong>Zebrafish Embryos – L<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g Transcriptional Information With<br />

Deformities<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong> Klempt, Michael Vobach, Heike Wiegand, Thomas G. Preuss,<br />

Andreas Schäffer, Ulrike Kammann<br />

pp. 30-42<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013004<br />

5. Crocodile Farm<strong>in</strong>g and its Present State <strong>in</strong> Global Aquaculture<br />

Deniz D. Tosun<br />

pp. 43-57<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013005<br />

6. Su Ürünler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> Kalite ve Güvenliği İç<strong>in</strong> Türkiye ve<br />

DünyadaUygulanan Mevzuatlar<br />

(Turkish and Global Legislations for Seafood Safety and Quality)<br />

Ahmet Faruk Yeşilsu, Gülsün Özyurt<br />

pp. 28-71<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013006<br />

IV


7. Spawn<strong>in</strong>g Pattern of Indian Oil Sard<strong>in</strong>e, Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps<br />

Valenciennes, 1847 of Oman Sea, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman<br />

Ibrahim Said Al-Anbouri, Mohd Azmi Ambak, Shama Zaki Abdul<br />

Haleem<br />

pp. 72-78<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013007<br />

8. Perca luth Walbaum, 1792, A Senior Synonym of The Meagre,<br />

Argyrosomus regius (Asso, 1801) (Perciformes: Sciaenidae),<br />

Invalidated By “Reversal of Precedence”<br />

Paolo Parenti<br />

pp. 79-82<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013008<br />

9. Zooplankton Community Structure of Ohi Stream (Elazığ-Turkey)<br />

Necla İpek, Serap Saler<br />

pp. 83-88<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013009<br />

10. Population Dynamics of the Hooded Cuttlefish Sepia<br />

prashadi(W<strong>in</strong>ckworth, 1936) from the Omani Coastal Waters of the<br />

Arabian Sea<br />

Sahar F. Mehanna, Dawood Al-Mamry<br />

pp. 89-98<br />

DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013010<br />

V


7(1): 1-11 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013001<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

REVIEW ARTICLE DERLEME MAKALESİ<br />

DENİZATLARININ (Hippocampus spp.)<br />

BİYOLOJİSİ, POPULASYON DURUMLARI VE<br />

YETİŞTİRİCİLİK ALANINDAKİ YERİ<br />

Zafer KUŞATAN ∗ , Bedii CİCİK<br />

Mers<strong>in</strong> Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, Mers<strong>in</strong><br />

Özet: Bu araştırmada denizatlarının sistematikteki yeri, tür çeşitliliği, morfoloji, üreme ve<br />

beslenme gibi biyolojik özellikleri ve yetiştiriciliği ile dünyadaki dağılım ve kullanım<br />

alanları <strong>in</strong>celenmiştir. Denizatları Osteichthyes sınıfının Syngnathidae familyası üyes<strong>in</strong>e<br />

ait ve denizatlarının 33 türü bulunmaktadır. Kemiksi halkalardan oluşan dış iskelete<br />

sahiptirler. Eşey ayrımı dış görünümden yapılabilir. Beslenme bakımından karnivordur<br />

ve üreme davranışı olarak monogam özelliği gösterirler. Ülkemiz sularında 3<br />

tür bulunurken en fazla tür çeşitliliği H<strong>in</strong>t ve Pasifk Okyanusu’nda görülür. Deniz akvaryumculuğunda,<br />

süs eşyası ve eczacılık gibi alanlarda yaygın bir şekilde kullanılırken,<br />

bazı ülkelerde afrodizyak etkis<strong>in</strong>den dolayı bes<strong>in</strong> olarak tüketim<strong>in</strong>den dolayı doğal<br />

populasyonlarda azalmaya neden olmuştur. Bu nedenle doğal populasyonlarının<br />

arttırılması iç<strong>in</strong> kontrollü ortam koşullarında yetiştiricilik çalışmaları üzer<strong>in</strong>de durulmaktadır.<br />

Bu tür çalışmalar denizatlarının nesl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> devamına olanak sağlayacağı gibi<br />

ülke ekonomiler<strong>in</strong>e de önemli katkı sağlayacaktır.<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Denizatı, Hippocampus spp., Monogamus, Populasyon, Yetiştiricilik<br />

Abstract: Seahorses ( Hippocampus spp.); Biology, Population<br />

Status and Their Place <strong>in</strong> Cultivation<br />

In this research the place of seahorses <strong>in</strong> taxonomy, their species variation, biological characteristics<br />

such as morphology, reproduction and feed<strong>in</strong>g together with their cultivation and usage<br />

were <strong>in</strong>vestigated. Seahorses belong to the Syngnathidae family of the classis Osteichthyes<br />

and have 33 species. They have exoskeleton formed of bony r<strong>in</strong>gs. Sex differentiation can be<br />

made externally. They are carnivorous animals and show monogamy as a reproductive behavior.<br />

Three species are known to exist <strong>in</strong> our seas, hav<strong>in</strong>g the largest species variation <strong>in</strong><br />

Indo-Pacific Ocean. While they are largely used <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e aquaria, as ornaments and pharmacy,<br />

their natural populations decl<strong>in</strong>ed ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to their consumption as aphrodisiac <strong>in</strong><br />

some countries. Cultivation studies are carried out under controlled conditions to support their<br />

natural populations. These types of studies make it possible to protect the seahorse populations<br />

and also supply economic contribution.<br />

Keywords: Seahorse, Hippocampus spp, Monogamus, Population, Cultivation<br />

∗ Correspondence to: Zafer KUŞATAN, Mers<strong>in</strong> Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, Yenişehir Kampüsü, 33169-<br />

MERSİN.-TÜRKİYE<br />

Tel: (+90 324) 341 28 15 / 1317 Fax: (+90 324) 341 30 25<br />

E-mail: zkusatan@mers<strong>in</strong>.edu.tr ve zkusatan@gmail.<strong>com</strong><br />

1


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

2<br />

Giriş<br />

Denizatları, yoğunluk bakımından farklılık<br />

göstermekle birlikte, hemen hemen tüm dünya<br />

denizler<strong>in</strong>de bulunan canlılardır. Yaşam ortamlarını,<br />

genellikle denizel ortamların kıyıya yakın<br />

bölgeleri oluşturduğundan, antropojenik aktivitelerden<br />

önemli düzeyde etkilenmektedirler<br />

(Mart<strong>in</strong>-Smitha ve ark., 2004).<br />

Denizatları, denizel ekosistemler<strong>in</strong> canlı bileşenler<strong>in</strong>den<br />

biri olduğu gibi, bazı ülkelerde afrodizyak<br />

etkisi nedeniyle gıda maddesi olarak tüketilmekte<br />

ve akvaryumculuk, süs eşyası, eczacılık<br />

(ilaç yapımında) gibi alanlarda gerek doğrudan<br />

gerekse ham madde olarak yaygın bir şekilde<br />

kullanılmaktadır.<br />

Asya ve Uzakdoğu ülkeler<strong>in</strong>de, ç<strong>in</strong>ko içeriğ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

yüksek olması nedeniyle özellikle Geleneksel<br />

Ç<strong>in</strong> Tıbbı’nda (TCM; Traditional Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Medic<strong>in</strong>e)’nda<br />

ilaç yapımında kullanılmaktadır. Sadece<br />

bu sektördeki denizatı payının %30 olduğu<br />

bildirilmiştir. Bu amaçla kullanılan kurutulmuş<br />

denizatının kilosu 1000$ üzer<strong>in</strong>de alıcı bulmaktadır.<br />

Bu kullanım alanının dışında özellikle Kanada,<br />

Almanya, Hollanda ve İngiltere’de denizatları,<br />

akvaryum canlısı ve süs eşyası olarak tüketime<br />

sunulmaktadır. Bu bağlamda canlı satılanların<br />

adeti 150$, süs eşyası olarak tanesi 3-12$<br />

alıcı bulabilmektedir (Wilson ve V<strong>in</strong>cent, 1998;<br />

Woods, 2000; Zhang ve ark., 2003; Wong ve<br />

Benzie, 2003).<br />

Dünyadaki toplam denizatı ticareti yılda yaklaşık<br />

20 milyon adettir. Bu pazarın maddi boyutu<br />

yaklaşık 100 milyon dolar civarındadır. Denizatı<br />

ticareti yapan ülkeler<strong>in</strong> sayısı 70 kadardır. Bunlar<br />

içeris<strong>in</strong>de en büyük ithalatçı ülkeler arasında Ç<strong>in</strong>,<br />

Japonya, Hong Kong ve Tayvan bulunurken, en<br />

büyük ihracatçılar ise H<strong>in</strong>distan, Filip<strong>in</strong>ler,<br />

Tayland, Meksika ve Vietnam’dır. Sadece Ç<strong>in</strong> ve<br />

Tayvan'ın yıllık alımları 50 tonu bulmaktadır (1<br />

ton ortalama 260 b<strong>in</strong> bireyden oluşmaktadır).<br />

(Job ve ark, 2002; Payne ve Ripp<strong>in</strong>gale, 2000;<br />

Moreau ve ark., 2000; Sal<strong>in</strong> ve Yohannan,2005).<br />

Belirtilen kullanım alanlarında denizatı gereks<strong>in</strong>im<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

karşılanması, üretimden çok doğrudan<br />

avcılık ile sağlandığından, denizatı türler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> doğal<br />

populasyonlarında önemli düzeyde azalma-<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

lara neden olmaktadır (Job ve ark, 2002). Dolayısıyla<br />

nesl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> tükenmes<strong>in</strong>e neden olabilecek bu<br />

tehlikeyi m<strong>in</strong>imum düzeye <strong>in</strong>dirmek amacıyla<br />

doğal populasyonlarındaki avcılığa kota getirilmesi,<br />

laboratuar koşullarında üretimi iç<strong>in</strong> gelişme<br />

ve üreme özellikler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> daha detaylı araştırılması<br />

gerekliliği ortaya çıkmıştır.<br />

Ülkemiz denizler<strong>in</strong>de, doğal denizatı potansiyeli<br />

bulunmasına karşın, kontrollü ortam koşullarında<br />

üretimi konusunda bilgi ve deneyim eksikliğ<strong>in</strong>e<br />

bağlı olarak bazı ülkelerde gıda maddesi,<br />

eczacılık, akvaryumculuk, süs eşyası gibi kullanımları<br />

ile <strong>in</strong>sanların bu gereks<strong>in</strong>imler<strong>in</strong>i yasa<br />

dışı avcılık ve Uzakdoğu ülkeler<strong>in</strong>den ithalat<br />

yolu ile karşılanmasına neden olmaktadır. Bu da<br />

doğal populasyonlarında bir azalma ile ülke ekonomis<strong>in</strong>de<br />

döviz kaybına neden olmaktadır.<br />

Denizatlarının sistematikteki yeri<br />

Regnum : Animalia<br />

Phylum : Chordata<br />

Classis : Act<strong>in</strong>opterygii<br />

Ordo : Syngnathiformes - Gasterosteiformes (Şekil 1)<br />

Familya : Syngnathidae<br />

Genus : Hippocampus<br />

Species : Hippocampus hippocampus, H. reidi,<br />

H.erectus, H. abdom<strong>in</strong>alis, H. kuda, H.<br />

fuscus<br />

Denizatları, Teleostei ( kemikli balıklar ) grubunun<br />

Syngnathidae familyasına ait bir balık türüdür<br />

(Şekil 1). Ortalama yaşam süresi 4-9 yıl<br />

olmakla birlikte, bazı türler<strong>in</strong> daha uzun süre yaşadığı<br />

saptanmıştır. Genellikle yaşam ortamlarını,<br />

okyanus ve denizler<strong>in</strong>, sığ bölgeleri oluştururken,<br />

bazı türler 60m der<strong>in</strong>liklerde de yaşayabilmektedir.<br />

Denizatları bes<strong>in</strong> z<strong>in</strong>cir<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> alt basamaklarında<br />

yer aldığından çok sayıda predatörü bulunmaktadır<br />

Predatörlerden korunmak iç<strong>in</strong> yosun,<br />

mercan ve sünger gibi canlıları kamufulaj olarak<br />

kullanırlar (Foster ve V<strong>in</strong>cent, 2004;Kendrick ve<br />

Hyndes, 2003).


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Şekil 1. Denizatlarının gasterosteiformes takım altında sınıflandırılmasının detaylı <strong>in</strong>celenmesi (Foster<br />

ve V<strong>in</strong>cent, 2004).<br />

Figure 1. The detailed analysis of the taxonomic classification of seahorses under the order of gasterosteiformes<br />

Dünyada şu ana kadar toplam 50 adet denizatı<br />

türü (Hippocampus spp.) tespit edilmiş olup bu<br />

sayı antropojenik faktörler<strong>in</strong> etkisiyle kaynaklanan<br />

kirlilik ve yoğun avlanma sonucu önce 48’e,<br />

sonra 35’e, en sonunda ise tür sayısı 33’e düşmüştür.<br />

Bu türlerden yoğun dağılımları iç<strong>in</strong>de<br />

15’i Avustralya’da, 7’si Japonya sularında bulunmaktadır.<br />

Denizatlarının dünyada dağılım<br />

gösterdiği başlıca coğrafik bölgeler , Avustralya,<br />

Afrika Japonya, Orta ve Güney Amerika kıyıları<br />

ile H<strong>in</strong>t Okyanusu, Akdeniz, Kızıldeniz ve Filip<strong>in</strong><br />

Adaları çevresidir (Sal<strong>in</strong> ve Yohannan, 2005;<br />

Perante ve ark., 2002; Lourie ve ark., 2004).<br />

Ülkemiz sularında ise 3 denizatı türü tespit<br />

edilmiş olup, son zamanlarda bu alanda çok az<br />

çalışma olduğundan türler hakkında yeterli bilgi<br />

bulunmamaktadır. Türkiye denizler<strong>in</strong>de bulunan<br />

denizatı türleri; Hippocampus hippocampus<br />

L<strong>in</strong>ne,1758., Hippocampus guttulatus Cuvier,<br />

1829.( Syn: H. ramulosus Leach, 1814 ) ve<br />

Hippocampus fuscus (Rüppell, 1838)’tur. H. fuscus<br />

H<strong>in</strong>t Okyanusu orj<strong>in</strong>li olup Kızıldeniz’den<br />

Akdeniz’e geçiş yaparak ülkemiz denizler<strong>in</strong>e<br />

girmiş bulunmaktadır (OSPAR Commission,<br />

2009; Lourie ve Foster, 2004; Golani ve F<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

2002; Foster ve V<strong>in</strong>cent, 2004).<br />

Denizatlarının biyolojik özellikleri:<br />

Denizatları kemik tabakalarından oluşan bir<br />

iskelet yapısına sahiptir. Solunum iç<strong>in</strong> solungaçlara,<br />

sudaki hareketler<strong>in</strong>i ve yüzmeyi ayarlayan<br />

bir hava keses<strong>in</strong>e sahiptirler. Denizatının tür ve<br />

c<strong>in</strong>siyet<strong>in</strong>i belirlemek iç<strong>in</strong> birbir<strong>in</strong>den ayırıcı işaretler,<br />

renkler, kuyruktaki halka sayısı, yüzgeç<br />

ışınlarının sayısı ve vücudun belirli bölümleri <strong>in</strong>celenir.<br />

Denizatı solungaç kapağının hemen arkasında<br />

bulunan pektoral yüzgeç ve gövdeyi kuyruğa<br />

3


4<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

birleştiren dorsal yüzgeç sayes<strong>in</strong>de hareket edebilir.<br />

Göz, burun ve yanak omurgaları da türden<br />

türe hatta aynı türde bile farklılık gösterebilir.<br />

Tüm denizatlarında solungaç boşluğunun hemen<br />

arkasında birbir<strong>in</strong>i etkilemeyen orbital gözler ve<br />

bir çift pektoral yüzgeci vardır. Dış görünüş olarak<br />

diş ve erkek denizatları birbir<strong>in</strong>den farklılık<br />

gösterir. Dişi denizatlarında alt karın kuyruk kısmıyla<br />

kesk<strong>in</strong> bir şekilde birleşir ve anal yüzgeçleri<br />

daha yukarıda ve oldukça geniştir (Şekil 2),<br />

(Consi ve ark., 2001; Perante, 2002; Lourie ve<br />

ark., 2004; Foster ve V<strong>in</strong>cent, 2004).<br />

Hippocampus spp. genusuna ait balık türleri<br />

tek eşli (monogamus) canlılar olup, erkek bireyleri<br />

çiftleşme dönem<strong>in</strong>de dişiden aldığı yumurtaları<br />

<strong>in</strong>kube etmekte kullandığı yumurta keses<strong>in</strong>e<br />

(morsupium) sahiptir. Çiftleşme zamanı geldiğ<strong>in</strong>de<br />

dişi denizatları yumurtaları ovipozitör adı<br />

verilen bir organ yardımıyla erkek birey<strong>in</strong> keses<strong>in</strong>e<br />

bırakırlar ve döllenme burada gerçekleşir. İlk<br />

yavru doğumunda sayı oldukça düşük olup yaklaşık<br />

40-110 adet civarında daha sonraki doğumlarda<br />

ise bu sayı giderek artarak 1000 adete kadar<br />

çıkmaktadır.<br />

Yumurtaların kuluçka süresi; türlere ve ortam<br />

sıcaklığına göre 9-42 gün arasında değişim göstermektedir.<br />

Diş<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> erkeğ<strong>in</strong> kuluçka keses<strong>in</strong>e<br />

bıraktığı yumurta sayısı yumurta çapına bağlı<br />

olarak (0.5-15 mm) türlere göre farklılık göstermektedir<br />

(Şekil 3), (Masonjones, 2001; Perante,<br />

2002; Foster ve V<strong>in</strong>cent, 2004; Wilson ve ark.,<br />

2001; Lourie ve ark., 2004 ).<br />

Denizatları; karides mysiss larvaları, Artemia,<br />

Dahpnia ve Copepod gibi canlı yemlerle beslenmektedirler.<br />

Ticari yetiştiricilik yapan işletmelerde<br />

tuzlu su karidesi, Artemia sp., gibi birçok<br />

türün sürekli kültürü oluşturulmaktadır. Yavru<br />

denizatı daha çok Artemia sp., karides mysisleri,<br />

Copepod, Rotiferlerle beslenmektedir (Şekil 4),<br />

(Payne ve Ripp<strong>in</strong>gale, 2000; Job ve ark, 2002;<br />

Wong ve Benzie, 2003; Woods veValent<strong>in</strong>o,<br />

2003).<br />

Denizatı yetiştiriciliği:<br />

Denizatı yetiştiriciliğ<strong>in</strong>de yaşam ortamları<br />

olan deniz suyunun istenilen optimum koşullarda<br />

olması iç<strong>in</strong> birçok yetiştiricilik su<br />

sistemleri ve metodları mevcuttur. Denizatı<br />

bulunduğu tank veya akvaryumlarda hafif<br />

düzeyde su akıntısının olması gerekmektedir.<br />

En çok kullanılan sistemler arasında suyu<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

tekrar kullanımı ve kontrolünün kolay olmasından<br />

resirküle sistem metodu kullanılmaktadır.<br />

Bu resirküle sistem yapıyı oluşturan<br />

unsurlar iç<strong>in</strong>de mekanik ve biyolojik filtreler<br />

yeteri düzeyde bulunmalı ve bu filtreler her<br />

hafta su değişim<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> %5-20 düzenli olarak<br />

sağlamalıdır.<br />

Denizatı yetiştiriciliğ<strong>in</strong>de yüksek hacimli<br />

tank ve akvaryumlar tercih edilmektedir. Denizatlarının<br />

kur yapmaları ve çiftleşmeleri<br />

iç<strong>in</strong> tank veya akvaryum yüksekliği denizatının<br />

kıvrılmamış durumundaki uzunluğunun<br />

2.5 veya 3 katı kadar olmalıdır (Şekil 5). İki<br />

veya üç çift orta büyüklükteki denizatları 90-<br />

100 litrelik bir tank veya akvaryumlarda yetiştirilebilir.<br />

Fakat su sıcaklığı, pH, çözünmüş<br />

oksijen, tuzluluk gibi parametreler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> sabit<br />

tutmak iç<strong>in</strong> daha geniş bir tank tercih edilmelidir.<br />

Su sıcaklığındaki değişimler denizatı<br />

yetiştiriciliğ<strong>in</strong>de oldukça önemlidir. 24 saat<br />

içeris<strong>in</strong>deki sıcaklık değişimi maksimum<br />

2°C’lik değişim göstermes<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> önemli olmadığı<br />

belirlenmiştir. Tablo 1 ve 2’de yetiştirilebilir<br />

denizatı türleri; gerekli su sıcaklık değerler<strong>in</strong>e<br />

ve su miktarlarına göre gruplandırılarak<br />

verilmiştir. Farklı su sıcaklığı gerektiren<br />

denizatı türleri karışık olarak yetiştirilemez.<br />

Her çift iç<strong>in</strong> gerekli olan boyutların<br />

yanı sıra bütün türlere ait 1 çift yetişk<strong>in</strong> denizatı<br />

iç<strong>in</strong>de önerilen tank ve akvaryum boyutları<br />

tabloda verilmiştir (Wilson ve V<strong>in</strong>cent,<br />

1998; Payne ve Ripp<strong>in</strong>gale, 2000; Wong ve Benzie,<br />

2003; Job ve ark, 2002; Hilomen-Garcia ve<br />

ark., 2003).<br />

Tablo 1. Yetiştiriciliği Yapılan Tropikal (24-<br />

26°C) Denizatı Türleri iç<strong>in</strong> Gerekli Su<br />

Miktarı.<br />

Table 1. The amount of water reguired for the species<br />

of tropical (24-26°C) seahorses that<br />

are be<strong>in</strong>g cultured.<br />

Hippocampus kuda 1 çift / 30 litre<br />

Hippocampus barbouri 1 çift / 30 litre<br />

Hippocampus erectus 1 çift / 30 litre<br />

Hippocampus reidi 1 çift / 30 litre<br />

Hippocampus fuscus 1 çift / 20 litre<br />

Hippocampus <strong>com</strong>es 1 çift / 30 litre<br />

Hippocampus procerus 1 çift / 30 litre<br />

Hippocampus zostenae 1 çift / 6 litre


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 2. Yetiştiriciliği Yapılan Subtropikal (18-22°C) Denizatı Türleri iç<strong>in</strong> Gerekli Su Miktarı.<br />

Table 2. The amount of water reguired for the species of subtropical ( 18-22°C) seahorses that are be<strong>in</strong>g cultured.<br />

Hippocampus whitei 1 çift / 30 litre<br />

Hippocampus <strong>in</strong>gens 1 çift / 50 litre<br />

Hippocampus abdom<strong>in</strong>alis 1 çift / 50 litre<br />

Şekil 2. Denizatının morfolojik ve anatomik özellikleri (Lourie ve ark., 2004).<br />

Figure 2. The morphological and anatomical characteristics of the seahorses.<br />

5


6<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Şekil 3. Denizatı (Hippocampus fuscus)’nın yumurtasının mikroskop altındaki görüntüsü (MEÜ. SUFAK).<br />

Figure 3. The view of eggs of the seahorses under the microscop below.<br />

Şekil 4. Yavru gelişim<strong>in</strong>i tamamlamış Hippocampus fuscus türü denizatı (MEÜ, SUFAK).<br />

Figure 4. The seahore species of Hippocampus fuscus <strong>com</strong>leted its breed<strong>in</strong>g development (MEÜ, SUFAK).


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Şekil 5. Denizatı yetiştiriciliğ<strong>in</strong>de kullanılan akvaryum ortamı (MEÜ, SUFAK).<br />

Figure 5. The aquarium scene used <strong>in</strong> cultur<strong>in</strong>g seahorse (MEÜ, SUFAK).<br />

Denizatlarının korunması ve<br />

populasyonlarının iyileştirme çalışmaları<br />

Denizatları dünyada çok yaygın olarak bulunmalarına<br />

karşın sabit olarak hiçbir bölgede<br />

çok sayıda bulunmamaktadırlar. Türler<strong>in</strong> çoğuna<br />

Batı Atlantik ve İndopasifik kıyılarında rastlanmaktadır.<br />

En iyi tanımlanmış olan türler ise Kuzey<br />

Amerika, Avrupa ve Avustralya’da bulunanlardır.<br />

Kuzey Avrupa sularında Hippocampus<br />

hippocampus ve Hippocampus ramulosus olarak<br />

iki tür bulunmaktadır. Denizatı koruma ve tanımlama<br />

araştırmalarında tüm Hippocampus genusuna<br />

ait 32 tür belirlenmiş, fakat daha sonra<br />

Hippocampus denise türünün tanımlanmasıyla<br />

tür sayısı 33 olmuştur (Şekil 6, 7), ( Lourie ve<br />

Randall, 2003; Lourie ve ark., 2004).<br />

Denizatları daha çok kara ile deniz<strong>in</strong> birleştiği<br />

sığ sularda yaşadıklarından, <strong>in</strong>sanların yaşam ve<br />

etki alanlarını ile etkileşim iç<strong>in</strong>de olduklarından<br />

doğal yaşamları olumsuz yönde etkilenmesi ve<br />

<strong>in</strong>sanların denizatlarını çeşitli alanlarında kullanması,<br />

ticareti giderek artırması sonucu doğal<br />

populasyonlarını etkileyerek hızla düşürmektedir.<br />

Buna bağlı olarak “Trade Record Analaysis of<br />

Flora and Fauna <strong>in</strong> Commerce” (TRAFFIC) tarafından<br />

yapılan araştırmalar, denizatlarının nesiller<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

tükenme tehlikesi ile karşı karşıya olduğunu<br />

göstermiştir (Mart<strong>in</strong>-Smitha ve ark., 2004).<br />

7


8<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Şekil 6. Hippocampus denise türü denizatının morfolojik özellikleri (Lourie ve ark., 2004).<br />

Figure 6. The morphological characteristics of the Hippocampus denise of seahorse species (Lourie ve ark., 2004).


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Şekil 7. Hippocampus bargibanti türü denizatının genel görünümü (Kuiter, Rudie H., 2003)<br />

Figure 7. The general view of Hippocampus bargibanti seahorse species (Kuiter, Rudie H., 2003)<br />

2002 yılının Kasım ayında 161 ülken<strong>in</strong> imzaladığı<br />

"Nesli Tehlikede Olan Yabani Hayvan ve<br />

Bitki Türler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> Uluslararası Ticaret<strong>in</strong>e İlişk<strong>in</strong><br />

Sözleşme" de (CITES: Convention on International<br />

Trade <strong>in</strong> Endangered Species of Wild Fauna<br />

and Flora) denizatları "Tehlike Altındaki Türler"<br />

listes<strong>in</strong>e alınmıştır. Sözleşme Mayıs 2004'te yürürlüğe<br />

girmiş ve CITES-Ek2 (Appendix II of<br />

CITES-2004)’de denizatlarını kapsayan Hippocampus<br />

genus’unun tümü listeye eklenmiştir<br />

(CITES, 2002; CITES, 2004; Lourie ve ark.,<br />

2004; Foster ve V<strong>in</strong>cent, 2004).<br />

Ülkemizde ise denizatlarının korunması<br />

amaçlı ilgili bakanlık ve kurumlar tarafından<br />

2008 yılında yapılan tebliğ ile 1380 sayılı Su<br />

Ürünleri Kanun ve Su Ürünleri Yönetmeliğ<strong>in</strong>e<br />

bağlı olarak “2/1 Numaralı Ticari Amaçlı Su<br />

Ürünleri Avcılığını Düzenleyen Tebliğ<br />

(2008/48)”<strong>in</strong>e göre “Avlanması Yasak Türler”<br />

başlığı altında madde 16’da sunulan türler arasında<br />

sadece Hippocampus hippocampus’un avlanması<br />

ve toplanması yasaklanmıştır. Ancak diğer<br />

ülkelerdeki koruma çalışmalarında belirtildiği<br />

üzere denizatı türler<strong>in</strong>i kapsayan Hippocampus<br />

spp. genusuna ait tüm türler koruma altına alınarak<br />

avlaması ve doğal türler<strong>in</strong> ticaret<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> yapılması<br />

yasaklanmıştır.<br />

9


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

10<br />

Sonuç<br />

Denizatları; akvaryumculuk, süs eşyası, eczacılık<br />

(ilaç yapımında) gibi geniş kullanım alanlarının<br />

yanı sıra bazı ülkelerde gıda (afrodizyak<br />

etkiden dolayı) olarak tüketilmes<strong>in</strong>den dolayı<br />

denizatı türler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> doğal populasyonunda azalmaya<br />

neden olmakta ve nesiller<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> tükenme tehlikesi<br />

altına girmiştir.<br />

Denizlerdeki denizatlarını kapsayan çalışmalarda<br />

birçok araştırmanın, bu familyaya ait türler<strong>in</strong><br />

üreme davranışı ve üreme ekolojisi ile yoğun<br />

avcılık baskısı üzer<strong>in</strong>de yapılmış olup buna karşılık<br />

denizatlarının populasyon yapıları, habitat<br />

seçimleri ve habitat içers<strong>in</strong>deki davranışları hakkında<br />

yeterli bilgi bulunmamaktadır. Düşük<br />

üreme oranlarına sahip olmaları, üremde monogami<br />

davranışını göstermeleri, ayrıca yavaş hareket<br />

yetenekler<strong>in</strong>den dolayı çok dar dağılım alanlara<br />

sahip olmaları hem sosyal yapılarını kolaylıkla<br />

bozmakta hem de yetiştiricilik şanslarını sınırlandırmaktadır.<br />

Bu doğal sınırlayıcı faktörler<strong>in</strong>, nesli tükenme<br />

durumunda olan denizatlarının korunması, üzer<strong>in</strong>deki<br />

olumsuz etkiler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> giderilmesi ve türler<strong>in</strong><br />

devamlılığını sürdürebilmek iç<strong>in</strong> kontrollü ortamlarda<br />

yetiştiricilikleri yapılarak doğal türler<br />

yer<strong>in</strong>e yetiştiricilik sonunda elde edilen ürünler<br />

ile ihtiyaçların karşılanmasına yönlendirilmelidir.<br />

Bunun sonucunda denizatı populasyonları üzer<strong>in</strong>deki<br />

olumsuz baskıyı azaltarak balıkçılık düzenlemeler<strong>in</strong><br />

detaylı araştırmalar ile güncellenmesi,<br />

biyolojik ve genetik araştırmaları yapay<br />

ortamlarda üremeler<strong>in</strong>i destekleyerek doğal ortamdaki<br />

sayılarının azalmasını önlemek amaçlı<br />

yeni araştırmaların yapılmasını doğurmuştur.<br />

Denizatları ülkemizde yapay üretim potansiyeli<br />

bulunmasına rağmen bilgi ve deney<strong>in</strong> yetersizliği<br />

nedeniyle sistemli ve sürekli üretimleri<br />

yapılamamaktadır. Bu nedenle Uzakdoğu ülkeler<strong>in</strong>den<br />

ithal edilmekte ve bu durum ülke ekonomis<strong>in</strong>de<br />

kayba neden olmaktadır. Doğal populasyonlarının<br />

artırılması ve ülke ekonomis<strong>in</strong>e ek<br />

girdi sağlanması iç<strong>in</strong> denizatları su ürünleri yetiştiriciliğ<strong>in</strong>de<br />

alternatif tür olarak önerilmektedir.<br />

Kaynaklar<br />

CITES,(2002), Proposals for amendment of Appendices<br />

I and II Results,<br />

http://www.cites.org/eng/news/world/cop12<br />

_prop_results.pdf (23.04.2008).<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

CITES, (2004). Seahorses and other members of<br />

the family syngnathidae,<br />

http://www.cites.org/eng/<strong>com</strong>/ac/20/E20-<br />

17.pdf (09.04.2007).<br />

Consi, T.R., Seifert, P.A., Triantafyllou, M.S.<br />

and Edelman, E.R., (2001). The dorsal f<strong>in</strong><br />

eng<strong>in</strong>e of the seahorse (hippocampus sp.),<br />

Journal of Morphology, 248: 80-97.<br />

doi: 10.1002/jmor.1022<br />

Foster, S.J., V<strong>in</strong>cent, A.C.J., (2004). Life history<br />

and ecology of seahorses: implications for<br />

conservation and management, Journal of<br />

Fish Biology, 65: 1-61.<br />

doi: 10.1111/j.0022-1112.2004.00429.x<br />

Golani, D., F<strong>in</strong>e M., (2002). On the occurrence<br />

of Hippocampus fuscus <strong>in</strong> the eastern mediterranean,<br />

Journal of Fish Biology, 60: 764-<br />

766.<br />

doi: 10.1006/jfbi.2001.1860<br />

Hilomen-Garcia, By G. V., Reyes, R. D., Garcia,<br />

C.M.H., (2003). Tolerance of Seahorse Hippocampus<br />

kuda (Bleeker) Juveniles to Various<br />

Sal<strong>in</strong>ities, Journal of Applied Ichthyology,<br />

19: 94-98.<br />

doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0426.2003.00357.x<br />

http://www.seahorse.org/library/articles/anatomy.<br />

shtml<br />

Job, S.D., Dob, H.H., Meeuwigc, J.J., Halla, H.<br />

J., (2002). Cultur<strong>in</strong>g the oceanic seahorse<br />

hippocampus kuda, Aquaculture, 214: 333-<br />

341.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00063-7<br />

Kendrick, A.J., Hyndes, G. A., (2003). Patterns<br />

<strong>in</strong> the abundance and size-distribution of<br />

syngnathid fishes among habitats <strong>in</strong> a<br />

seagrass-dom<strong>in</strong>ated mar<strong>in</strong>e environment,<br />

Estuar<strong>in</strong>e, Coastal and Shelf Science, 57:<br />

631-640.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0272-7714(02)00402-X<br />

Kuiter, Rudie H., (2003). Seahorses, Pipefishes<br />

and their relatives, a <strong>com</strong>prehensive guide to<br />

syngnathiformes, 237 p. TMC Publish<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

Chorleywood, UK.<br />

Lourie, S.A., Randall, J.E., (2003). A new pygmy<br />

seahorse, hippocampus denise (teleostei:<br />

syngnathidae) from the <strong>in</strong>do-pacific, Zoological<br />

Studies, 42: 284-291.


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Kuşatan ve Cicik, 7(1): 1-11 (2013)<br />

Lourie, S.A., Foster, S.J., Cooper, E.W.T., V<strong>in</strong>cent,<br />

A.C.J., (2004). A guide to the identification<br />

of seahorses,109, Project Seahorse<br />

and TRAFFIC North America, University of<br />

British Columbia and World Wildlife Fund,<br />

Wash<strong>in</strong>gton D.C., USA.<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong>-Smitha, K.M., Samoilysc, M.A.,<br />

Meeuwiga, J.J., V<strong>in</strong>cent, A.C.J., (2004).<br />

Collaborative development of management<br />

options for an artisanal fishery for seahorses<br />

<strong>in</strong> the central philipp<strong>in</strong>es, Ocean & Coastal<br />

Management, 47: 165-193.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2004.02.002<br />

Masonjones, H. D., (2001). The effect of social<br />

context and reproductive status on the metabolic<br />

rates of dwarf seahorses Hippocampus<br />

zosterae, Comparative Biochemistry and<br />

Physiology Part A, 129: 541-555.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S1095-6433(01)00291-4<br />

Moreau, M., Hall, J.J., V<strong>in</strong>cent, A.C.J., (2000).<br />

Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the first <strong>in</strong>ternational workshop<br />

on the management and culture of mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

species used <strong>in</strong> traditional medic<strong>in</strong>es,<br />

Fish and Fisheries, 1: 274-281.<br />

MEÜ. Sufak, Mers<strong>in</strong> Üniversitesi Su Ürünleri<br />

Araştırma Laboratuvar Çalışma Arşivleri.<br />

OSPAR Commission, (2009). Background document<br />

for the Long-snouted seahorse Hippocampus<br />

guttulatus, ISBN 978-1-906840-<br />

69-3, Publication Number: 429/2009.<br />

Payne, M.F., Ripp<strong>in</strong>gale, R.J., (2000). Rear<strong>in</strong>g<br />

West Australian seahorse, Hippocampussubelongatus,<br />

juveniles on copepod nauplii<br />

and enriched artemia, Aquaculture, 188:<br />

353-361.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0044-8486(00)00349-5<br />

Perante, N.C., Pajaro, M.G., Meeuwig,J. J.,<br />

V<strong>in</strong>cent A.C.J., (2002). Biology of a seahorse<br />

species, Hippocampus <strong>com</strong>es <strong>in</strong> the<br />

central philipp<strong>in</strong>es, Journal of Fish Biology,<br />

60: 821-837.<br />

doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2002.tb02412.x<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Sal<strong>in</strong>, K.R., Yohannan, T.M., (2005). Fisheries<br />

and trade of seahorses, Hippocampus spp. <strong>in</strong><br />

southern <strong>in</strong>dia, Fisheries Management and<br />

Ecology, 12: 269-273.<br />

doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2400.2005.00450.x<br />

Wilson, M.J., V<strong>in</strong>cent, A.C.J., (1998). Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

success <strong>in</strong> clos<strong>in</strong>g the life cycle of exploited<br />

seahorse species, Hippocampus spp.,<br />

<strong>in</strong> captivity, Aquarium Sciences and Conservation,<br />

2:179-196.<br />

doi: 10.1023/A:1009629130932<br />

Wilson, A.B., V<strong>in</strong>cent, A., Meyer, A., (2001).<br />

Male pregnancy <strong>in</strong> seahorses and pipefishes<br />

(family syngnathidae):rapid diversification<br />

of paternal brood pouch morphology <strong>in</strong>ferred<br />

from a molecular phylogeny, The<br />

Journal of Heredity, 92(2): 159-166.<br />

doi: 10.1093/jhered/92.2.159<br />

Wong, J.M., Benzie, J.A.H., (2003). The effects<br />

of temperature, artemia enrichment, stock<strong>in</strong>g<br />

density and light on the growth of juvenile<br />

seahorses, Hippocampus whitei (Bleeker,<br />

1855), from Australia, Aquaculture, 228:<br />

107-121.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0044-8486(03)00320-X<br />

Woods, C.M.C.,Valent<strong>in</strong>o, F., (2003). Frozen<br />

mysids as an alternative to live artemia<strong>in</strong><br />

cultur<strong>in</strong>g seahorses Hippocampus abdom<strong>in</strong>alis,<br />

Aquaculture Research, 34: 757-763.<br />

doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2109.2003.00882.x<br />

Woods, C.M.C., (2000). Improv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>itial survival<br />

<strong>in</strong> cultured seahorses Hippocampus<br />

abdom<strong>in</strong>alis Leeson, 1827 (Teleostei:<br />

Syngnathidae), Aquaculture, 190: 377-388.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0044-8486(00)00408-7<br />

Zhang, N., Xu, B., Mou, C., Yang, W., Wei, J.,<br />

Lu, L., Zhu, J., Du, J., Wu, X., Ye, L., Fu,<br />

Z., Lu, Y., L<strong>in</strong>, J., Sun, Z., Su, J., Dong, M.,<br />

Xu, A., (2003). Molecular profile of the<br />

unique species of traditional ch<strong>in</strong>ese medic<strong>in</strong>e,<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese seahorse (Hippocampus kuda<br />

Bleeker), The Federation of European Biochemical<br />

Societies- FEBS, 550: 124-134.<br />

11


7(1): 12-21 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013002<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

RESEARCH ARTICLE ARAŞTIRMA MAKALESİ<br />

ORTAM ŞARTLARINDA (23 ±4°C) BİRDEN FAZLA<br />

UYGULANAN ÇÖZÜNDÜRME İŞLEMİNİN LEVREK<br />

BALIĞI (Dicentrarchus labrax, L., 1758)’ NIN ET<br />

KALİTESİNE ETKİSİ<br />

Yunus Alparslan ∗ , Hatice Hasanhocaoğlu, Taçnur Baygar<br />

Muğla Üniversitesi Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, Su Ürünleri Avlama ve İşleme Tekonolojisi Bölümü, Muğla<br />

Özet: Bu çalışmada bütün, iç organları alınmış ve fileto olarak dondurulan (-18 ±2ºC) levrek balığı<br />

(Dicentrarchus labrax)’ nın ortam şartlarında (23 ±4°C) çözündürülüp tekrar dondurulması<br />

şekl<strong>in</strong>de 6 kez çözündürme ve dondurma uygulamasının balığın et kalites<strong>in</strong>de meydana getirdiği<br />

değişimler<strong>in</strong> tespit edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmada bütün, iç organları alınmış ve fileto<br />

haldeki taze levrek balığının duyusal kabul edilebilirlik değeri 3.83 ±0.02, 3.78 ±0.04 ve<br />

3.77±0.01 olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Taze levrek balığının ham prote<strong>in</strong>, ham yağ, pH, TVB-N,<br />

TMA-N ve TBA değerleri ise sırasıyla %19.69 ±0.27, %8.54 ±0.12, 6.48 ±0.00, 18.85 ±0.10<br />

mg/100 g, 3.16 ±0.00 mg/100g ve 0.43 ±0.01 mg malonaldehit/kg olarak tespit edilmiştir. Bütün,<br />

iç organları alınmış ve fileto haldeki örnekler<strong>in</strong> ortam şartlarında dördüncü çözündürme<br />

işlemi sonrasındaki sırasıyla duyusal yönden kabul edilebilirlik değeri, % ham prote<strong>in</strong>, % ham<br />

yağ, pH, TVB-N, TMA-N ve TBA değerleri 1.70 ±0.01, 1.65 ±0.03 ve 1.63 ±0.02; %19.57<br />

±0.14, 18.82 ±0.08 ve 19.56 ±0.31; %7.92 ±0.22, 7.80 ±0.38 ve 8.03 ±0.35; 6.58±0.001, 6.53<br />

±0.001 ve 6.52 ±0.001; 20.50 ±0.20, 20.89 ±0.28 ve 21.70 ±0.10 mg/100 g; 3.61 ±0.03, 3.72<br />

±0.02 ve 3.71 ±0.01 mg/100 g; 0.55 ±0.02, 0.62±0.02 ve 0.66±0.02 mg malonaldehit/kg olarak<br />

saptanmıştır. Çalışma sonuçlarına göre, levrek balıklarının ortam şartlarında çözündürme<br />

işlemi sonrasında kas dokusunda yumuşama, balık et<strong>in</strong>de istenmeyen koku gelişimi, deri ve<br />

pullarda parlaklığın kaybolması, solungaçlarda renk ve koku değişimleri meydana gelmiştir.<br />

Pullu ve derili örnekler<strong>in</strong> kalite açısından fileto örneklere oranla daha iyi durumda oldukları<br />

görülmüştür. Dördüncü çözündürme işlem<strong>in</strong>e kadar duyusal açıdan kabul edilebilir durumda<br />

olsalar da, dondurulmuş balıkların sadece bir kere çözündürülerek hemen tüketilmeleri ve<br />

bunun iç<strong>in</strong> de tüketicilere ihtiyaçları oranda balıkları dondurup, yiyebilecekleri kadar miktarda<br />

çözündürmeleri önerilmektedir.<br />

12<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Levrek, Dicentrarchus labrax, Dondurma, Çözündürme, Kalite değişimi<br />

∗ Correspondence to: Yunus ALPARSLAN, Muğla Üniversitesi Su Ürünleri Fakültesi Su Ürünleri Avlama<br />

ve İşleme Teknolojisi Bölümü, Kötekli 48000 Muğla-TÜRKİYE<br />

Tel: (+90 252) 211 18 87<br />

E-mail: yunusalparslan@mu.edu.tr


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Alparslan ve ark., 7(1): 12-21 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Abstract: Effect of Multiple Thaw<strong>in</strong>g Process <strong>in</strong> Ambient<br />

Conditions (23±4°C) on Quality of Sea Bass<br />

(Dicentrarchus labrax, L., 1758)<br />

Giriş<br />

This study aim to establish quality changes occur <strong>in</strong> whole, gutted and fillet frozen (18 ±2ºC)<br />

sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) were thawed <strong>in</strong> ambient conditions (23 ±4°C) and froze aga<strong>in</strong><br />

more than once. In study <strong>in</strong>ternal acceptability value <strong>in</strong> term of sensory of whole, gutted and<br />

fillet fresh sea bass were 3.83 ±0.02, 3.78 ±0.04 and 3.77±0.01 respectively. Crude prote<strong>in</strong>,<br />

crude lipid, pH, Toplam Uçucu Bazik Azot (TVB-N), Trimetilam<strong>in</strong> Azot (TMA-N) and Tiyobarbiturik<br />

Asit (TBA) of fresh sea bass were also 19.69 ±0.27 %, 8.54 ±0.12 %, 6.48 ±0.00,<br />

18.85 ±0.10 mg/100g, 3.16 ±0.00 mg/100g and 0.43 ±0.01 mg malonaldehyde/kg respectively.<br />

After fourth thaw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> ambient condition, acceptability value <strong>in</strong> term of sensory, crude prote<strong>in</strong>,<br />

crude lipit, pH, TVB-N, TMA-N and TBA of sea bass were 1.70 ±0.01, 1.65 ±0.03 and<br />

1.63 ±0.02; 19.57±0.14 %, 18.82 ±0.08 % and 19.56 ±0.31 %; 7.92 ±0.22 %, 7.80 ±0.38 %<br />

and 8.03 ±0.35 %; 6.58 ±0.001, 6.53 ±0.001 and 6.52 ±0.001; 20.50 ±0.20, 20.89 ±0.28 and<br />

21.70 ±0.10 mg/100g; 3.61 ±0.03, 3.72 ±0.02 and 3.71±0.01 mg/100g; 0.55 ±0.02, 0.62 ±0.02<br />

and 0.66 ±0.02 mg malonaldehyde/kg respectively. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to study results after multiple<br />

freeze/thaw cycle <strong>in</strong> ambient conditions, there were softh<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> muscle tissue, development of<br />

undesirable odor <strong>in</strong> fish meat, loss of brightness of leather and stamps, color and odor changes<br />

<strong>in</strong> the gills. It has seen that samples with leather and stamps had better quality than fillets after<br />

the study. Samples exceeded acceptable limits <strong>in</strong> terms of sensory after fourth thaw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> amibient<br />

conditions. Thus separat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to pieces can be consumed at a time before freez<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

thaw<strong>in</strong>g has been re<strong>com</strong>mended to consumers.<br />

Keywords: Sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax, Freez<strong>in</strong>g, Thaw<strong>in</strong>g, Quality changes<br />

Su ürünleri başta olmak üzere gıdaların depolama<br />

süres<strong>in</strong>i uzatmak amacıyla dondurulması,<br />

bozulma ve ekonomik kaybın en aza <strong>in</strong>dirilmes<strong>in</strong>de<br />

ve gıda kaynaklı patojenler<strong>in</strong> kontrol edilmes<strong>in</strong>de<br />

çok önemli rol oynamaktadır. Dondurulmuş<br />

ürünler, diğer yöntemlerle muhafaza<br />

edilmiş ürünlerle karşılaştırıldığında, bes<strong>in</strong> değerleri<br />

açısından çok daha yüksek kaliteye sahiptir<br />

(Olgunoğlu ve Polat, 2002).<br />

Donmuş balıkların depolama ömrü ve kalitesi,<br />

donma öncesi balığın elde ediliş koşullarına,<br />

donma hızına, ambalaj durumuna, dondurma&çözündürme<br />

sayısına, uygunsuz dondurma&çözündürme<br />

işlemler<strong>in</strong>e, depolama sıcaklığına,<br />

sıcaklık dalgalanmalarına ve sürekliliğ<strong>in</strong>e<br />

bağlıdır. Genellikle bes<strong>in</strong>ler<strong>in</strong> dondurulması,<br />

depolanması ve çözdürülmesi sürec<strong>in</strong>de yapılan<br />

yanlış yöntemler bes<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> mikrobiyolojik, kimyasal<br />

ve fiziksel yönden bozulmasına ya da değişmeler<strong>in</strong>e<br />

sebep olmaktadır (Bulduk, 2002).<br />

Dondurma işlemi sırasında buz kristaller<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

oluşumuna bağlı olarak beliren hücre zedelenmeleri,<br />

çözülme sırasında görülen her türlü olumsuz<br />

değişimler<strong>in</strong> başlıca nedenidir (Varlık ve<br />

diğ., 2004). Donmuş bes<strong>in</strong>ler genellikle, buzdolabında,<br />

mikrodalga fırında, soğuk su altında ve<br />

oda ısısında olmak üzere dört farklı şekilde çözündürülürler.<br />

Hızlı dondurma ve çözdürme,<br />

özellikle ev ve restoranlarda yaygın olarak kullanılan<br />

yöntemlerdir (Tokur ve Kandemir, 2008;<br />

Turan ve diğ., 2006; Mol ve diğ., 2004; Özeren<br />

ve Ersoy 2008; Olgunoğlu ve Polat, 2002). Ortam<br />

sıcaklığında çözdürme çok düzensiz ısı transfer<br />

hızıyla sonuçlanabilir. Bazı durumlarda balık<br />

yüzeyi ısınır yumuşar ve merkezde çözünme tamamlanmadan<br />

yüzeyde bozulma ve bakteriyel<br />

gelişme başlar. Bu tip uygulamalarda balık ya da<br />

balık bloğunun büyüklüğü çözdürme süres<strong>in</strong>i etkiler.<br />

Daha büyük bloklar ortam koşullarında<br />

çözdürmek iç<strong>in</strong> uygun değildir (Turan ve diğ.,<br />

2006).<br />

Bu çalışmada birden fazla kez dondurulup<br />

ortam sıcaklığında çözündürülen levrek balığında(bütün,<br />

iç organsız ve fileto) meydana gelen<br />

duyusal, fiziksel ve kimyasal kalite kayıplarının<br />

tespit edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Grupların bütün,<br />

iç organsız ve fileto şekl<strong>in</strong>de seçilmes<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

asıl nedeni, tüketiciler<strong>in</strong> levrek balığını balık satış<br />

noktalarından genelde bu şekilde almalarından<br />

dolayıdır. Balıklar alındıktan sonra<br />

ev/lokanta/restoran/otel/tatil köyü vb. yerlere getirilerek<br />

der<strong>in</strong> dondurucularda saklanmaktadır.<br />

Bazen ihtiyaçtan fazla balık çözündürüldükten<br />

sonra tekrar dondurarak saklanmaya devam edilmektedir.<br />

Bu durumdan dolayı çalışma planlanırken<br />

tüketiciler<strong>in</strong> yaptıkları bu hatalı dondurma<br />

13


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Alparslan ve ark., 7(1): 12-21 (2013)<br />

ve çözündürme işlemler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> balık eti kalitesi üzer<strong>in</strong>e<br />

etkis<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> tespit edilmesi hedeflenmiştir.<br />

14<br />

Materyal ve Metot<br />

Balık tem<strong>in</strong>i<br />

Bu çalışmada materyal olarak ağ kafeslerde<br />

üretimi yapılan 350 ± 10 g porsiyonluk boydaki<br />

kültür deniz levreği (Dicentrarchus labrax L.,<br />

1758) kullanılmıştır. Balıklar, üç grup hal<strong>in</strong>de<br />

[pulları alınmamış bütün (B grubu), pulları ve iç<br />

organları alınmış (P grubu) ve fileto (F grubu)]<br />

olarak (Kılıç Hold<strong>in</strong>g, Milas/MUĞLA) paketleme<br />

tesis<strong>in</strong>den alınarak 7’şer kg.lık strafor kutular<br />

içeris<strong>in</strong>de yaprak buz uygulanmış bir şekilde<br />

iki saat içeris<strong>in</strong>de fakültemiz kalite kontrol<br />

laboratuarına getirilmiştir.<br />

Depolama ve çözündürme şartları<br />

Laboratuara getirilen balık gruplarından her<br />

çözündürme aşamasındaki analizler iç<strong>in</strong> ortalama<br />

6 adet balık kullanılmak üzere strafor tabaklara<br />

konulmuş ve streç film ile sarılmıştır. Örnekler<br />

strafor kutular içeris<strong>in</strong>de der<strong>in</strong> dondurucuya (-18<br />

±2ºC) alınmıştır. Balık gruplarının çözüldürülmesi<br />

ise ortam koşullarında (23 ±4ºC) orta nokta<br />

sıcaklığı yaklaşık olarak 4 ±2°C’ye düşene kadar<br />

gerçekleştirilmiştir.<br />

Örnekler<strong>in</strong> analize hazırlanması<br />

Laboratuara getirilen taze balık örnekler<strong>in</strong>de<br />

başlangıç analizleri (duyusal, pH, Toplam Uçucu<br />

Bazik Azot (TVB-N), Trimetil Am<strong>in</strong> Azot<br />

(TMA-N), Tiyobarbiturik Asit (TBA), ham prote<strong>in</strong><br />

ve % yağ) yapılmıştır. Daha sonra örnekler B<br />

grubundaki balıklar ortalama 350 ±10 g olarak 2<br />

kg gelecek şekilde, P grubu ortalama 300 ±10 g<br />

olarak 2 kg gelecek şekilde, F grubundaki filetolarda<br />

ortalama 100 ±10 g olarak ½ kg gelecek şekilde<br />

strafor tabaklar içeris<strong>in</strong>de streç film ile sarılarak<br />

–18 ±2 ºC’ deki dondurucuda depolamaya<br />

alınmışlardır. 15 günde bir olacak şekilde her sefer<strong>in</strong>de<br />

gruptaki örnekler<strong>in</strong> tamamı dondurucudan<br />

çıkarılarak oda sıcaklığında çözündürülmüşler<br />

ve tekrar dondurulmuşlardır. Çözündürme ve<br />

dondurma işlemi 6 defa yapılmıştır. Yukarıda<br />

belirtilen analizler her çözündürme aşamasında<br />

uygulanmış, kalan örnekler ise dondurucuya tekrar<br />

alınmışlardır. Çalışma 3 ay sürmüş daha sonra<br />

bir daha tekrarlanmıştır.<br />

Duyusal analiz<br />

Balıkların tazelik analizleri 6 panelist tarafından<br />

Aubourg (2001)’ e göre değerlendirilmiştir.<br />

Bu skalaya göre; 3–4 puan “en iyi kalite”, 2–3<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

puan arası “iyi kalite”, 1–2 puan arası alanlar<br />

“orta kalite”, 1 puanın altı ise “kabul edilemez”<br />

olarak nitelendirilmektedir.<br />

Kimyasal analizler<br />

pH ölçümleri, Inolab WTW marka pH metre<br />

ile Manthey ve ark. (1988)’ e göre ölçülmüştür.<br />

Toplam Uçucu Bazik Azot (TVB-N) Tay<strong>in</strong>i Antonocopoulus<br />

(1973)’e göre yapılmıştır. Homojenize<br />

edilen örneklerde, su buharı distilasyon<br />

yöntemi ile ayrılan uçucu bazlar 0,1 NaOH titre<br />

ile edilip, TVB-N miktarı tespit edilmiştir. Tiyobarbitürik<br />

Asit (TBA) Tay<strong>in</strong>i iç<strong>in</strong> ön işlemlerden<br />

geçirilen balık örnekleri 538 ηm dalga boyundaki<br />

spektrofotometrede(Tarladgis et al., 1960); Trimetilam<strong>in</strong><br />

Azot (TMA-N) miktarı ise 410 ηm<br />

dalga boyundaki spektrofotometrede ölçülmüştür.<br />

(Schormüller, 1968).<br />

İstatistiksel analiz<br />

SPSS 14 W<strong>in</strong>dows Programı kullanılarak<br />

LSD (Çoklu Karşılaştırma) testi uygulanarak<br />

gruplar arasında önem seviyesi (p


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Alparslan ve ark., 7(1): 12-21 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 1. Bütün olarak işleme tabi tutulmuş, ortam şartlarında çözündürülen levrek balığının duyusal<br />

analiz sonuçları<br />

Table 1. Results of sensory analyses of seabass that processed as whole and thawed <strong>in</strong> ambient conditions<br />

BÜTÜN<br />

Deri Göz Solungaç Koku Kıvam Doku Genel Ka-<br />

ÇÖZÜNDÜRME<br />

bul<br />

Başlangıç 3.88±0.02 3.80±0.02 3.67±0.02 3.79±0.02 3.91±0.01 3.89±0.01 3.82±0.01<br />

1. 3.63±0.01 3.33±0.01 3.40±0.01 3.50±0.01 3.49±0.02 3.53±0.01 3.50±0.02<br />

2. 3.28±0.01 3.11±0.01 2.84±0.01 2.93±0.02 3.05±0.03 3.00±0.01 3.04±0.03<br />

3. 2.88±0.01 2.45±0.02 2.38±0.03 2.53±0.01 2.54±0.01 2.55±0.02 2.59±0.04<br />

4. 1.84±0.02 1.63±0.02 1.44±0.01 1.54±0.01 1.65±0.02 1.68±0.02 1.70±0.01<br />

5. 1.11±0.02 0.80±0.01 0.67±0.01 0.76±0.02 0.88±0.01 1.00±0.01 0.88±0.02<br />

6. 0.72±0.01 0.44±0.01 0.38±0.01 0.45±0.01 0.53±0.02 0.58±0.02 0.53±0.01<br />

Tablo 2. İç organsız olarak işleme tabi tutulmuş, ortam şartlarında çözündürülen levrek balığının<br />

duyusal analiz sonuçları<br />

Table 2. Result of sensory analyses of seabass that processed as gutted and thawed <strong>in</strong> ambient conditions<br />

İÇ ORGANSIZ<br />

ÇÖZÜNDÜRME<br />

Deri Göz Solungaç Koku Kıvam Doku Genel<br />

Kabul<br />

Başlangıç 3.88±0.02 3.80±0.02 3.67±0.02 3.79±0.02 3.91±0.01 3.89±0.01 3.82±0.01<br />

1. 3.48±0.02 3.41±0.01 3.53±0.01 3.51±0.01 3.48±0.02 3.46±0.02 3.45±0.05<br />

2. 3.12±0.02 3.03±0.01 2.90±0.02 3.04±0.01 2.93±0.02 2.98±0.01 2.99±0.02<br />

3. 2.74±0.02 2.55±0.01 2.55±0.03 2.59±0.02 2.51±0.02 2.41±0.03 2.62±0.04<br />

4. 1.79±0.03 1.71±0.02 1.53±0.02 1.60±0.02 1.58±0.03 1.64±0.02 1.65±0.03<br />

5. 1.01±0.02 1.00±0.01 0.87±0.02 0.92±0.03 0.83±0.02 0.93±0.01 0.88±0.01<br />

6. 0.63±0.01 0.58±0.02 0.59±0.01 0.48±0.01 0.49±0.02 0.48±0.01 0.51±0.01<br />

15


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Alparslan ve ark., 7(1): 12-21 (2013)<br />

16<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 3. <strong>File</strong>to olarak işleme tabi tutulmuş, ortam şartlarında çözündürülen levrek balığının duyusal<br />

analiz sonuçları<br />

Table 3. Results of sensory analyses of seabass that processed as fillet and thawed <strong>in</strong> ambient conditions<br />

ÇÖZÜNDÜRME<br />

FİLETO<br />

Deri Göz Solungaç Koku Kıvam Doku Genel<br />

Kabul<br />

Başlangıç 3.88±0.02 - - 3.79±0.02 3.91±0.01 3.89±0.01 3.82±0.01<br />

1. 3.35±0.02 - - 3.47±0.02 3.28±0.04 3.46±0.01 3.40±0.02<br />

2.<br />

3.13±0.02 - - 2.93±0.03 2.93±0.01 2.87±0.02 2.99±0.03<br />

3. 2.83±0.02 - - 2.53±0.01 2.40±0.02 2.40±0.02 2.64±0.04<br />

4. 1.80±0.02 - - 1.62±0.02 1.54±0.02 1.56±0.02 1.63±0.02<br />

5. 1.17±0.01 - - 0.95±0.01 0.84±0.02 1.04±0.01 1.09±0.03<br />

6. 0.84±0.13 - - 0.66±0.01 0.48±0.01 0.62±0.02 0.75±0.06<br />

Kimyasal analiz sonuçları<br />

pH analiz sonuçları<br />

Tablo 4-6’da farklı çözündürme yöntemleri<br />

temel alınarak pH analiz sonuçlarının genel ortalaması<br />

toplu olarak gösterilmiştir. Taze (0. gün)<br />

levrek balıklarının pH ortalaması 6.48 ±0.00 olarak<br />

tespit edilmiştir. Ortam koşullarında yapılan<br />

ilk çözündürme sonrasında sırasıyla bütün, iç organları<br />

alınmış ve fileto örnekler<strong>in</strong> pH ortalaması<br />

6.41 ±0.00, 6.40 ±0.00 ve 6.41 ±0.00; son çözündürme<br />

olan altıncı çözündürme sonrasında ise<br />

6.69 ±0.00, 6.76 ±0.00 ve 6.61 ±0.00 olarak belirlenmiştir.<br />

Ortam koşullarında çözündürülen bütün, iç<br />

organları alınmış ve fileto haldeki levrek balıkları<br />

pH değerleri açısından karşılaştırıldığında 6. çözündürme<br />

sonrasında en düşük pH içeriğ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> 6.61<br />

ile fileto örneklerde, en yüksek pH içeriğ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> ise<br />

6.74 ile iç organları alınmış balıklarda olduğu<br />

görülmüştür. İstatistiksel olarak değerlendirildiğ<strong>in</strong>de<br />

her üç grup arasında pH değer<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> istatistiki<br />

açıdan önemli olduğu belirlenmiştir (p


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Alparslan ve ark., 7(1): 12-21 (2013)<br />

Ortam koşullarında çözündürülen bütün, iç<br />

organları alınmış ve fileto levrek gruplarının<br />

TMA-N değerleri bakımından bütün çözündürme<br />

aşamalarında birbirleri ile benzer değişimler tespit<br />

edilmiştir. 6. çözündürme sonunda da bütün<br />

örnekler<strong>in</strong> TMA-N değerler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> 4.30 mg/100 g’ın<br />

üstüne çıktığı tespit edilmiştir. İstatistiksel olarak<br />

değerlendirildiğ<strong>in</strong>de, iç organları alınmış grup ile<br />

diğer gruplar arasındaki farkın istatistiki açıdan<br />

önemli olduğu (p0.05) belirlenmiştir.<br />

TBA(Tiyobarbitürik Asit) analiz sonuçları<br />

Tablo 4-6’ da farklı çözündürme yöntemleri<br />

temel alınarak TBA analiz sonuçlarının genel<br />

ortalaması toplu olarak gösterilmiştir. Taze (0.<br />

gün) levrek balıklarının bir<strong>in</strong>ci çalışma sonrasındaki<br />

TBA analiz sonuçları ortalaması 0.43 ±0.01<br />

mg malonaldehit/kg olarak tespit edilmiştir. Ortam<br />

koşullarında yapılan ilk çözündürme sonrasında<br />

sırasıyla bütün, iç organları alınmış ve fileto<br />

örnekler<strong>in</strong> TBA sonuçlarının ortalaması 0.42<br />

±0.01, 0.50 ±0.01 ve 0.42 ±0.01; son çözündürme<br />

olan altıncı çözündürme sonrasında ise 0.71<br />

±0.03, 1.09 ±0.02 ve 0.85 ±0.02 mg malonaldehit/kg<br />

olarak saptanmıştır.<br />

Ortam koşullarında çözündürülen örnekler<strong>in</strong><br />

TBA değerler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>, çözündürme periyodu boyunca<br />

arttığı görülmüştür. 6. çözündürme sonunda en<br />

düşük TBA değer<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> 0.71 mg malonaldehit/kg<br />

balıketi ile bütün haldeki levreklerde, en yüksek<br />

değer<strong>in</strong> ise 1.09 mg malonaldehit/kg balıketi ile<br />

iç organları alınmış levrek gruplarında olduğu<br />

tespit edilmiştir. İstatistiksel olarak değerlendirildiğ<strong>in</strong>de<br />

her üç grup arasında TBA değer<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> istatistiki<br />

açıdan önemli olduğu belirlenmiştir<br />

(p


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Alparslan ve ark., 7(1): 12-21 (2013)<br />

18<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 4. Bütün olarak işleme tabi tutulmuş ortam şartlarında çözündürülen levrek balığının et<br />

yapısındaki kimyasal değişimler<br />

Table 4. The chemical changes of meat quality of seabass that processed as whole and thawed <strong>in</strong> ambient<br />

conditions<br />

ÇÖZÜNDÜRME<br />

pH<br />

TVB-N<br />

BÜTÜN<br />

TBA<br />

TMA-N % Prote<strong>in</strong> % Yağ<br />

Taze 6.48±0.002 18.85±0.10 0.43±0.01 2.93±0.00 19.69±0.27 8.54±0.12<br />

1. 6.41±0.002 18.10±0.17 0.42±0.01 3.46±0.01 19.08±0.06 8.09±0.09<br />

2. 6.43±0.001 19.17±0.15 0.44±0.01 3.40±001 19.20±0.20 7.19±0.09<br />

3. 6.48±0.001 19.63±0.38 0.50±0.00 3.24±0.02 19.14±0.30 7.39±0.04<br />

4. 6.58±0.001 20.50±0.20 0.55±0.02 3.61±0.03 19.57±0.14 7.92±0.22<br />

5. 6.56±0.002 21.03±0.15 0.64±0.01 3.91±0.05 18.87±0.32 7.60±0.37<br />

6. 6.69±0.001 22.35±0.24 0.71±0.03 4.30±0.06 18.99±0.16 6.43±0.19<br />

Ortalama±Standart sapma (n:6)<br />

Tablo 5. İç organsız olarak işleme tabi tutulmuş ortam şartlarında çözündürülen levrek balığının et<br />

yapısındaki kimyasal değişimler<br />

Table 5. The chemical changes of meat quality of seabass that processed as whole and thawed ambient<br />

conditions<br />

ÇÖZÜNDÜRME<br />

pH<br />

TVB-N<br />

İÇORGANSIZ<br />

TBA<br />

TMA-N % Prote<strong>in</strong> % Yağ<br />

Taze 6.48±0.002 18.85±0.10 0.43±0.01 2.93±0.00 19.69±0.27 8.54±0.12<br />

1. 6.40±0.001 17.87±0.62 0.50±0.01 3.42±0.04 19.50±0.23 8.12±0.52<br />

2. 6.43±0.002 19.35±0.23 0.51±0.01 3.39±0.03 19.02±0.04 7.84±0.29<br />

3. 6.44±0.001 20.16±0.49 0.58±0.02 3.32±0.02 18.87±0.28 7.19±0.37<br />

4. 6.53±0.001 20.89±0.28 0.62±0.02 3.72±0.02 18.82±0.08 7.80±0.38<br />

5. 6.54±0.002 22.91±0.22 0.89±0.02 3.86±0.00 19.02±0.14 7.32±0.27<br />

6. 6.76±0.002 23.94±0.08 1.09±0.02 4.45±0.03 19.02±0.05 6.47±0.24<br />

Ortalama±Standart sapma (n:6)


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Alparslan ve ark., 7(1): 12-21 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 6. <strong>File</strong>to olarak işleme tabi tutulmuş ortam şartlarında çözündürülen levrek balığının et<br />

yapısındaki kimyasal değişimler<br />

Table 2. The chemical changes of meat quality of seabass that processed as fillet and thawed <strong>in</strong> ambient<br />

conditions<br />

ÇÖZÜNDÜRME<br />

pH<br />

TVB-N<br />

FİLETO<br />

TBA<br />

TMA-N % Prote<strong>in</strong> % Yağ<br />

Taze 6.48±0.002 18.85±0.10 0.43±0.01 2.93±0.00 19.69±0.27 8.54±0.12<br />

1. 6.41±0.001 18.06±0.24 0.42±0.01 3.52±0.01 19.07±0.15 7.63±0.23<br />

2. 6.46±0.000 19.84±0.41 0.47±0.01 3.38±0.07 19.20±0.14 6.88±0.37<br />

3. 6.49±0.001 20.32±0.28 0.56±0.04 3.25±0.02 18.93±0.46 7.55±0.34<br />

4. 6.52±0.001 21.70±0.10 0.66±0.02 3.71±0.01 19.56±0.31 8.03±0.35<br />

5. 6.51±0.001 23.76±0.20 0.74±0.03 3.99±0.06 19.14±0.32 7.37±0.65<br />

6. 6.61±0.004 24.83±0.26 0.85±0.02 4.44±0.01 19.00±0.21 7.48±0.19<br />

Ortalama±Standart sapma (n:6)<br />

Diğer çalışma veriler<strong>in</strong>e bakıldığında levrek<br />

balıkları üzer<strong>in</strong>e yapılan çalışmalarda Periago ve<br />

diğ. (2005), taze kültür levreğ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> başlangıç pH,<br />

ham prote<strong>in</strong> ve % yağ içeriğ<strong>in</strong>i sırasıyla 6.44,<br />

%23.37 ve %6.66, Alasalvar ve diğ. (2002), prote<strong>in</strong><br />

oranını %20.7, yağ oranını %5.2, Orban ve<br />

diğ. (2003) ise prote<strong>in</strong> oranını %19.58, yağ oranını<br />

%9.36, pH içeriğ<strong>in</strong>i ise 6.27 olarak bulmuşlardır.<br />

Beklevik ve diğ. (2005) deniz levreği filetolarının<br />

ham prote<strong>in</strong> ve lipit içeriğ<strong>in</strong>i depolama<br />

başlangıcında %19.75 ve %1.22 olarak saptamışlardır.<br />

Çaklı ve diğ. (2006), iç organları temizlenmiş<br />

levrek balığı iç<strong>in</strong> depolama periyodunun<br />

başlangıcında sırasıyla TMA-N değerler<strong>in</strong>i<br />

1.26 ±0.00 mg/100g, TVB-N değerler<strong>in</strong>i 16.2<br />

±0.28 mg/100g, TBA değerler<strong>in</strong>i ise 0.63 ±0.06<br />

mg MA/kg olarak belirlemişlerdir. Y<strong>in</strong>e Çaklı ve<br />

diğ. (2007), solungaçları ve iç organları alınarak<br />

buz içeris<strong>in</strong>de depoladıkları levreğ<strong>in</strong> başlangıç<br />

TBA değer<strong>in</strong>i 0.259 mg malonaldehit/kg, TVB-N<br />

değer<strong>in</strong>i 17.11 mg/100g, TMA-N değer<strong>in</strong>i ise<br />

0.273 mg/100g olarak saptamışlardır. Baygar ve<br />

diğ. (2004), hamsi ve ç<strong>in</strong>ekop balıklarının birden<br />

fazla kez dondurulup farklı ortamlarda<br />

çözündürülmesi sırasında meydana gelen kalite<br />

kayıplarını tespit ettikleri çalışmada hamsi ve<br />

ç<strong>in</strong>akop balıklarının sırasıyla başlangıç duyusal<br />

analiz değerler<strong>in</strong>i 8.70 ve 8.85; pH değer<strong>in</strong>i 6.21<br />

ve 6.01; TVB-N değerler<strong>in</strong>i 21.88 ve 17.70<br />

mg/100 g; TMA-N değerler<strong>in</strong>i ise 4.02 ve 3.55<br />

mg/100g olarak tespit etmişlerdir. Ersoy ve diğ.<br />

(2008), Avrupa yılan balığını, buzdolabı, su,<br />

ortam şartları ve mikrodalga kullanarak farklı çözündürme<br />

işlemler<strong>in</strong>e tabi tuttukları çalışma sırasında<br />

başlangıç pH değer<strong>in</strong>i 6.23, TVB-N değer<strong>in</strong>i<br />

12.47 mg/100g, TBA içeriğ<strong>in</strong>i 1.10 mg malonaldehit/kg<br />

olarak bulmuşlardır.<br />

Çalışmamızda bütün, iç organları alınmış ve<br />

fileto haldeki levrek balığının başlangıç duyusal<br />

yönden kabul edilebilirlik analiz değerleri 3.83<br />

±0.02, 3.78 ±0.04 ve 3.77 ±0.01 olarak panelistler<br />

tarafından değerlendirilmiştir. Duyusal<br />

analiz sonuçlarına göre dondurma ve çözündürme<br />

yöntemler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> özellikle balık prote<strong>in</strong>i, tekstürü,<br />

deri kuruluğu, balık eti ve gözünde nem kayıpları<br />

ve solungaçları üzer<strong>in</strong>de oldukça etkili olduğu<br />

görülmektedir. Çalışma başlangıç değerlerimiz<br />

19


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Alparslan ve ark., 7(1): 12-21 (2013)<br />

ile yapılan diğer çalışmaların sonuçları karşılaştırıldığında<br />

birçok durumda benzerlik gösterdiği<br />

görülmektedir. Aradaki görülebilecek farklılıkların<br />

ise balık türünün, av şekl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> ve mevsim<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>,<br />

balığın yaşadığı ortamın, balığa uygulanan işlemler<strong>in</strong><br />

ve analiz metotlarının etkili olduğu düşünülmektedir.<br />

Altıncı çözündürme sonrasında levrek<br />

örnekler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> duyusal özellikler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> genel kabul<br />

edilebilirlik değerleri göz önüne alındığında en<br />

iyi durumda olanların fileto levreklerde (0.75<br />

±0.06), en düşük kalitede olanın ise pulları ve iç<br />

organları alınmış levreklerde (0.51 ±0.01) olduğu<br />

görülmüştür. Bütün ve pulları/iç organları alınmış<br />

levrekler dördüncü çözündürmeden sonra, fileto<br />

levrekler beş<strong>in</strong>ci çözündürmeden sonra sınır<br />

değer olarak kabul edilen “1” değer<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> altında<br />

puan almışlardır. Sr<strong>in</strong>ivasan ve diğ. (1997),<br />

yaptıkları çalışmada üçüncü çözündürme<br />

işlem<strong>in</strong>den sonra karidesler<strong>in</strong> fizikokimyasal ve<br />

doku özellikler<strong>in</strong>de kayıpların meydana geldiğ<strong>in</strong>i<br />

bildirmektedirler. Hallier ve diğ. (2007) balık<br />

filetolarında dondurma ve çözündürme<br />

aşamasından sonra, kaslardaki prote<strong>in</strong> yıkımı<br />

sonucunda et<strong>in</strong> parlaklığında bir azalmanın<br />

meydana geldiği belirtilmektedir. Dondurma ve<br />

çözündürme aşamasından sonra su tutma<br />

kapasites<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kaybı yüzünden et kıvamı daha az<br />

sulu olmuş ve filetoların esnekliğ<strong>in</strong>de azalma ve<br />

parçalanma dikkat çekmiştir.<br />

Ortam sıcaklığında çözündürülen tüm grupların<br />

(Bütün, İç organları alınmış, <strong>File</strong>to) 6. çözündürme<br />

sonrasında fizikokimyasal analiz sonuçları<br />

göz önünde bulundurulduğunda pH, TVB-N,<br />

TBA, TMA-N, Ham prote<strong>in</strong> ve Ham yağ değerleri<br />

sırasıyla 6.69, 6.76, 6.61; 22.35, 23.94, 24.85<br />

mg/100g; 0.71, 1.09, 0.85mg malonaldehit/kg;<br />

4.30, 4.45, 4.44 mg/100g; % 18.99, 19.02, 19.00;<br />

% 6.43, 6.47, 7.48 olarak belirlenmiştir.<br />

Ersoy ve diğ. (2008), Avrupa yılan balığını<br />

ortam şartları ile çözündürme işlem<strong>in</strong>e tabi tuttukları<br />

çalışma sırasında dondurma çözündürme<br />

işlemi uygulaması sonrasında pH değer<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> azalarak<br />

istatistiksel açıdan önemli bir değişime sebep<br />

olduğunu bildirmişlerdir. Ayrıca çalışma sonucunda<br />

çözündürülmüş örnekler<strong>in</strong> pH içeriğ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

6.5’i geçmediği bildirilmektedir. Çözündürme<br />

sonrası yılan balıklarının TVB-N içerikler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

11.53 ve 12.52 mg/100g arasında değişim gösterdiği;<br />

TBA miktarında ise taze örneklerde 1.10<br />

mg malonaldehit/kg, çözündürme sonrasında ise<br />

bu değerlerde istatistiksel açıdan önemli bir<br />

azalma olduğu tespit edilmiştir. TBA değer<strong>in</strong>de<br />

20<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

meydana gelen bu azalmanın, yağ oksidasyonu<br />

sırasında ortaya çıkan ürünler<strong>in</strong> birbirleri ile etkileşmeler<strong>in</strong>den<br />

kaynaklanabileceği olarak açıklanmıştır.<br />

Mol ve diğ. (2004), çalışmalarında<br />

Türkiye’ye getirilen ithal uskumruların değişik<br />

çözülme koşullarındaki kalite parametreler<strong>in</strong>i belirlemişlerdir.<br />

Bu çalışma sonucunda oda şartları<br />

kullanılarak yapılan çözündürme koşullarının balık<br />

kalitesi üzer<strong>in</strong>de önemli bir değişime neden<br />

olmadığı, ithal uskumruların oda sıcaklığında<br />

sağlıklı biçimde çözülerek tüketilebileceği vurgulanmıştır.<br />

Sonuç<br />

Bu çalışmada ortam koşullarında çözündürme<br />

işlem<strong>in</strong>de balık et<strong>in</strong>de kalite kayıplarının fazla<br />

oluştuğu gözlenmiştir. Özellikle et<strong>in</strong> yumuşaması,<br />

kötü koku oluşumu, deri ve pullardaki parlaklığın<br />

gitmesi, solungaçlardaki değişimler daha<br />

fazla hissedilmiştir. Balık et<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> durumuna göre<br />

karşılaştırma yapılacak olunursa pullu ve derili<br />

örnekler<strong>in</strong> kalite açısından daha iyi durumda oldukları<br />

görülmüştür. Her ne kadar dördüncü<br />

çözündürme işlemi sonrasında balıklar duyusal<br />

açıdan kabul edilemez durumda olsalar bile bütün<br />

dondurulmuş gıdaların sadece bir kere<br />

çözündürüldükten sonra hemen tüketilmeleri<br />

gerekmektedir. Çalışma sonucunda tüketicilere<br />

ihtiyaçları oranında balıkları dondurup<br />

çözündürmeleri önerilmektedir.<br />

Kaynaklar<br />

Alasalvar, C., Taylor, K.D.A., Öksüz, A.,<br />

Shahidi, F., Alexis M., (2002). Comparison<br />

of Freshness Quality of Cultured and Wild<br />

Sea Bass, Journal of Food Sc<strong>in</strong>ce, 67(9):<br />

3220-3226.<br />

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb09569.x<br />

Antonocopoulus, N., (1973). Bestimmung des<br />

Flüchtigen Basenstickstoofs. In: Ludorf W,<br />

Meyer V, Fische und Fischerzeugnisse.<br />

Aulage Verlag Paul Parey, Berl<strong>in</strong>, pp 224–<br />

225.<br />

Aubourg, S.P., (2001). Chilled Storage of Horse<br />

Mackarel, Journal of the American Oil<br />

Chemists' Society, 78(8): 857-862.<br />

Baygar, T., Özden, Ö., Üçok, D., (2004). Dondurma<br />

ve Çözündürme İşlem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> Balık<br />

Kalitesi Üzer<strong>in</strong>e Etkisi, Turkish Journal of<br />

Veter<strong>in</strong>ary and Animal Science, 28(1): 173-<br />

178.


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Alparslan ve ark., 7(1): 12-21 (2013)<br />

Beklevik, G., Polat, A., Özoğul, F., (2005). Nutritional<br />

Value of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus<br />

labrax) Fillets dur<strong>in</strong>g Frozen (-18°C) Storage,<br />

Turkish Journal of Veter<strong>in</strong>ary and Animal<br />

Science, 29: 891-895.<br />

Bulduk, S., (2002). Gıda Teknolojisi, Detay<br />

Yayıncılık 1. Baskı, Yayın no: 02-06-0395-<br />

HY-40, s.147-149, ISBN 975-8326-43-0.<br />

Çaklı, S., Kılınc, B., Cadun, A., D<strong>in</strong>çer, T.,<br />

Tolasa, S., (2007). Quality Differences of<br />

Whole Ungutted Sea Bream and Sea Bass<br />

While Stored <strong>in</strong> Ice, Food Control,18: 391-<br />

397.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2005.11.005<br />

Çaklı, S., Kılınc, B., Cadun, A., Tolasa, S.,<br />

(2006). Effect of ungutt<strong>in</strong>g on microbiological,<br />

chemical and sensory properties of aquacultured<br />

sea bream and sea bass stored <strong>in</strong><br />

ice, European Food Research and Technology,<br />

222: 719-726.<br />

doi: 10.1007/s00217-005-0014-1<br />

Ersoy, B., Aksan, E., Özeren, A., (2008). The<br />

Effect of Thaw<strong>in</strong>g Methods on The Quality<br />

of Eels (Anguilla anguilla), Food Chemistry,<br />

111: 377-380.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.03.081<br />

Hallier, A., Chevallier, S., Serot, T., Prost, C.,<br />

(2007). Freez<strong>in</strong>g-Thaw<strong>in</strong>g Effects on The<br />

Colour and Texture of European Catfish<br />

Flesh, International Journal of Food Science<br />

and Technology, 43(7): 1253-1262.<br />

doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2007.01601.x<br />

Manthey, M., Karnop, G., Rehbe<strong>in</strong>, H., (1988).<br />

Quality Changes of European Catfish (Silurus<br />

glanis) from Worm-Water Aquaculture<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g Storage Ice, International Journal of<br />

Food Science and Technology, 23: 1-9.<br />

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1988.tb00543.x<br />

Mol, S., Özden, Ö., Erkan, N., Baygar, T.,<br />

(2004). İthal Uskumruların Değişik Çözülme<br />

Koşullarındaki Kalite Parametreler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> Belirlenmesi,<br />

Turkish Journal of Veter<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

and Animal Science, 28(6): 1071-1077.<br />

Olgunoğlu, A.İ., Polat, A., (2002). Dondurarak<br />

depolanan (-18°C) sudak (Sander lucioperca)<br />

filetolarında kimyasal ve duyusal<br />

değişimler, Turkish Journal of Veter<strong>in</strong>ary<br />

and Animal Science, 26: 879-884.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Orban, E., Nevigato, T., Di Lena, G., Cas<strong>in</strong>i, I.,<br />

Marzetti, A., (2003). Differentiation <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Lipid Quality of Wild and Farmed Seabass<br />

and Gilthead Sea Bream, Journal of Food<br />

science, 68: 1-5.<br />

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb14127.x<br />

Özeren, A., Ersoy, B., (2008). Yılan Balığı (Anguilla<br />

anguilla)’ nın Duyusal ve Renk<br />

Kalitesi Üzer<strong>in</strong>e Defrost Yöntemler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

Etkileri, Biyoloji Bilimleri Araştırma<br />

Dergisi, 1(2): 9-11.<br />

Periago, M.J., Ayala, M.D., Lopez-Albors, O.,<br />

Abdel, I., Mart<strong>in</strong>ez, C., Garcia-Alcazar, A.,<br />

Ros, G., Gil, F., (2005). Muscle Cellularity<br />

and Flesh Quality of Wild and Farmed Sea<br />

Bass, Aquaculture, 249: 175-188.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.02.047<br />

Schormüller, J. (1968). Handbuch der Lebensmittel<br />

Chemie. Band III/2 Teil. Tierische<br />

Lebensmittel Eier, Fleisch, Fisch, Buttermilch.<br />

Spr<strong>in</strong>ger-Verlag.: 1341-1392.<br />

Sr<strong>in</strong>ivasan, S., Xiong, Y.L., Blanchard, P.S.,<br />

Tidwell, J.H., (1997). Physiochemical<br />

Changes <strong>in</strong> Prawns Subjected to multiple<br />

Freze-Thaw Cycles, Journal of Food Science,<br />

62: 123-127.<br />

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1997.tb04381.x<br />

Tarladgis, B.G., Watts, B.M., Yonathan M.,<br />

(1960). Distillation method for the determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

of malonaldehyde ın rancid foods,<br />

Journal of American Oil Chemistry Society,<br />

37(1): 44-48.<br />

doi: 10.1007/BF02630824<br />

Tokur, B., Kandemir, S., (2008). Dondurulmuş<br />

Balıklarda Farklı Çözündürme Şekiller<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

Prote<strong>in</strong> Kalites<strong>in</strong>e Olan Etkileri, Journal of<br />

<strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong>, 2(1): 100-106.<br />

doi: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2008010<br />

Turan, H., Kaya, Y., Erdem, M.E., Sönmez, G.,<br />

Kodalak, N., Erkoyuncu, İ., (2006). Donmuş<br />

Alabalıkların Kalitesi Üzer<strong>in</strong>e Farklı<br />

Çözdürme Koşullarının Etkisi, İstanbul Üniversitesi<br />

Su Ürünleri Dergisi, 20: 21-32.<br />

21


7(1): 22-29 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013003<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

RESEARCH ARTICLE ARAŞTIRMA MAKALESİ<br />

MUNZUR NEHRİ’NDEKİ KIRMIZI BENEKLİ<br />

ALABALIĞIN (Salmo trutta macrostigma<br />

(Dummeril, 1858)) OTOLİT BOYUTLARI-BALIK<br />

BOYU ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİ<br />

Asiye Başusta ∗ , Ebru İfakat Özer, Hülya Girg<strong>in</strong><br />

Fırat Üniversitesi Su Ürünleri Fakültesi Temel Bilimler, Elazığ<br />

Özet: Bu çalışmada, Munzur Nehri’nden Ekim 2010-Eylül 2011 tarihleri arasında yakalanan 153<br />

alabalığın otolit boyutları-balık boyu ilişkileri <strong>in</strong>celenmiştir. Populasyonda 47♀ ve 106♂ birey<br />

bulunmaktadır. Her bir örnekten çıkarılan otolitler<strong>in</strong> boyu (OB), genişliği (OG) ve ağırlığı<br />

(OA) ölçülmüştür. Örnekler<strong>in</strong> total boyları 18.2-38.2 cm, ağırlıkları 77.4-656 g, arasında<br />

dağılım göstermiştir. Her bir örnekten çıkarılan otolitler<strong>in</strong> boyu, genişliği ve ağırlığı ölçülmüş<br />

ve sırasıyla 2,12-3.76 mm, 1.17-2.12 mm ve 0.0001-0.0013 g olarak belirlenmiştir. Total boy<br />

ile otolit genişliği ve otolit boyu arasındaki ilişki denklemleri sırasıyla y=20.42x – 5.604 (R² =<br />

0.888); y=0.058x + 1.265 (R² = 0.735) olarak tespit edilmiştir.<br />

22<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Munzur Nehri, Salmo trutta macrostigma, Otolit, Otolit boyutları-Balık<br />

boyu ilişkisi<br />

Abstract: Otolith Dimensions-Fish Length Relations Between Of<br />

Red-Spotted Trout (Salmo trutta macrostigma<br />

(Dummeril, 1858)) <strong>in</strong> Munzur River<br />

In this research, otolith dimensions- fish length relations of 153 caught from Munzur River<br />

between October 2010-September 2011 have been exam<strong>in</strong>ed. There were 47♀ and 106♂<br />

specimens <strong>in</strong> population. Otolith length (OL), breadth (OB) and weight (OW) were measured<br />

from each specimens. Total length and weight of specimens have been ranged 18.2-38.2 cm;<br />

77.4-656 g respectively. The length, breadth and weight of otoliths were measured from each<br />

specimens and were determ<strong>in</strong>ed as 2.12-3.76 mm 1.17-2.12 mm 0.0001-0.0013 g respectively.<br />

There lations among total length with otolith breadth and otolit length were determ<strong>in</strong>ed as<br />

y=20.42x – 5.604 (R² = 0.888); y=0.058x + 1.265 (R² = 0.735) respectively.<br />

Keywords: Munzur River, Salmo trutta macrostigma, Otolith, Otolith dimensions-Fish length<br />

relationship<br />

Bu çalışma Fırat Üniversitesi BAP Koord<strong>in</strong>asyon Birimi (Proje No: 2068) tarafından desteklenmiştir.<br />

∗ Correspondence to: Asiye BAŞUSTA, Fırat Üniversitesi Su Ürünleri Fakültesi Temel Bilimler ABD 23119 Elazığ-TÜRKİYE<br />

Tel: (+90 424) 237 00 00-4552\4527<br />

E-mail: agirg<strong>in</strong>@firat.edu.tr


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Başusta ve ark., 7(1): 22-29 (2013)<br />

Giriş<br />

Türkiye’n<strong>in</strong> hemen her bölges<strong>in</strong>de alabalık<br />

bulunmasına rağmen bunların alt türleri, dağılımları<br />

ve ekolojik durumlarına ait bilgiler çok<br />

azdır. Kırmızı benekli alabalık olarak bil<strong>in</strong>en<br />

ve dağ alası olarak da anılan, Salmo trutta macrostigma<br />

(D., 1858) bir alt tür olup, vücudu mekik<br />

şekl<strong>in</strong>de ve yanlardan hafif basıktır. Bu balığın<br />

yan tarafında ve sırt bölges<strong>in</strong>de kırmızı benekler<br />

bulunur. Yöremizde bu balığın yalnızca<br />

Tunceli' de bulunan sularda yaşayan endemik bir<br />

alttür olduğuna dair yanlış bir kanı mevcuttur.<br />

Oysaki bu balık Ülkemizde genel olarak; Doğu,<br />

Güney, Kuzey-Batı Anadolu ve Trakya da yayılış<br />

göstermektedir. Bu alttür Kaz dağlarında, Dicle'ye<br />

akan Çatak çayında, Çoruh nehr<strong>in</strong>de, Istranca<br />

dağlarındaki sularda, Karadeniz'e akan<br />

Köprü çayında, Toroslardaki beş konak, Z<strong>in</strong>dan<br />

deresi, Aykırı çayı, Alara çayı, Eşen çayı, Seyhan<br />

nehr<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> yukarı havzaları, Uludağ, Sapanca gölü,<br />

Tortum şelalesi, Munzur nehr<strong>in</strong>de bil<strong>in</strong>mektedir<br />

(Geldiay ve Balık, 1988).<br />

Bu alttürle ilgili çalışmalar önceki yıllarda az<br />

olmakla birlikte son yıllarda artış göstermiştir.<br />

Ek<strong>in</strong>gen (1976), Munzur balığının doğal beslenme<br />

olanaklarını, Alp vd. (2003), Ceyhan ve<br />

Göksu nehir sistemler<strong>in</strong>de yaşayan Salmo trutta<br />

macrostigma‘nın üreme, yaş, büyüme ve bazı<br />

morfometrik özellikler<strong>in</strong>i <strong>in</strong>celemişlerdir. Duman<br />

vd.,(2011), et verimi ve kimyasal komposizyonunu,<br />

Becer vd., (2011), Çoruh Nehir sistemi<br />

üzer<strong>in</strong>deki derelerde yaşayan alabalıkların beslenme<br />

ekolojis<strong>in</strong>i, Kocabaş vd., (2011), Munzur<br />

alabalığında mide içeriği ve beslenme alışkanlığı<br />

ile ilgili çalışmalar yapmışlardır.<br />

Balıkların kemiksi yapıları ile balık boyu büyümesi<br />

birbiriyle ilişkilidir. Kemiksi yapıya göre<br />

değişmekle beraber en, boy, ağırlık gibi çeşitli<br />

yapı boyut ölçümler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> alınarak bunların balık<br />

boyu ile ilişkilendirilmesi ve bu ilişkiye göre büyüme<br />

oranının belirlenmesi son zamanlarda yaygın<br />

olarak sürdürülen çalışmalar arasındadır.<br />

Otolit uzunluğu ile balık uzunluğu arasındaki<br />

ilişki arkeolojik alanlarda ve mide içeriği analizler<strong>in</strong>de<br />

predatör mideler<strong>in</strong>de bulunmuş otolitler<strong>in</strong><br />

uzunluğundan balık büyüklüğünün tahm<strong>in</strong>i, ayrıca<br />

otolit ile yaş tay<strong>in</strong>i yapıldığında beklenen<strong>in</strong><br />

dışında bir değer çıktığında, balık uzunluğundan<br />

bunun doğrulamasının yapılabilmektedir. Ayrıca<br />

otolit ağırlığı ile balık yaşının belirleneceğ<strong>in</strong>i bildirmiştir<br />

(Samsun ve Samsun, 2006).<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Çeşitli balıkların otolit yapısı, otolit boyu-balık<br />

boyu arasında ilişki ile ilgili birçok çalışma<br />

mevcuttur, Pleuronectes flesus luscus’ta Şah<strong>in</strong> ve<br />

Güneş (1998), Capoeta capoeta umbla’da Şen<br />

vd.,(2001), Carassius gibelio’da Bostancı (2005),<br />

Neogobius melanostomus’ta Kurt (2005), Psetta<br />

maxima’da Zeng<strong>in</strong> vd. (2006), Solea lascaris’te<br />

Bostancı ve Polat (2007), Lepidorhombus boscii’de<br />

Bostancı ve Polat (2008) Sander lucioperca’da<br />

Bostancı vd., (2009) tarafından yapılan<br />

çalışmalarda balık boyu ile kemiksi yapı arasındaki<br />

ilişkiler belirlenmiştir. Fakat Salmo trutta<br />

macrostigma alttürünün otolit boyutları ve balık<br />

boyu ilişkisi ile ilgili herhangi bir çalışma mevcut<br />

değildir. Bu çalışma ile kırmızı benekli alabalığın<br />

otolit boyutları-balık boyu ilişkiler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> belirlenmesi<br />

amaçlanmıştır.<br />

Materyal ve Metot<br />

Bu çalışma, Ekim 2010-Eylül 2011 tarihleri<br />

arasında Munzur Nehri’nde gerçekleştirilmiştir<br />

(Şekil 1). Elde edilen 153 alabalığın otoliti balık<br />

boyu-otolit boyutları ilişkiler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> belirlenmesi<br />

iç<strong>in</strong> kullanıldı. Her bir örnekten çıkarılan otolitler<strong>in</strong><br />

boyu (OB), genişliği (OG) ve ağırlığı (OA)<br />

ölçüldü. Örnekler<strong>in</strong> total boyları ±1 mm hassasiyetli<br />

ölçü tahtası ile ağırlıkları ise ±1 g hassasiyetle<br />

ölçüldü, eşey tay<strong>in</strong>i gonadların makroskobik<br />

<strong>in</strong>celenmesiyle yapıldı. Her bir örnekten alınan<br />

sagittal otolitler saf sudan geçirilerek 3% lük<br />

NaOH çözeltis<strong>in</strong>de 30 dakika bekletilerek temizlendi<br />

(Chugunova, 1963). Otolitler<strong>in</strong> genişlik ve<br />

boyu Nikon marka stereo mikroskopta 10 mikron<br />

hassasiyetli mikrometrik oküler yardımıyla ölçülmüş,<br />

otolit ağırlıkları ise (OA) ±0.0001 g hassasiyetli<br />

terazi ile tartıldı. Otolit boyutlarına ait<br />

ölçümler iki eksen üzer<strong>in</strong>de yapıldı. Bir<strong>in</strong>cisi,<br />

otolit çapı ya da otolit genişliği olarak adlandırılan<br />

ve dorso-ventral doğrultudaki eksen<strong>in</strong> uzunluğudur.<br />

İk<strong>in</strong>ci ölçüm ise otolit uzunluğu ya da<br />

otolit boyu olarak adlandırılan, otolit<strong>in</strong> anteriör<br />

ucundan posteriör ucuna kadar olan uzunluktur.<br />

Bu ölçümler, kırık parçası olmayan otolitlerde<br />

distal yüzeyde ve aynı eksen üzer<strong>in</strong>de yapıldı.<br />

Ayrıca eşeyler arası ortalama otolit boy değerler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

önem kontrolü Student–t test<strong>in</strong>e göre yapıldı.<br />

23


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Başusta ve ark., 7(1): 22-29 (2013)<br />

24<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Şekil 1. Tunceli ili ve Munzur Nehri haritası (URL, 1)<br />

Figure 1. Map of the prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Tunceli and Munzur River (URL, 1)<br />

Bulgular ve Tartışma<br />

Çalışmada Munzur Nehri’nden 47 dişi ve 106<br />

erkek olmak üzere toplam 153 alabalık örneği<br />

<strong>in</strong>celendi. Dişilerde toplam boy ve ağırlıkları sırasıyla<br />

18.2-35.2 cm, 77.4-632 g; erkeklerde ise<br />

18.5-38.2 cm, 81-656 g arasında dağılım gösterdi.<br />

İncelenen 153 alabalığa ait otolitler<strong>in</strong> ağırlıkları<br />

0.0001-0.0013 mg; boyları 2.12-3.76 mm;<br />

genişliği 1.17-2.12 mm arasında dağılım gösterdi.<br />

Bu ölçümler otolitlerde distal yüzeyde ve aynı<br />

eksen üzer<strong>in</strong>de yapılmıştır. Yapılan çalışmalar<br />

sonucunda balık boyu-otolit boyuna ait değerler<br />

Tablo 1’de verilmiştir. Elde edilen verilerle balık<br />

boyu-balık ağırlığı, otolit boyu-otolit genişliği,<br />

balık boyu-otolit genişliği, balık boyu-otolit<br />

boyu, balık ağırlığı-otolit ağırlığına ait grafikler<br />

oluşturulmuştur (Şekil 2, Şekil 3, Şekil 4, Şekil 5,<br />

Şekil 6).<br />

Tablo 1. Salmo trutta macrostigma (Dummeril.,<br />

1858) balık boyu-otolit boyu<br />

değerleri<br />

Table 1. Values of fish length-otolith length of<br />

Salmo trutta macrostigma (Dumme-ril.,<br />

1858)<br />

Otolit Boyu (mm) Toplam Boy (cm)<br />

Eşey<br />

Sayı M<strong>in</strong> Max Ort M<strong>in</strong> Max Ort<br />

∑ 153 2.12 3.76 2.68 ±0,02* 18.2 38.2 23.8 ±0.3<br />

Dişi 47 2.17 3,66 2.78 ±0.04 18.2 36.5 24.6 ±0.7<br />

Erkek 106 2.12 3.76 2.64 ±0.02 18.5 38.2 23.5 ±0.4<br />

*±S.H


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Başusta ve ark., 7(1): 22-29 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Şekil 2. Munzur Nehri’ndeki alabalığın balık boyu- balık ağırlığı ilişkisi<br />

Figure 2. Fish lenght-fish weight relationship of trout <strong>in</strong> Munzur river<br />

Şekil 3. Munzur Nehri’ndeki alabalığın otolit genişliği- otolit boyu ilişkisi<br />

Figure 3. Otolith width-otolith lenght relationship of trout <strong>in</strong> Munzur river<br />

25


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Başusta ve ark., 7(1): 22-29 (2013)<br />

26<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Şekil 4. Munzur Nehri’ndeki alabalığın otolit genişliği- balık boyu ilişkisi<br />

Figure 4. Otolith width-fish lenght relationship of trout <strong>in</strong> Munzur river<br />

Şekil 5. Munzur Nehri’ndeki alabalığın otolit boyu- balık boyu ilişkisi<br />

Figure 5. Otolith lenght -fish lenght relationship of trout <strong>in</strong> Munzur river


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Başusta ve ark., 7(1): 22-29 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Şekil 6. Munzur Nehri’ndeki alabalığın otolit ağırlığı-balık ağırlığı ilişkisi<br />

Figure 6. Otolith weight -fish weight relationship of trout <strong>in</strong> Munzur river<br />

Bu çalışma ile balık boyu-otolit boyu arasında<br />

yüksek korelasyonlu bir ilişki bulundu<br />

(R 2 =0,7352). Harkönen (1986), balık boyu-otolit<br />

boyu arasında yüksek bir korelasyon olduğunu<br />

belirtmiş ve iki parametre arasında genelde doğrusal<br />

bir ilişki olduğunu ifade etmiştir. Ayrıca<br />

Otolit boyu ile balık boyu arasındaki ilişk<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> bil<strong>in</strong>mesi<br />

oldukça önemlidir. Çünkü, arkeolojik<br />

alanlarda ve predatör mideler<strong>in</strong>de bulunmuş otolitler<strong>in</strong><br />

uzunluğundan balık büyüklüğünün tahm<strong>in</strong><br />

edilebilmes<strong>in</strong>de ve otolitten yaş tay<strong>in</strong>i yapıldığında,<br />

beklenen<strong>in</strong> dışında bir değer çıktığında,<br />

balık uzunluğundan bunun doğrulaması yapılabilmektedir<br />

(Echeverria, 1987).Y<strong>in</strong>e bu balığa ait<br />

Otolit boyu-otolit genişliği, balık boyu-otolit genişliği,<br />

balık ağırlığı-otolit ağırlığı arasında doğrusal<br />

bir ilişki gözlenmiş olup, güçlü bir korelasyon<br />

görülmektedir. Balıklardaki otolit yapılarının<br />

farklı olmasından dolayı, otolitle balığın diğer<br />

yapıları arasındaki ilişkiler de türden türe değişiklik<br />

gösterildiği bildirilmiştir (Can, 2000).<br />

Brander (1974) ise, otolit ağırlığının balığın yaşı<br />

ile doğrudan ilişkili olduğunu belirtmiş ve bu hipotez<br />

yavaş büyüyen populasyonlardan alınan<br />

balıkların aynı boydaki balıklara göre daha büyük<br />

otolit içermesi ile desteklenmiştir (Spratt, 1972).<br />

Otolit ağırlığının tespiti, otolit uzunluğu ve genişliğ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

ölçülmes<strong>in</strong>e işlem<strong>in</strong>e göre çok daha<br />

kolay bir teknik olmakla birlikte son yıllarda bu<br />

ilişkiler<strong>in</strong> belirlenmes<strong>in</strong>de yaygın olarak da kullanılmaktadır<br />

(Card<strong>in</strong>ale vd., 2000; Labropoulou<br />

ve Papaconstant<strong>in</strong>ou, 2000; Newman vd., 2000;<br />

Araya vd., 2001; Pill<strong>in</strong>g vd., 2003; P<strong>in</strong>o vd.,<br />

2004). Otolitler balıkların sistematik çalışmalarında<br />

yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Predatörler<br />

tarafından yenilen balıklar otolitler<strong>in</strong>den, hatta<br />

s<strong>in</strong>dirilmiş kemik ve diğer parçalarından tanımlanabilmektedir<br />

(Akyol vd., 1997).<br />

Student-t test<strong>in</strong>e göre; Salmo trutta macrostigma<br />

balığında erkek ve dişi bireyler<strong>in</strong> ağırlıkları,<br />

total boyu, otolit ağırlığı ve otolit çapları<br />

arasında istatistiksel açıdan önemli bir farkın olmadığı<br />

(P>0.05), buna karşılık otolit uzunlukları<br />

arasındaki farkın ise önemli olduğu (P


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Başusta ve ark., 7(1): 22-29 (2013)<br />

=0.735 ) doğrusal bir ilişki bulunmuştur. Şekiller<br />

<strong>in</strong>celendiğ<strong>in</strong>de balık boyu ve otolit boyu arasında<br />

paralellik olduğu dikkat çekmektedir. Bu nedenden<br />

dolayı birçok araştırıcı balık boyu ile otolit<br />

boyu arasındaki sıkı ilişkiye dikkat çekerek bu<br />

ilişk<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> yaş tay<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>de kullanılma potansiyeli üzer<strong>in</strong>de<br />

durmuşlardır.<br />

Munzur nehr<strong>in</strong>deki alabalığın otolit boyutları<br />

ile balık boyu ilişkisi belirlenmiş fakat alabalığın<br />

başka bir populasyondaki otolit büyümes<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> belirlendiği<br />

araştırma olmadığı iç<strong>in</strong> karşılaştırma<br />

yapılamamıştır. Bu çalışma, ileride yapılacak<br />

olan çalışmalara ışık tutması bakımından önem<br />

taşımaktadır.<br />

28<br />

Kaynaklar<br />

Akyol, O., Met<strong>in</strong>, G., Ünsal, S., (1997). İzmir<br />

Körfezi’nde (Ege Denizi) sardalya (Sard<strong>in</strong>a<br />

pilchardis Walbaum, 1972) balığının çatal<br />

boy-otolit boyu arasındaki ilişki. Akdeniz<br />

Balıkçılık Kongresi, İzmir, 925-929.<br />

Alp, A., Kara, C., Büyükçapar, H.M., (2003).<br />

Reproductive biology of Brown trout, Salmo<br />

trutta macrostigma (Dumeril 1858), <strong>in</strong> a tributary<br />

of the Ceyhan River which flows <strong>in</strong>to<br />

the eastern Mediterranean Sea, Journal of<br />

Applied Ichthyology, 19(6): 346-351.<br />

doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0426.2003.00455.x<br />

Araya, M., Cubillos, L.A., Guzmán, M.,<br />

Peñailillo, J., Sepúlveda, A., (2001). Evidence<br />

of a relationship between age and<br />

otolith weight <strong>in</strong> the chilean jack mackerel,<br />

Trachurus symmetricus murphyi (Nichols),<br />

Fisheries Research, 51: 17-26.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0165-7836(00)00233-2<br />

Becer, Z.A., Yıldırım, A., Özvarol, Y., (2011).<br />

Feed<strong>in</strong>g Ecology of Various Length-Classes<br />

of Brown Trout (Salmo trutta) <strong>in</strong> Different<br />

Streams of Coruh River, Turkey, Kafkas<br />

Universitesi Veter<strong>in</strong>er Fakültesi Dergisi,.<br />

17(3): 377-382, 2011.<br />

Bostancı, D., (2005). Bafra Balık Gölü ve Eğirdir<br />

Gölü’nde Yaşayan Balık Populasyonlarında<br />

Opak Birikim Analizi İle Yaş Doğrulaması.<br />

Doktora Tezi, OMU Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü,<br />

136s.<br />

Bostancı, D., Polat, N., (2007). Dil balığı, Solea<br />

lascaris (Risso, 1810)’te Otolit Yapısı, Otolit<br />

Boyutları-Balık Boyu İlişkileri ve Yaş<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tay<strong>in</strong>i, Fırat Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik<br />

Bilimleri Dergisi, 19(3): 265-272.<br />

Bostancı, D., Polat, N., (2008). Benekli Pisi,<br />

Lepidorhombus boscii (Risso, 1810)’nın<br />

Otolit Yapısı, Otolit Boyutları-Balık Boyu<br />

İlişkileri ve Yaş Tay<strong>in</strong>i, Journal of<br />

<strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong>, 2(3): 375-381.<br />

doi: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.mug.200726<br />

Bostancı, D. (2009). Sarı kuyruk İstavrit Trachurus<br />

mediterraneus (Ste<strong>in</strong>dachner, 1868)’un<br />

Otolit Özellikleri ve Bazı Populasyon Parametreleri,<br />

Fırat Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri<br />

Dergisi, 21(1): 53-60.<br />

Bostancı, D., Yılmaz, S., Yılmaz, M., Kandemir,<br />

Ş., Polat, N. (2009). Eğirdir Gölü’nden Sudak<br />

(Sander lucioperca L., 1758)’ın Otolit<br />

Boyutları- Balık Boyu İlişkileri ve Bazı Populasyon<br />

Parametreleri, Fırat Üniversitesi<br />

Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 21(1): 53-60.<br />

Brander, K., (1974). The effects of age-read<strong>in</strong>g<br />

errors on the statistical reliability of mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

fishery modell<strong>in</strong>g. In: T.B. Begenal (Ed.)<br />

The age<strong>in</strong>g of fish. Unw<strong>in</strong> Bros., Surrey.<br />

Can, M. F., (2000). İskenderun Körfezi’ndeki<br />

Kırmızı Mercan (Pagellus erythr<strong>in</strong>us L.,<br />

1758) Balığında Otolit-Balık İlişkileri. IV.<br />

Su Ürünleri Sempozyumu, 28-30 Haziran<br />

2000, Erzurum.<br />

Card<strong>in</strong>ale, M., Arrhenius, F., Johnson, B., (2000).<br />

Potential use of otolith weight for the determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

of age-structure of Baltic cod<br />

(Gadus morhua) and plaice (Pleuronectes<br />

platessa), Fisheries Research, 45: 239-252.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0165-7836(99)00122-8<br />

Chugunova, N.I., (1963). Age and Growth Studies<br />

<strong>in</strong> Fish. National Science Foundation,<br />

Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, 132p.<br />

Duman, M., Dartay, M., Yüksel, F., (2011).<br />

Munzur Çayı (Tunceli) Dağ Alabalıkları<br />

Salmo trutta macrostigma (Dumeril,<br />

1858)’nın Et Verimi ve Kimyasal<br />

Kompozisyonu. Fırat Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri<br />

Dergisi, 23(1): 41-45.<br />

Echeverria, T.W., (1987). Relationship of otolith<br />

length to total length <strong>in</strong> rockfishes from<br />

Northern and Central California, Fishery<br />

Bulte<strong>in</strong>, 85(2): 383-386.


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Başusta ve ark., 7(1): 22-29 (2013)<br />

Ek<strong>in</strong>gen, G., (1976). Morphological Characters<br />

of Some Turkish Trouts, Fırat Üniversitesi,<br />

Elazığ Veter<strong>in</strong>er Fakültesi Dergisi, III: 98-<br />

104.<br />

Geldiay, R., Balık, S., (1988).Türkiye Tatlı Su<br />

Balıkları, Ege Üniversitesi, Fen Fakültesi<br />

Kitaplar Serisi No:97. Bornova -İzmir<br />

Harkönen, T., (1986). Guide to the otolits of the<br />

bony fishes of the Northeast Atlantic.<br />

Danbiu Aps. Biological consultants, Denmark,<br />

251pp.<br />

Kocabaş, M., Kayim, M., Can, E., Ates,<br />

M., Kizak, V., Kutluyer, F., Demirtas N.,<br />

and Serdar, O., (2011). Stomach <strong>Contents</strong><br />

and Food Habits of Brown Trout (Salmo<br />

trutta L., 1758) <strong>in</strong> the Munzur Stream, Turkey,<br />

Journal of Animal and Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Advances,<br />

10(24): 3188-3191.<br />

Kurt, A., (2005). Karadeniz’de yaşayan Benekli<br />

Kaya Balığı, Neogobius melanostomus<br />

(Pallas, 1814) (Gobiidae)’ta yaş tay<strong>in</strong>i yöntemler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

ve büyüme parametreler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> belirlenmesi,<br />

Yüksek Lisans Tezi, OMU Fen<br />

Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 84s.<br />

Labropoulou, M., Papaconstant<strong>in</strong>ou, C., (2000).<br />

Comparison of otolith growth and somatic<br />

growth <strong>in</strong> two macrourid fishes, Fisheries<br />

Research, 46: 177- 188.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0165-7836(00)00144-2<br />

Met<strong>in</strong> G., İlkyaz, A.T., (2008). Use of Otolith<br />

Length and Weight <strong>in</strong> Age Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of<br />

Poor Cod (Trisopterus m<strong>in</strong>utus L<strong>in</strong>n., 1758),<br />

Turkish Journal of Zoology, 32: 293-297.<br />

Newman, S.J., Cappo, M., Williams, D.McB.,<br />

(2000). Age, growth, mortality rates and correspond<strong>in</strong>g<br />

yield estimates us<strong>in</strong>g otoliths of<br />

the tropical red snappers, Lutjanus<br />

erythropterus, L. malabaricus and L. sebae,<br />

from the central Great Barrier Reef,<br />

Fisheries Research, 48: 1-14.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0165-7836(00)00115-6<br />

Pill<strong>in</strong>g, G.M., Grandcourt, E.M., Kirkwood, G.P.,<br />

(2003). The utility of otolith weight as a<br />

predictor of age <strong>in</strong> the emperor Lethr<strong>in</strong>us<br />

mahsena and other Tropical fish species,<br />

Fisheries Research, 60: 493-506.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0165-7836(02)00087-5<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

P<strong>in</strong>o, C.A., Cubillos, L.A., Araya, M., Sepúlveda<br />

A., (2004). Otolith weight as an estimator of<br />

age <strong>in</strong> the patagonian grenadier, Macruronus<br />

magellanicus, <strong>in</strong> Central-south Chile,<br />

Fisheries Research, 66: 145-156.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.fishres.2003.07.003<br />

Samsun, N., Samsun, S., (2006). Kalkan<br />

(Scophthalmus maeoticus (Pallas, 1811))<br />

Balığının Otolit Yapısı, Yaş ve Balık Uzunluğu-Otolit<br />

Uzunluğu İlişkiler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> Belirlenmesi,<br />

Fırat Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik<br />

Bilimleri Dergisi, 18(2): 181-187.<br />

Spratt, J.D., (1972). The use of otoliths to seperate<br />

groups of northern anchovies. Calif.<br />

Dept. Fish Game California Department of<br />

Fish and Game, Mar<strong>in</strong>e Resources Technical<br />

Report, 1: 25.<br />

Şah<strong>in</strong>, T., Güneş, E., (1998). Relationship<br />

between otolith and total lengths of flounder<br />

(Pleuronectes flesus luscus Palas, 1811)<br />

collected <strong>in</strong> eastern Black Sea Coast of Turkey,<br />

Turkish Journal of Mar<strong>in</strong>e Sciences, 4:<br />

117-123.<br />

Şen, D., Aydın, R., Çatla, M., (2001).<br />

Relationships between fish length and otolith<br />

length <strong>in</strong> the population of Capoeta<br />

capoeta umbla (Heckel, 1843) <strong>in</strong>habit<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Hazar Lake, Elazığ, Turkey, Archives of Polish<br />

Fisheries, 9(2): 267-272.<br />

URL-1<br />

http://www.csb.gov.tr/iller/tunceli/<strong>in</strong>dex.p<br />

hp?Sayfa=hizmetlerliste<br />

Zeng<strong>in</strong>, M., Gümüş, A., Bostancı, D., (2006).<br />

Age and growth of the Black Sea turbot,<br />

Psetta maxima (L. 1758) (Pisces:<br />

Scophthalmidae) estimated by read<strong>in</strong>g otoliths<br />

and back-calculation, Journal of<br />

Applied Ichthyology, 22: 374-381.<br />

doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0426.2006.00743.x<br />

29


7(1): 30-42 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013004<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

RESEARCH ARTICLE ARAŞTIRMA MAKALESİ<br />

353-NONYLPHENOL INDUCES EXPRESSION OF<br />

THE T-BOX6 GENE IN ZEBRAFISH EMBRYOS –<br />

LINKING TRANSCRIPTIONAL INFORMATION<br />

WITH DEFORMITIES<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong> Klempt 1∗ , Michael Vobach 2 , Heike Wiegand 1 , Thomas G. Preuss 3 ,<br />

Andreas Schäffer 3 , Ulrike Kammann 2<br />

1 Max Rubner-Institut (MRI), Department of Safety and Quality of Milk and Fish Products, Kiel, Germany<br />

2 Johann He<strong>in</strong>rich von Thünen-Institut (vTI), Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Hamburg, Germany<br />

3 RWTH Aachen University, Institute for Environmental Research, Aachen, Germany<br />

Abstract: Nonylphenols (NP) can be detected <strong>in</strong> the environment worldwide, the major <strong>com</strong>ponent of the<br />

technical NP mixture, p353-NP, produce embryonic misdevelopment <strong>in</strong> zebrafish (Danio rerio).<br />

Phenotypes with <strong>com</strong>parable appearance were generated with knock out or other mutants<br />

<strong>in</strong> zebrafish embryos. The genes <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> these studies were: no tail (ntl) gene, spade tail<br />

(spt) gene and tbox 6 (tbx6)gene. Aim of this study was to correlate the observed teratogenic<br />

effect of p353-NP <strong>in</strong> zebrafish with expression analysis of genes of the T-Box family <strong>in</strong>volved<br />

<strong>in</strong> normal development of the tail and therefore <strong>in</strong>crease the understand<strong>in</strong>g of the mechanisms<br />

by which NP-<strong>in</strong>duced disease. Zebrafish embryos were treated with sub lethal concentrations<br />

of different NP isomers. A unique phenotype with massively swollen tail tip was only seen<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g p353-NP. Expression of ntl gene and spt gene measured by real time PCR was unaltered<br />

while expression of tbx6 massively <strong>in</strong>creased after p353-NP adm<strong>in</strong>istration.<br />

30<br />

Keywords: Danio rerio, Nonylphenol, T-Box, no tail, Spade tail, Quantitative gene expression,<br />

Embryonic development<br />

∗ Correspondence to: Mart<strong>in</strong> KLEMPT, Max Rubner-Institut (MRI), Department of Safety and Quality of Milk and Fish<br />

Products, Hermann-Weigmann-Straße 1, 24103 Kiel, Germany<br />

E-mail: mart<strong>in</strong>.klempt@mri.bund.de


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Özet: 353-Nonylfenolün Zebra Balığı Embriyolarında T-BOX6<br />

Gen<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> Ekspresyonuna Neden Olması ve Bunun,<br />

Deformitelerle Tanımsal Bilgiyle İlişkilendirilmesi<br />

Introduction<br />

Nonylpehoneller (NP) dünya genel<strong>in</strong>de çevremizde bulunurlar. Teknik olarak NP karışımını<br />

oluşturan ana bileşen p353-NP, zebra balıklarında (Danio rerio) embriyonik gelişme bozukluğuna<br />

neden olmaktadır. Zebra balığı embriyolarında dış görünüş olarak ayırt edilebilen<br />

fenotipler knock-out veya diğer mutantlar sayes<strong>in</strong>de elde edilir. Bu çalışmalarda kullanılan<br />

genler: kuyruksuz (ntl) geni, mahmuz kuyruk (spt) ve t box 6 (tbx6) genidir. Çalışmanın amacı<br />

p353-NP’n<strong>in</strong> normal kuyruk gelişim<strong>in</strong>de T-box ailes<strong>in</strong>e mensup genlere olan teratogenik<br />

etkis<strong>in</strong>i <strong>in</strong>celeyerek NP kaynaklı hastalıkların mekanizmalarının daha iyi anlaşılmasıdır. Zebra<br />

embriyoları sub-lethal konsantrasyonda NP izomerleri ile muamele edilmiştir. Özel bir fenotip<br />

olan kuyruk ucunda aşırı şişme sadece p353-NP kullanıldığında görülmüştür. Ntl geni ve spt<br />

gen<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> PCR ile sayımı sonucu değişmemiş olmakla birlikte tbx6 gen<strong>in</strong>de p353-NP sonrası<br />

aşırı artış görülmüştür.<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Danio rerio, Nonylphenol, T-Box, kuyruksuz, Mahmuz kuyruk,<br />

Kantitativ gen ekspresiyonu, Embriyonik gelişim<br />

Nonylphenols (NP) have been found <strong>in</strong> almost<br />

every environmental <strong>com</strong>partment such as ra<strong>in</strong><br />

and surface water, snow, sewage sludge and<br />

sediments (L<strong>in</strong> et al, 2004; Kawahata et al. 2004;<br />

, 2006; Stachel et al. 2005; Isobe et al. 2004;<br />

Kannan et al. 2003). NP are microbiological metabolites<br />

of alkylphenol polyethoxylates. Alkylphenol<br />

polyethoxylates have exceptional surface<br />

properties, are used widely <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial processes,<br />

and account for 5% of the tenside market<br />

(Sharma et al. 2009).<br />

NP directly <strong>in</strong>teract with the estrogen receptor<br />

<strong>in</strong> vertebrates (Owens et al. 2003; Folmar et al.<br />

2002; Bevan et al. 2003) and exert effects on the<br />

reproduction of fish especially <strong>in</strong> vitellogen<strong>in</strong><br />

synthesis (Harries et al 1997, Christiansen et al.<br />

1998, Giesy et al. 2000) – a precursor of lipoprote<strong>in</strong>s<br />

and phosphoprote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> egg yolk-production.<br />

Additionally, NP disturb early differentiation<br />

<strong>in</strong> fish <strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g development of <strong>in</strong>tersex<br />

gonads and circulatory and other systemic abnormalities<br />

(Gray et al. 1997). NP b<strong>in</strong>d to the 17β-estradiol<br />

receptor, <strong>in</strong>duce morphologic deformations,<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease apoptosis, and alter the deposition<br />

and differentiation of neural crest-derived<br />

melanocytes <strong>in</strong> the tailbud stage of X.laevis embryos<br />

(Bevan et al 2003). Their tendency to<br />

partly mimic estrogen and disrupt the natural<br />

hormonal balance supports the <strong>in</strong>clusion of NP to<br />

the group of endocr<strong>in</strong>e disrupters. A detailed<br />

analysis of the risk posed by NP was conducted<br />

by the European Union and led to restricted use<br />

with<strong>in</strong> the EU (ECB 2002).<br />

Due to the synthetic methods used, technical<br />

NP (t-NP) is a mixture of approximately 20 parasubstituted<br />

isomers with differently branched alkyl<br />

cha<strong>in</strong>s (Russ et al. 2005; Wheeler et al. 1997)<br />

whereas isomeric <strong>com</strong>position varies between<br />

mixtures p353-NP is the most abundant isomer.<br />

The absolute concentration of p353-NP <strong>in</strong> technical<br />

mixtures depends on the production process<br />

(Russ et al. 2005). It was shown previously that<br />

NP isomers varied <strong>in</strong> their estrogenic potency <strong>in</strong><br />

the Yeast Estrogen Screen (YES) assay (Gabriel<br />

et al. 2008), <strong>in</strong> the E-screen (Preuss et al. 2010)<br />

as well as the MVLN reporter gene cell assay<br />

(Preuss et al. 2006, Preuss et al. 2010) demonstrated<br />

that t-NP and p353-NP, as well as p363-<br />

NP, p33-NP and p252-NP can be classified as<br />

partial agonists <strong>in</strong> the MVLN cell assay, whereas<br />

p262-NP, p22-NP and 4n-NP can be classified as<br />

antagonists <strong>in</strong> the MVLN cell assay.<br />

Embryos of zebrafish (Danio rerio) have often<br />

been used <strong>in</strong> toxicity studies of environmentally<br />

relevant substances (Hollert et al. 2003;<br />

Kosmehl et al. 2006; Scholz et al. 2008). An advantage<br />

of zebrafish as test organism <strong>in</strong> toxicological<br />

research is the transparency of the eggs.<br />

Sp<strong>in</strong>al malformation observed after exposure of<br />

zebrafish embryos to p353-NP (Kammann et al.<br />

2009) is <strong>com</strong>parable to those reported form several<br />

groups work<strong>in</strong>g on developmental processes:<br />

Zebrafish express<strong>in</strong>g a mutant (non-functional) of<br />

the no tail (ntl) gene or a mutant of the spade tail<br />

gene (spt, tbx16) lack the notochord and tail<br />

(Halpern et al. 1993, Amacher et al. 2001;<br />

31


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

Schulte-Merker et al. 1994). Studies with knock<br />

out mutants showed that homozygous spt — (double<br />

knock out embryos) lack trunk somites and<br />

trunk muscle later <strong>in</strong> development (Griff<strong>in</strong> et al.<br />

1998; Ho et al. 1990). Ntl and spt prote<strong>in</strong>s belong<br />

to the T-box6/16 prote<strong>in</strong> subfamily of T-box<br />

transcription factors which conta<strong>in</strong> a DNA b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and prote<strong>in</strong> dimerization doma<strong>in</strong>: The T-box<br />

(Naiche et al. 2005). The T-box6/16 subfamily<br />

has important functions <strong>in</strong> the development of the<br />

mesoderm <strong>in</strong> all mammals <strong>in</strong>vestigated (Wardle<br />

et al. 2008). The damages of ntl gene knock out<br />

and spt gene knock out phenotypes <strong>in</strong> zebrafish<br />

are less severe than mutations <strong>in</strong> or depletion of<br />

the homologous genes <strong>in</strong> other vertebrates <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a functional redundancy among zebrafish<br />

T-box genes.<br />

Understand<strong>in</strong>g the molecular mechanisms <strong>in</strong>volved<br />

<strong>in</strong> misdevelopment produced by NP is a<br />

prerequisite for further <strong>in</strong>vestigations <strong>in</strong> limit<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the effects of NP release to the environment. Aim<br />

of the present study was to correlate the observed<br />

tail deformation produced by p353-NP with expression<br />

data of genes of the T-box6/16 subfamily.<br />

Zebrafish embryos were exposed to sublethal<br />

concentrations of different isomers of NP and<br />

real time PCR analysis for genes belong<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />

T-box6/16 family was performed.<br />

32<br />

Materials and Methods<br />

Chemicals<br />

The synthesized NP used <strong>in</strong> this study (Table<br />

1) were synthesized and purified as described <strong>in</strong><br />

Preuss et al (2006). All isomers had a purity<br />

>99%. Technical nonylphenol (t-NP) and dimethyl<br />

sulfoxide (DMSO 99.9%) was purchased<br />

from Sigma-Aldrich/Fluka (Deisenhofen, Germany).<br />

Substances used for RNA extraction were<br />

purchased from AppliChem (Darmstadt, Germany),<br />

enzymes used for cDNA synthesis and<br />

real time PCR were supplied by MBI Fermentas<br />

(St. LeonRot, Germany).<br />

Breed<strong>in</strong>g of zebrafish<br />

250 zebrafishes were held <strong>in</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g groups<br />

of 20 females and 30 males. Fish were kept at<br />

26°C and a light/dark period of 14h/10h <strong>in</strong> tap<br />

water. For collection of eggs translucent plastic<br />

spawn<strong>in</strong>g boxes (12 x 20 x 12 cm) with a sta<strong>in</strong>less<br />

steel mesh <strong>in</strong>sert (3 - 4 mm mesh size) were<br />

placed <strong>in</strong> the aquaria. On top of the mesh some<br />

green plastic net material and green glass marbles<br />

animated the fish to spawn <strong>in</strong>to the box. Alt-<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

hough not all fish spawned <strong>in</strong>to the boxes, up to<br />

3000 eggs/day could be collected from the stock<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g 2 boxes for each breed<strong>in</strong>g group. Eggs are<br />

1.0 - 1.2 mm <strong>in</strong> diameter and have a transparent<br />

chorion. Fertilized and well developed eggs <strong>in</strong><br />

the 4 to 8 cell stage were selected for the test and<br />

placed <strong>in</strong> 24-well dishes (Nunc GmbH, Wiesbaden,<br />

Germany). The mean spontaneous lethality<br />

rate was 2%. Fertilization rates were > 80%.<br />

Treatment of zebrafish<br />

(1) For morphological effects observation<br />

zebrafish embryo test was carried out accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to 31 : In each well of a 24well dish 5 zebrafish<br />

embryos (4-8-cell stage) were exposed for 48 hr<br />

at 26°C to 1 ml test solution conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g one NP<br />

isomer (2.5-50 µmol/L) and 1% DMSO result<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> a total number of 60 embryos for each test, either<br />

exposure or control. S<strong>in</strong>ce all experiments<br />

were repeated twice a total of 120 zebrafish embryos<br />

were used for each concentration of each<br />

chemical. Negative controls were exposed to the<br />

1% DMSO solvent only. EC50 was calculated<br />

from concentration-effect curves for the sp<strong>in</strong>al<br />

malformations. Measurement was the amount of<br />

embryo show<strong>in</strong>g any sp<strong>in</strong>al deformation without<br />

respect<strong>in</strong>g a certa<strong>in</strong> degree of the misdevelopment.<br />

Four-parameter logistic curves were used<br />

to describe the concentration-effect relation.<br />

From these, EC50 values were calculated.<br />

(2) For RT-PCR 3-4 hr old zebrafish embryos<br />

were placed <strong>in</strong>to 24-well dishes (5 embryos<br />

per well). For each experiment, either exposure<br />

or control, 30 embryos were used. The embryos<br />

were treated with the <strong>in</strong>dicated NP at a f<strong>in</strong>al concentration<br />

of 10 µmol/L for 1 hr <strong>in</strong> water conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

DMSO at 26 °C. These parameters were<br />

chosen because <strong>in</strong> prelim<strong>in</strong>ary experiments expression<br />

effects were observable after 1 hr and<br />

the concentration of NP were selected on the basis<br />

of our previous study (Kammann et al. 2009).<br />

After <strong>in</strong>cubation, the embryos were washed <strong>in</strong><br />

fresh water and subsequently shock frozen <strong>in</strong> liquid<br />

nitrogen. All experiments - cover<strong>in</strong>g 6 NP<br />

isomers, the technical NP mixture (Table 1) and a<br />

negative control with DMSO only - were repeated<br />

5 times at different days. The concentration<br />

of the test substances was 10 µmol/L, i.e., <strong>in</strong><br />

the range of EC10 - EC50 of acute morphological<br />

effects of NP isomers <strong>in</strong> zebrafish after 48h exposure<br />

(Kammann et al. 2009).


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

RNA Extraction<br />

RNA was extracted us<strong>in</strong>g a modification of<br />

the method of Chomczynski P, Sacchi (1987). In<br />

brief, 30 frozen embryos were carefully homogenized<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1 ml of GuaSCN-buffer (3 M guanid<strong>in</strong>thiocyante,<br />

50 mM TRIS, 10 mM EDTA, 8%<br />

sarcosyl, 1% β-mercapethanol pH 7.0). After addition<br />

of 0.1 ml of 2 M sodium acetate (pH 4), 1<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

ml water saturated phenol and 0.2 ml chloroform<br />

the samples were centrifuged at 15.000g for 15<br />

m<strong>in</strong>. The supernatant was collected and RNA<br />

was precipitated by add<strong>in</strong>g of 1 ml of isopropanol<br />

followed by two ethanol (70%) washes. Concentration<br />

and purity of RNA was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by absorption<br />

measurement at 230, 260 and 280 nm.<br />

Table 1. Characterization of the nonyphenol isomers <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>duced sp<strong>in</strong>al malformations with<br />

effective concentration (EC50)<br />

Abbreviation Name Structure Sp<strong>in</strong>al EC50 ± SEM sp<strong>in</strong>al<br />

malformation malformation [µmol/L]<br />

p22 NP 4-(2’methyl-2’octyl)phenol<br />

very short tail n.d.<br />

p252 NP 4-(2’,5’-dimetyl-<br />

2’heptyl)phenol<br />

bended tail 7.9 ± 16.2<br />

p262 NP 4-(2’,5’-dimetyl-<br />

2’hexyl)phenol<br />

bended tail 7.4 ± 0.8<br />

p33 NP 4-(3’methyl-3’octyl)phenol<br />

bended tail n.d.<br />

p353 NP 4-(3’,5’-dimetyl-<br />

broadened tail 14.5 ± 0.45<br />

3’heptyl)phenol<br />

tip<br />

p363 NP 4-(3’,5’-dimetyl-<br />

3’hexyl)phenol<br />

swollen tail tip 10.0 ± 0.25<br />

t- NP technical mixture bended tail 9.5 ± 0.58<br />

Table 2. Primers used for Real time PCR<br />

Forward Primer 5’-3’ Reverse Primer 5’-3’ Amplic<br />

on size<br />

(bp)<br />

β-act<strong>in</strong> CGAGCTGTCTTCCCATCCA TCACCAACGTAGCTGTCTT<br />

TCTG<br />

rpl13a TCTGGAGGACTGTAAGAG AGACGCACAATCTTGAGA<br />

GTATGC<br />

GCAG<br />

ef1α AGACGCACAATCTTGAGA ATCAAGAAGAGTAGTACC<br />

GCAG<br />

GCTAGCATTAC<br />

ntl ACGAATGTTTCCCGTGCTC CGTTCACGTATTTCCACCG<br />

A<br />

AT<br />

spt CTGGTGCCGTATGCAAAG AGCTTTACCTGCAACCTCC<br />

TACA<br />

CA<br />

tbx6 CACAGCTCTCGATCTTGCA TATGGATTAGATTGCCGGA<br />

GTG<br />

CT<br />

System<br />

efficiency<br />

(E)<br />

Reference<br />

86 2.00 L<strong>in</strong> et al.<br />

2009<br />

148 1.91 L<strong>in</strong> et al.<br />

2009<br />

87 1.95 L<strong>in</strong> et al.<br />

2009<br />

112 1.91 this paper<br />

103 2.00 this paper<br />

93 1.93 this paper<br />

33


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

cDNA Synthesis<br />

Two hundred ng total RNA was digested with<br />

DNase for 30 m<strong>in</strong> at 37°C, term<strong>in</strong>ated by add<strong>in</strong>g<br />

EDTA to f<strong>in</strong>al a concentration of 25µmol/l) and<br />

then transcribed. Reverse transcription was carried<br />

out <strong>in</strong> a total volume of 20 µl conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 10<br />

mmol/l Tris-HCl, (pH 8.8), 50 mmol/l KCl, 5<br />

mmol/L MgCl2, 1 mmol/l each dNTPs, 0.5 µg<br />

oligo (dT) primers, 0.5 µg random primers, 25 U<br />

RNase <strong>in</strong>hibitor, and 200 U M-MuLV reverse<br />

transcriptase for 5 m<strong>in</strong> at 25°C followed 1 hr at<br />

42°m<strong>in</strong>. The reaction was stopped by <strong>in</strong>cubation<br />

for 5 m<strong>in</strong> at 70°C<br />

Real time PCR<br />

Real time PCR was performed <strong>in</strong> an Applied<br />

Biosystems 7500 Real-Time PCR System us<strong>in</strong>g 1<br />

µl of the synthesized cDNA <strong>in</strong> a f<strong>in</strong>al volume of<br />

15 µl. Details on the primer <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ations are<br />

shown <strong>in</strong> Table 3. Each assay <strong>in</strong>cluded a no template<br />

control and all measurements were performed<br />

<strong>in</strong> duplicate. The efficiency of the system<br />

was measured by us<strong>in</strong>g serial 2-fold dilutions of a<br />

mixture of different cDNAs. The efficiency <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />

the amplicon doubl<strong>in</strong>g rate of a primer pair.<br />

The Ct value is def<strong>in</strong>ed as the number of cycles<br />

needed for the fluorescence signal to rise above a<br />

threshold level of detection. Obta<strong>in</strong>ed Ct values<br />

of the dilution series were plotted and the result<strong>in</strong>g<br />

slope of the l<strong>in</strong>ear graph was used for calculation<br />

of the system efficiency us<strong>in</strong>g the equation:<br />

E=1/10 1/slope (Scheffe et al. 2006) The system efficiency<br />

ranged between 1.91 and 2.11 (Table 2).<br />

The dissociation plots (melt<strong>in</strong>g curve analysis)<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicated a s<strong>in</strong>gle peak for all primer pairs further<br />

support<strong>in</strong>g specificity. To evaluate the different<br />

housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes used <strong>in</strong> the study the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />

concentration of the transcript was calculated<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the formula Conc trans= E -Ct . The concentration<br />

of the transcripts ntl, spt and tbx6 related<br />

to the housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes ef1α and rpl13a was<br />

calculated us<strong>in</strong>g the formula:<br />

34<br />

( E<br />

2 • E<br />

Ctranscript =<br />

transcript<br />

transcript<br />

−Ct<br />

−Ct<br />

rpl13α<br />

ef 1α<br />

ef 1α<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

−Ct<br />

+ E<br />

rpl13α<br />

The concentrations of the transcript (arbitrary<br />

units) were multiplied by a transcript-specific<br />

factor to ga<strong>in</strong> a scale from 0 to 100. These con-<br />

)<br />

centrations are <strong>com</strong>parable with<strong>in</strong> one transcript<br />

but not between transcripts.<br />

Statistics<br />

Statistical significances of relative mRNA expression<br />

between different NP isomers were determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g Prism®4.03 (GraphPad Software,<br />

La Jolla, CA USA). The calculated concentrations<br />

related to the expression of rpl13a and ef1α were<br />

log transformed and univariate analyses of variance<br />

(ANOVA) were performed to detect statistically<br />

significant differences between any groups.<br />

Data are expressed as mean ±standard error of the<br />

mean (SEM), arbitrary units, values related to the<br />

expression of the gene of <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the DMSO<br />

control and related to the mean of the expression<br />

observed with rpl13a gene and ef1α gene. As post<br />

test to determ<strong>in</strong>e the actual differences between<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual groups the Tukey-Kramer test was employed.<br />

The p-value of p


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

phenotypes could be detected. The first time<br />

when tail tip shape was visible was around 24 hr<br />

after fertilization – <strong>in</strong>dependent of the treatment.<br />

No general alterations <strong>in</strong> the tail were observed<br />

from then until 48 hr after fertilization, when the<br />

tail tip was visible best. This time frame was se-<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

lected because <strong>in</strong> prelim<strong>in</strong>ary experiments one<br />

could demonstrate that a change <strong>in</strong> expression of<br />

the selected genes is observable after 1 hr exposure,<br />

demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g that gene activation of transcription<br />

factors is rapid.<br />

Figure 1. 48h old zebrafish embryos after exposition with different isomers of nonylphenols<br />

(A-F), technical mixture of nonylphenol (G) and a control embryo without any<br />

treatment (H). The arrows <strong>in</strong>dicate the tail malformations: White: bended tail;<br />

black: broadened tail tip; grey: very short tail.<br />

A: p22-NP B: p252-NP C: p262-NP<br />

D: p33-NP E: p353-NP F: p363-NP<br />

G: t-NP H: negative control<br />

35


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

To <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>e the effects of NP with expression<br />

data, several possible housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes used<br />

for quantification were <strong>in</strong>vestigated. The measured<br />

concentrations of the housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes<br />

rpl13 (mitochondrial), ef1α and β-act<strong>in</strong> based on<br />

the amount of RNA used for reverse transcription<br />

is shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 2. No significant differences<br />

were found. However, the expression of β-act<strong>in</strong><br />

gene appeared smaller <strong>in</strong> the p262-NP/ p22-NP/<br />

p252-NP group <strong>com</strong>pared to the other groups<br />

(p33-NP/ p353-NP/ p363-NP, t-NP and DMSO<br />

alone). Zebrafish embryos treated with NP methylated<br />

on the 2’ position (p22-NP, p252-NP,<br />

p262-NP) <strong>com</strong>pared with zebrafish embryos<br />

treated with NP methylated on the 3’ position<br />

(p33-NP, p353-NP, p363-NP) showed a mean<br />

difference of 0.47 (relative expression). This difference<br />

failed to be statistical significant. Assign<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the data of the NP known for antiestrogenic<br />

effects (p22-NP and p262-NP,) to one<br />

group and data for tNP known to exert estrogenic<br />

effects (p33-NP, p252-NP, p353-NP and p363-<br />

NP) to the other group reveals that the expression<br />

of β-act<strong>in</strong> gene <strong>in</strong> the antiestrogenic group is significantly<br />

different from the DMSO control while<br />

the <strong>com</strong>parison between the estrogenic group and<br />

DMSO control shows no significant differences<br />

(0,07±0.04 and 0,54±0.17 respectively). However,<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce no marked differences were observed<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the other housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes all further<br />

data were related to the mean of the expression<br />

observed with rpl13a gene and ef1α gene. This<br />

<strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ation shows a homogeneous distribution<br />

over all groups (Figure 2d) and was used to normalize<br />

the expression data.<br />

Expression of ntl gene, spt gene and tbx16<br />

gene is shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 3. Although the zebrafish<br />

were harvested with<strong>in</strong> a short period of time the<br />

variation with<strong>in</strong> the s<strong>in</strong>gle groups is remarkably<br />

high. Therefore statistical significant differences<br />

are seldom observed. Highest expression of ntl<br />

gene (38.8±30.6) was seen after exposition the<br />

embryos to p252-NP, followed by the expression<br />

after treatment with p33-NP (16.8±11.7). The expression<br />

of ntl gene <strong>in</strong> the other zebra fish embryos<br />

varied between 7.7±4.4 <strong>in</strong> p22-NP and<br />

0.8±0.6 <strong>in</strong> the p353-NP group. Expression of spt<br />

gene was highest <strong>in</strong> zebrafish embryos treated<br />

with t-NP embryos (33.3±15.6). The spt gene expression<br />

<strong>in</strong> zebra fish embryos under treatment of<br />

the different isomers of nonyphenol used varied<br />

between 0.72±0.63 (p353-NP) and 20.9±16.1<br />

(p252-NP). Perform<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>ear regression us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the expression of spt gene and ntl gene based on<br />

36<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

the response of the <strong>in</strong>dividual embryo revealed a<br />

significant correlation with a coefficient of determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

R 2 = 0.9172.<br />

The expression of tbx6 gene measured for<br />

zebrafish embryos exposed to all isomers but<br />

p353-NP and t-NP is <strong>com</strong>parable to the expression<br />

observed <strong>in</strong> zebrafish embryos treated with<br />

DMSO (values between 0.3±0.1 for p252-NP and<br />

2±2 for p33-NP). Zebrafish embryos treated with<br />

t-NP showed an expression of 9.8±3.7. A marked<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> tbx6 gene expression was observed <strong>in</strong><br />

zebra fish embryos treated with p353-NP<br />

(83.5±14.7). This <strong>in</strong>duction is statistically significant<br />

different from the expression of tbx6<br />

gene <strong>in</strong> zebrafish exposed to DMSO alone.<br />

In addition to the often described action of NP<br />

as estrogen like substances it was possible to<br />

demonstrate that some NP have the potential to<br />

<strong>in</strong>duce tail-malformation <strong>in</strong> fish embryos. The<br />

observed tail malformation seen <strong>in</strong> our experiments<br />

may be due to miss-migration of precursor<br />

cells of the mesoderm <strong>in</strong> early development. The<br />

correct migration is a prerequisite of normal development<br />

(Christ et al. 2002). The various sp<strong>in</strong>al<br />

malformations <strong>in</strong>duced by NP isomers underl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

the different effects and possible modes of action<br />

known for NP isomers. p353-NP showed a<br />

unique morphological alteration: A broadened<br />

tail tip. This deformity might be related to the<br />

tbx6 expression as discussed below.<br />

To <strong>in</strong>vestigate gene expression pattern of the<br />

tbx6/16 family <strong>in</strong> zebrafish embryos it is necessary<br />

to study the role of the housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes<br />

which might be regulated depend<strong>in</strong>g on developmental<br />

stage and/or treatment of the organism<br />

(Guen<strong>in</strong> et al. 2009). Data showed found that the<br />

often used expression of housekeep<strong>in</strong>g gene ßact<strong>in</strong><br />

gene is not suitable <strong>in</strong> experiments us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

NP. HSU et al. (1987) previously demonstrated<br />

that the ß-act<strong>in</strong> gene is upregulated by estrogens,<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>gly a down regulation was found <strong>in</strong> the<br />

two antiestrogenic NP isomers (p22-NP and<br />

p262-NP;Figure 2a). The partial estrogenic isomers<br />

show quantitative down regulation. This<br />

gene expression pattern, <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with the known<br />

mode of action for the isomers, <strong>in</strong>dicates that at<br />

the selected time po<strong>in</strong>t gene expression react already<br />

to NP exposure. It was decided to use the<br />

average expression of two genes, i.e. ef1α gene<br />

and rpl13a gene, to normalize our data. An effect<br />

of NP on two other housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes (ef1α,<br />

rpl13a) used <strong>in</strong> our study was not observed, although<br />

chemical regulation of ef1α gene was re-


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

ported when <strong>in</strong>cubation was prolonged over 96 hr<br />

(Mc Curley et al 2008). The short <strong>in</strong>cubation time<br />

of 1 hr <strong>in</strong> our study is probably the reason for our<br />

different observations.<br />

Although the variation of the measure expression<br />

with<strong>in</strong> the groups is not small, the correlation<br />

between the measured values for spt gene<br />

and ntl gene is remarkable high. This <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />

that the observed variation is not due to experimental<br />

conditions but to different stages <strong>in</strong> development<br />

of the used embryos. However, the<br />

effects of different isomers of NP on the expression<br />

of transcription factors of the T-Box family<br />

<strong>in</strong> zebrafish embryos presented here shows that<br />

the <strong>in</strong>creased expression of tbx6 gene was associated<br />

with the malformation of the tail produced<br />

by p353-NP (Kammann et al. 2009). A numerical<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> tbx6 gene expression was also observable<br />

by us<strong>in</strong>g t-NP. This rise is only 1/10 of the<br />

expression/200ng RNA<br />

expression/200ng RNA<br />

a<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

rpl13α<br />

22-NP<br />

252-NP<br />

262-NP<br />

33-NP<br />

353-NP<br />

363-NP<br />

t-NP<br />

DMSO<br />

22-NP<br />

252-NP<br />

262-NP<br />

33-NP<br />

353-NP<br />

363-NP<br />

t-NP<br />

DMSO<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>crease observed with p353-NP (Fig 3c). The<br />

ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>com</strong>ponents of t-NP are two diasteromeric<br />

forms of p353-NP with <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ed concentrations<br />

between 12.2 and 20 % (Russ et al. 2005; Katase<br />

et al. 2008; Eganhouse et al. 2009). Given that<br />

still several of the <strong>com</strong>ponents of t-NP are not<br />

identified so far, and that some isomers of NP act<br />

estrogenically while other act antiestrogenically<br />

(Preuss et al. 2010) the expression of tbx6 gene<br />

as reaction of <strong>in</strong>cubation the zebrafish embryos<br />

with t-NP is probably due to the p353-NP present<br />

<strong>in</strong> t-NP. The other genes belong<strong>in</strong>g to the Tbox6/16<br />

subfamily (spt, ntl) are not fundamentally<br />

regulated by p353-NP with<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>cubation<br />

time of 1hr (Figure 3a,b). However, it needs to be<br />

emphasized that these observations are not a<br />

proof for a cause effect relationship, which further<br />

experiments may provide.<br />

Figure 2<br />

c d<br />

β-act<strong>in</strong><br />

expression/200ng RNA<br />

expression/200ng RNA<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

3<br />

2<br />

1<br />

0<br />

b<br />

ef1α<br />

22-NP<br />

252-NP<br />

262-NP<br />

33-NP<br />

353-NP<br />

363-NP<br />

t-NP<br />

DMSO<br />

rpl13α + ef1α<br />

22-NP<br />

252-NP<br />

262 NP<br />

33-NP<br />

353-NP<br />

363-NP<br />

t-NP<br />

DMSO<br />

Expression levels of the housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes rpl13α (a), ef1α (b), β-act<strong>in</strong> (c) of zebra fish embryos treated with<br />

different synthetic isomers of nonylphenols (NPs) with a concentration of 10 nmol/L for 1 hr. Technical NP (t-<br />

NP) is a mixture of more than 20 NP isomers. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was used as vehicle control. Fig 1d<br />

represents the mean of pr113α and ef1α mRNA levels. Values are means of 5 <strong>in</strong>dependent experiments with<br />

SEM.<br />

37


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

The family of T-Box genes have been <strong>in</strong>vestigated<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g knock out zebrafish with s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />

knock out and multiple knock outs. Characterization<br />

of spt knock out, ntl knock out and ntl double<br />

knockout embryos shows that spt prote<strong>in</strong> and ntl<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> function <strong>in</strong> a partially redundant manner<br />

(Amacher et al. 2002). The regulation of the expression<br />

of these genes is apparently similar, as a<br />

high correlation <strong>in</strong> the expression values of spt<br />

gene and ntl gene was found, Spt prote<strong>in</strong>, ntl<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> and tbx6 prote<strong>in</strong> might <strong>in</strong>teract <strong>in</strong> three<br />

ways: (a) two factors activate target genes that<br />

neither factor can activate on its own (<strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>atory<br />

<strong>in</strong>teraction), (b) two factors contribute to the<br />

activation of a gene <strong>in</strong> an additive manner and (c)<br />

one factor prevents activation of a gene by another<br />

factor (<strong>com</strong>petitive antagonism). Summariz<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the studies on gene expression <strong>in</strong> zebrafish<br />

regard<strong>in</strong>g the T-box 6/16 subfamily and the<br />

demonstrated <strong>in</strong>crease of tbx6 mRNA due to<br />

p353-NP exposure; it is most likely that tbx6<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> is abundant when zebrafish embryos are<br />

treated with p353-NP. It is presumed that the<br />

tbx6 prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>com</strong>petes with spt prote<strong>in</strong> and antagonized<br />

the spt prote<strong>in</strong> effect, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> similar<br />

phenotype (deformed tail) as spt knock out<br />

zebrafishes. This postulation is supported by the<br />

fact that tbx6 prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>com</strong>pete effectively with ntl<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> promoted expression of some T-site dependent<br />

gene transcription (Goer<strong>in</strong>g et al. 2003).<br />

It is not known which molecular mechanisms<br />

regulate the expression of tbx6 gene. Thus far<br />

only regulation via spt/ntl prote<strong>in</strong>s is described:<br />

Tbx6 gene conta<strong>in</strong>s six spt/ntl prote<strong>in</strong> b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sites with<strong>in</strong> 500 bp of the transcription site, and<br />

expression-driven by a 500 bp tbx6 gene promotor<br />

is ma<strong>in</strong>ly regulated by spt prote<strong>in</strong> and ntl<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>, spt prote<strong>in</strong> exert<strong>in</strong>g more <strong>in</strong>fluence (Garnet<br />

et al. 2009). In our experiments an over expression<br />

of spt gene or ntl gene was not observed<br />

<strong>in</strong> embryos treated with p353-NP <strong>com</strong>pared to<br />

the other NP isomers or the controls. The regulation<br />

of tbx6 gene <strong>in</strong> vivo is probably more <strong>com</strong>plex<br />

with more regulatory elements <strong>in</strong> greater<br />

distance to the transcription site and not yet analyzed<br />

by reporter gene experiments.<br />

38<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

a<br />

b<br />

c<br />

relative expression<br />

relative expression<br />

relative expression<br />

100<br />

75<br />

50<br />

25<br />

0<br />

100<br />

75<br />

50<br />

25<br />

0<br />

100<br />

75<br />

50<br />

25<br />

0<br />

Figure 3<br />

ntl<br />

22-NP<br />

252-NP<br />

262-NP<br />

33-NP<br />

353-NP<br />

363-NP<br />

t-NP<br />

DMSO<br />

spt<br />

22-NP<br />

252-NP<br />

262-NP<br />

33-NP<br />

353-NP<br />

363-NP<br />

t-NP<br />

DMSO<br />

tbx6<br />

*<br />

22-NP<br />

252-NP<br />

262-NP<br />

33-NP<br />

353-NP<br />

363-NP<br />

t-NP<br />

DMSO<br />

Gene expression levels of ntl (a), spt (b) and tbx6 (c)<br />

relat<strong>in</strong>g to the housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes rpl13α and ef1α of<br />

zebra fish embryos treated with different synthetic<br />

isomers of nonylphenols (NP) with a concentration of<br />

10 Nmol/L for 1 hr. Technical NP (t-NP) is a mixture<br />

of more than 20 NP isomers. Dimethyl sulfoxide<br />

(DMSO) was used as vehicle control. Values are<br />

means of 5 <strong>in</strong>dependent experiments with SEM.<br />

Asterisks <strong>in</strong>dicate significant difference (p


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

Conclusions<br />

It was necessary to <strong>in</strong>vestigate gene expression<br />

of tail formation <strong>in</strong> an early stage of embryonic<br />

development, whereas the fully developed<br />

tail was visible considerably later. The developmental<br />

stage of 48 hr was selected to visually <strong>in</strong>vestigate<br />

the embryos, because the visibility of<br />

the tail tip was best at this time. It is <strong>in</strong> general<br />

not possible to <strong>in</strong>vestigate gene expression dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

migration of precursor cells of the mesoderm and<br />

phenotype of tail tip formation at the same time.<br />

It was therefore necessary to <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>e two experiments<br />

conducted a different time po<strong>in</strong>ts. One<br />

could detect reasonable results for ß-act<strong>in</strong> gene<br />

regulation at the time po<strong>in</strong>t select for <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the gene expression. This <strong>in</strong>dicates that<br />

changes <strong>in</strong> gene expression due to NP might be<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated at the selected time po<strong>in</strong>t. As discussed<br />

above, the observed relation of p353 NP<br />

and tbx6 gene expression is plausible as cause<br />

and effect, but this can not be proven with the<br />

shown experiments alone. With this <strong>in</strong>vestigation<br />

a short snapshot <strong>in</strong> embryonic gene expression<br />

was covered. Other genes related to NP toxicity<br />

might be expressed <strong>in</strong> different time frames. The<br />

<strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ation of gene knock out experiments to<br />

analyze phenotypes <strong>in</strong>duced by adm<strong>in</strong>istration of<br />

NP may reveal new <strong>in</strong>sights <strong>in</strong>to the biological<br />

mechanisms of these xenobiotics. With our <strong>in</strong>vestigation<br />

the start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t for such future experiments<br />

is provided. Only this hypothesis<br />

driven approach shed some light on the transcriptions<br />

factors <strong>in</strong>itial responsible for gene activation<br />

or gene <strong>in</strong>activation and <strong>in</strong> conclusion for<br />

the mode of action of NP <strong>in</strong> fish embryos.<br />

Acknowledgements<br />

The skilful technical assistants of Silvia<br />

Kaschner and Dom<strong>in</strong>ik Jas<strong>in</strong>ski are acknowledged.<br />

This work has been supported by the Federal<br />

M<strong>in</strong>istry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer<br />

Protection.<br />

References<br />

Amacher, S.L., Draper, B.W., Summers, B.R.,<br />

Kimmel, C.B., (2002). The zebrafish T-box<br />

genes no tail and spadetail are required for<br />

development of trunk and tail mesoderm and<br />

medial floor plate, Development, 129(14):<br />

3311-3323.<br />

Bevan, C.L., Porter, D.M., Prasad, A., Howard,<br />

M.J., Henderson, L.P., (2003).<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Environmental estrogens alter early<br />

development <strong>in</strong> Xenopus laevis, Environmental<br />

Health Perspectives, 111(4): 488-<br />

496.<br />

doi: 10.1289/ehp.5500<br />

Chomczynski, P., Sacchi, N., (1987). S<strong>in</strong>gle-step<br />

method of RNA isolation by acid<br />

guanid<strong>in</strong>ium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform<br />

extraction, Analytical Biochemistry, 162(1):<br />

156-159.<br />

doi: 10.1016/0003-2697(87)90021-2<br />

Christ, B., Brand-Saberi, B., (2002). Limb<br />

muscle development, International Journal<br />

of Developmental Biology, 46(7): 905-914.<br />

Christiansen, T., Korsgaard, B., Jespersen, A.,<br />

(1998). Effects of nonylphenol and 17 betaoestradiol<br />

on vitellogen<strong>in</strong> synthesis,<br />

testicular structure and cytology <strong>in</strong> male<br />

eelpout Zoarces viviparus, Journal of<br />

Experimental Biology 201(2): 179-192.<br />

E.C.B., (2002). European Union Risk<br />

Assessment Report 4nonylphenol(branched)<br />

and nonylphenol,<br />

European Commision, 10.<br />

Eganhouse, R.P., Pontolillo, J., Ga<strong>in</strong>es, R.B.,<br />

Frys<strong>in</strong>ger, G.S., Gabriel, F.L.P., Kohler,<br />

H.E., Giger, W Barber, L.B., (2009).<br />

Isomer-specific determ<strong>in</strong>ation of 4nonylphenols<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>com</strong>prehensive twodimensional<br />

gas chromatography/time-offlight<br />

mass spectrometry, Environmental<br />

Science and Technology, 43(24): 9306-9313.<br />

doi: 10.1021/es902622r<br />

Folmar, L.C., Hemmer, M.J., Denslow N.D,<br />

Kroll, K., Chen, J., Cheek, A., Richman, H.,<br />

Meredith, H., Grau, E.G., (2002). A<br />

<strong>com</strong>parison of the estrogenic potencies of<br />

estradiol, ethynylestradiol, diethylstilbestrol,<br />

nonylphenol and methoxychlor <strong>in</strong> vivo and<br />

<strong>in</strong> vitro, Aquaict Toxicology, 60(1-2):101-<br />

110.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0166-445X(01)00276-4<br />

Gabriel, F.L.P., Routledge E.J., Heidlberger, A.,<br />

Rentsch, D., Guenther, K., Giger, W.,<br />

Sumpter J.P., Kohler, H.P.E., (2008).<br />

Isomer-specific degradation and endocr<strong>in</strong>e<br />

disrupt<strong>in</strong>g activity of nonylphenols, Environmental<br />

Science and Technology, 42(17):<br />

6399-6408.<br />

39


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

40<br />

doi: 10.1021/es800577a<br />

. Garnett, A.T., Han, T.M, Gilchrist, M.J., Smith<br />

J.C., Eisen, M.B., Wardle, F.C., Amacher,<br />

S.L., (2009). Identification of direct T-box<br />

target genes <strong>in</strong> the develop<strong>in</strong>g zebrafish<br />

mesoderm, Development, 136(5): 749-760.<br />

doi: 10.1242/dev.024703<br />

Giesy, J.P., Kannan, K., Blankenship, A.L.,<br />

Jones, P.D., (2000). Hilscherova K. Diox<strong>in</strong>like<br />

and non-diox<strong>in</strong>-like toxic effects of<br />

polychlor<strong>in</strong>ated biphenyls (PCBs):<br />

implications for risk assessment, Central<br />

European Journal of Public Health, 8 Suppl:<br />

43-45.<br />

Gray, M.A., Metcalfe, C.D., (1997). Induction of<br />

testis-ova <strong>in</strong> Japanese medaka (Oryzias<br />

latipes) exposed to p-nonylphenol,<br />

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry,<br />

16(5): 1082-1086.<br />

Griff<strong>in</strong>, K.J.P., Amacher, S.L., Kimmel, C.B.,<br />

Kimelman, D., (1998). Molecular<br />

identification of spadetail: regulation of<br />

zebrafish trunk and tail mesoderm formation<br />

by T-box genes, Development, 125(17):<br />

3379-3388.<br />

Goer<strong>in</strong>g, L.M., Hoshijima, K., Hug, B., Bisgrove,<br />

B., Kispert, A., Grunwald, D.J., (2003). An<br />

<strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g network of T-box genes directs<br />

gene expression and fate <strong>in</strong> the zebrafish<br />

mesoderm, Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the National<br />

Academy of Sciences, 100(16): 9410-9415.<br />

doi: 10.1073/pnas.1633548100<br />

Guen<strong>in</strong>, S., Mauriat, M., Pelloux, J., Van<br />

Wuytsw<strong>in</strong>kel, O., Bell<strong>in</strong>i, C., Gutierrez, L.,<br />

(2009). Normalization of qRT-PCR data: the<br />

necessity of adopt<strong>in</strong>g a systematic,<br />

experimental conditions-specific, validation<br />

of references, Journal of Experimental<br />

Botany, 60(2): 487-493.<br />

doi: 10.1093/jxb/ern305<br />

Halpern, M.E., Ho, R.K., Walker, C., Kimmel,<br />

C.B., (1993). Induction of Muscle Pioneers<br />

and Floor Plate Is Dist<strong>in</strong>guished by the<br />

Zebrafish No Tail Mutation, Cell, 75(1): 99-<br />

111.<br />

Jule, E., Harries, J.E., Sheahan, D.A., Jobl<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

S., Matthiessen, P., Neall, P., Sumpter, J.P.,<br />

Tylor, T., Zaman, N., (1997). Estrogenic<br />

activity <strong>in</strong> five United K<strong>in</strong>gdom rivers<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

detected by measurement of vitellogenesis <strong>in</strong><br />

caged male trout, Environmental Toxicology<br />

and Chemistry, 16(3): 534-542.<br />

doi: 10.1002/etc.5620160320<br />

Ho, R.K., Kane, D.A., (1990). Cell-Autonomous<br />

Action of Zebrafish Spt-1 Mutation <strong>in</strong><br />

Specific Mesodermal Precursors, Nature,<br />

348(6303): 728-730.<br />

doi: 10.1038/348728a0<br />

Hollert, H.K.S., König, N., Rudolf, M, Ulrich,<br />

M., Braunbeck, T., (2003). A new sediment<br />

contact assay to assess particle-bound<br />

pollutants us<strong>in</strong>g zebrafish (Danio rerio)<br />

embryos, Journal of Soil Sediment, 3(3):<br />

197-207.<br />

doi: 10.1065/jss2003.09.085<br />

Hsu, C.Y., Frankel, F.R., (1987). Effect of<br />

estrogen on the expression of mRNAs of<br />

different act<strong>in</strong> isoforms <strong>in</strong> immature rat<br />

uterus. Clon<strong>in</strong>g of alpha-smooth muscle<br />

act<strong>in</strong> message, Journal of Biological<br />

Chemistry, 262(20): 9594-9600.<br />

Isobe, T., Takada, H., (2004). Determ<strong>in</strong>ation of<br />

degradation products of alkylphenol<br />

polyethoxylates <strong>in</strong> municipal wastewaters<br />

and rivers <strong>in</strong> Tokyo, Japan, Environmental<br />

Toxicology and Chemistry, 23(3):599-605.<br />

doi: 10.1897/03-263<br />

Kannan, K., Keith, T.L., Naylor, C.G., Staples<br />

C,A., Snyder, S.A., Giesy, J.P., (2003).<br />

Nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates <strong>in</strong><br />

fish, sediment, and water from the<br />

Kalamazoo River, Michigan. Archives of<br />

Environmental Contam<strong>in</strong>ation and Toxicology,<br />

44(1):77-82.<br />

doi: 10.1007/s00244-002-1267-3<br />

Kammann U, Biselli S, Huhnerfuss H, Re<strong>in</strong>eke<br />

N, Theobald N, Vobach M, Wosniok W<br />

(2004). Genotoxic and teratogenic potential<br />

of mar<strong>in</strong>e sediment extracts <strong>in</strong>vestigated<br />

with <strong>com</strong>et assay and zebrafish test, Environmental<br />

Pollution, 132(2): 279-287.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2004.04.021<br />

Kammann, U., Vobach, M., Wosniok, W.,<br />

Schaffer, A., Telscher, A., (2009). Acute<br />

toxicity of 353-nonylphenol and its<br />

metabolites for zebrafish embryos, Envi-


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

ronmental Science and Pollution Research,<br />

16(2): 227-231.<br />

doi: 10.1007/s11356-008-0097-x<br />

Katase, T., Okuda, K., Kim, Y.S., Eun, H.,<br />

Takada, H., Uchiyama, T., Saito, H.,<br />

Mak<strong>in</strong>o,. M., Fujimoto, Y., (2008). Estrogen<br />

equivalent concentration of 13 branched<br />

para-nonylphenols <strong>in</strong> three technical<br />

mixtures by isomer-specific determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g their synthetic standards <strong>in</strong> SIM mode<br />

with GC-MS and two new diasteromeric<br />

isomers, Chemosphere, 70(11): 1961-1972.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.09.049<br />

Kawahata, H., Ohta, H., Inoue, M., Suzuki, A.,<br />

(2004). Endocr<strong>in</strong>e disrupter nonylphenol and<br />

bisphenol A contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> Ok<strong>in</strong>awa and<br />

Ishigaki Islands, Japan--with<strong>in</strong> coral reefs<br />

and adjacent river mouths, Chemosphere,<br />

55(11): 1519-1527.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.01.032<br />

Kosmehl, T., Hallare, A.V., Reifferscheid, G.,<br />

Manz, W., Braunbeck, T., Hollert, H.,<br />

(2006). A novel contact assay for test<strong>in</strong>g<br />

genotoxicity of chemicals and whole<br />

sediments <strong>in</strong> zebrafish embryos,<br />

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry,<br />

25(8): 2097-2106.<br />

doi: 10.1897/05-460R.1<br />

L<strong>in</strong>, C., Spik<strong>in</strong>gs, E., Zhang, T., Rawson, D.M.,<br />

(2009). Effect of chill<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

cryopreservation on expression of Pax genes<br />

<strong>in</strong> zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos and<br />

blastomeres, Cryobiology, 59(1): 42-47.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.cryobiol.2009.04.007<br />

L<strong>in</strong>, C.Y, Chen, Y.H., Lee, H.C., Tsai, H.J.,<br />

(2004). Novel cis-element <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tron 1<br />

represses somite expression of zebrafish<br />

myf-5, Gene, 334:63-72.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.gene.2004.03.016<br />

McCurley, A.T., Callard, G.V., (2008).<br />

Characterization of housekeep<strong>in</strong>g genes <strong>in</strong><br />

zebrafish: male-female differences and<br />

effects of tissue type, developmental stage<br />

and chemical treatment, BioMed Central<br />

Molecular Biology, 9: 102.<br />

Naiche, L.A., Harrelson, Z., Kelly, R.G.,<br />

Papaioannou, V.E., (2005). T-box genes <strong>in</strong><br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

vertebrate development, Annual Review of<br />

Genetics, 39: 219-239.<br />

doi: 10.1146/annurev.genet.39.073003.105925<br />

Owens, W., Koeter, H.B., (2003). The OECD<br />

program to validate the rat uterotrophic<br />

bioassay: an overview, Environmental<br />

Health Perspectives, 111(12):1527-1529.<br />

doi: 10.1289/ehp.6413<br />

Preuss, T.G., Gehrhardt, J., Schirmer, K., Coors<br />

A., Rubach M., Russ A., Jones P.D., Giesy<br />

J.P., Ratte. H.T. (2006). Nonylphenol<br />

isomers differ <strong>in</strong> estrogenic activity, Environmental<br />

Science and Technology, 40(16):<br />

5147-5153.<br />

doi: 10.1021/es060709r<br />

Preuss, T.G., Gurer-Orhan, H., Meerman, J.,<br />

Ratte, H.T. (2010). Some nonylphenol<br />

isomers show antiestrogenic potency <strong>in</strong> the<br />

MVLN cell assay, Toxicol <strong>in</strong> Vitro, 24(1):<br />

129-134.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.tiv.2009.08.017<br />

Russ, A.S., V<strong>in</strong>ken, R., Schuphan, I., Schmidt,<br />

B., (2005). Synthesis of branched paranonylphenol<br />

isomers: occurrence and<br />

quantification <strong>in</strong> two <strong>com</strong>mercial mixtures.<br />

Chemosphere. Sep 2005;60(11): 1624-1635.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.02.046<br />

Schefe, J.H., Lehmann, K.E., Buschmann, I.R.,<br />

Unger, T., Funke-Kaiser, H., (2006).<br />

Quantitative real-time RT-PCR data<br />

analysis: current concepts and the novel<br />

"gene expression's CT difference" formula,<br />

Journal of Molecular Medic<strong>in</strong>e, 84(11):<br />

901-910.<br />

doi: 10.1007/s00109-006-0097-6<br />

Scholz, S., Fischer, S., Gundel, U., Kuster, E.,<br />

Luckenbach, T., Voelker, D., (2008). The<br />

zebrafish embryo model <strong>in</strong> environmental<br />

risk assessment--applications beyond acute<br />

toxicity test<strong>in</strong>g, Environmental Science and<br />

Pollution Research, 15(5): 394-404.<br />

doi: 10.1007/s11356-008-0018-z<br />

Sharma, V.K., Anquandah, G.A., Yngard, R.A.,<br />

Kim, H., Fekete, J., Bouzek, K., Ray, A.K.,<br />

Golovko D., (2009) Nonylphenol,<br />

octylphenol, and bisphenol-A <strong>in</strong> the aquatic<br />

environment: a review on occurrence, fate,<br />

41


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Klempt et al., 7(1): 30-42 (2013)<br />

42<br />

and treatment, Journal of Environmental<br />

Science and Health, Part A.<br />

Toxic/Hazardous Substances and<br />

Environmental Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, 44(5):423-442.<br />

doi: 10.1080/10934520902719704<br />

Stachel, B., Jantzen, E., Knoth, W., Krüger, F.,<br />

Lepom, P., Re<strong>in</strong>icke, H., Sawal, G.,<br />

Schwartz, Uhlig S. (2005). The Elbe flood <strong>in</strong><br />

August 2002--organic contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong><br />

sediment samples taken after the flood<br />

event, Journal of Environmental Science<br />

and Health, 40(2): 265-287.<br />

Schulte-Merker, S., Hammerschmidt, M.,<br />

Beuchle, D., Cho, K.W., De Robertis, E.M.,<br />

Nussle<strong>in</strong>-<strong>Vol</strong>hard, C., (1994). Expression of<br />

zebrafish goosecoid and no tail gene<br />

products <strong>in</strong> wild-type and mutant no tail<br />

embryos, Development, 120(4): 843-852.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Wardle, F.C., Papaioannou, V.E., (2008).<br />

Teas<strong>in</strong>g out T-box targets <strong>in</strong> early<br />

mesoderm, Current Op<strong>in</strong>ion <strong>in</strong> Genetics and<br />

Development, 18(5): 418-425.<br />

doi: 10.1016/j.gde.2008.07.017<br />

Wheeler, T.F., Heim, J.R., LaTorre, M.R., Janes,<br />

A.B., (1997). Mass spectral characterization<br />

of p-nonylphenol isomers us<strong>in</strong>g highresolution<br />

capillary GC-MS, Journal of<br />

Chromatographic Science, 35(1): 19-30.


7(1): 43-57 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013005<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

REVIEW ARTICLE DERLEME MAKALESİ<br />

CROCODILE FARMING AND ITS PRESENT STATE<br />

IN GLOBAL AQUACULTURE<br />

Deniz D. Tosun ∗<br />

Istanbul University, Faculty of Fisheries, Istanbul-Turkey<br />

Abstract: Crocodiles are hunted for their sk<strong>in</strong>s, meat, oil and claws. Over catch<strong>in</strong>g of this animal has led<br />

to the decl<strong>in</strong>e of this species <strong>in</strong> wild populations. Although it is not a new idea, breed<strong>in</strong>g this<br />

animal under captivity is a develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> some parts of the world. Crocodiles have<br />

been bred <strong>in</strong> farms s<strong>in</strong>ce early 20th century. The majority of these farms were tourist attractions<br />

with wild caught alligators or crocodiles under captivity. Decl<strong>in</strong>e of the wild populations<br />

led to the prohibitions around the word. In crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g operations, the idea is to obta<strong>in</strong><br />

sk<strong>in</strong>s, meat and other products without stress<strong>in</strong>g wild populations. This animal has its own<br />

characteristics and they should be learned well before any economic <strong>in</strong>vestment. In this review,<br />

our aim is to identify these characteristics and <strong>in</strong>form farmers about the challenges, downsides<br />

and advantages of crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g with emphasis on their biology and present farm<strong>in</strong>g operations.<br />

Keywords: Crocodile, crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g, geothermal, alligator<br />

Özet: Timsah Yetiştiriciliği ve Dünya Su Ürünleri<br />

Yetiştiriciliğ<strong>in</strong>deki Yeri<br />

Timsahlar derileri, etleri, yağları ve pençeleri iç<strong>in</strong> avlanmaktadır. bu canlının aşırı avlanması<br />

nedeniyle doğal stoklarında azalma görülmektedir. her ne kadar yeni bir fikir olmasada, bu<br />

canlının yetiştirilmesi ve üretimi dünyanın bazı ülkeler<strong>in</strong>de gelişmekte olan bir endüstridir.<br />

Timsahlar 20. Yüzyılın başlarından bu yana yetiştirilmektedirler. Bu işletmeler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> büyük<br />

kısmı doğadan yakalanmış timsah türleri ile turist eğlence merkezleri olarak kurulmuştur.<br />

Doğal stoklarda meydana gelen azalmalar nedeniyle bu türün avlanmasına çeşitli yasaklamalar<br />

getirilmiştir. Timsah yetiştiriciliğ<strong>in</strong>de amaç doğal stokların korunarak üretilen timsahlardan<br />

deri, et ve diğer yan ürünleri elde etmektir. Bu canlı kend<strong>in</strong>e has karakteristiklere sahiptir ve bu<br />

konuda yatırım yapılmadan önce bu özellikler çok iyi öğrenilmelidir. Bu çalışmada amacımız,<br />

bahsi geçen özellikleri <strong>in</strong>celeyerek yatırımcıları bu konuda bilgilendirmek, konunun avantaj ve<br />

dezavantajlarını bu canlının biyolojik özellikler<strong>in</strong>e ve günümüzdeki yetiştiricilik faaliyetler<strong>in</strong>e<br />

değ<strong>in</strong>erek ortaya koymaktır.<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Timsah, Timsah yetiştiriciliği, Jeothermal, Krokodil<br />

∗ Correspondence to: Deniz D. TOSUN, Istanbul University, Faculty of Fisheries. Ordu Street No:200 Fatih/<br />

Istanbul-TÜRKİYE<br />

Tel: (+90 212) 455 57 00/16450 Fax: (+90 212) 514 03 79<br />

E-mail: deniztosun@gmail.<strong>com</strong><br />

43


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

44<br />

Introduction<br />

Crocodiles (Image 1.) are regarded both as<br />

fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g and horrify<strong>in</strong>g by people. Crocodile<br />

farm is a closed-cycle captive breed<strong>in</strong>g establishment<br />

that is managed so that crocodiles have<br />

artificial hous<strong>in</strong>g, veter<strong>in</strong>ary care, artificially<br />

supplied food and protection from predators. This<br />

culture application is mostly <strong>in</strong>tended for produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

sk<strong>in</strong>s, meat, oil and claws (Stickney,<br />

2000).<br />

Hold<strong>in</strong>g crocodiles <strong>in</strong> captivity for breed<strong>in</strong>g<br />

purposes is not a new idea. Crocodiles have been<br />

bred <strong>in</strong> farms s<strong>in</strong>ce early 20th century. The majority<br />

of these farms were tourist attractions with<br />

wild caught alligators or crocodiles under captivity<br />

(Masser, 1993; Stickney, 2000). The St. August<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Alligator Farm Zoological Park, established<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1893, is an example of this early type of<br />

alligator farm<strong>in</strong>g. In 1960s <strong>com</strong>mercial operations<br />

that either harvested eggs from the wild or<br />

bred alligators on-site began to appear. Farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

applications started with dim<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g stocks of<br />

wild alligators, which had been hunted nearly to<br />

ext<strong>in</strong>ction around this time. Advances <strong>in</strong> environmentally<br />

controlled production methods dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the 1980s improved survival rates, allowed<br />

sex determ<strong>in</strong>ation and produced market size (1.2<br />

meters) alligators <strong>in</strong> two years time (Stickney,<br />

2000; Peucker and Jack, 2006; Masser, 1993).<br />

As the American Alligator was placed under<br />

official protection <strong>in</strong> 1967 farm<strong>in</strong>g alligators for<br />

sk<strong>in</strong>s became the most viable option for produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

leather. Mostly concentrated <strong>in</strong> the Southern<br />

Image 1. A captive bred crocodile.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

U.S. of Louisiana, Florida, and Georgia, the<br />

practice quickly spread to other nations. Both the<br />

American and Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Alligator are farmed <strong>in</strong>tensively<br />

at the present (Thorbjarnarson, 1992;<br />

Blake et al., 1975; Ogden, 1978; Alpbaz, 2005).<br />

In Africa, many ranches prefer Nile Crocodiles<br />

for farm<strong>in</strong>g. Saltwater crocodiles are preferred<br />

<strong>in</strong> Australia. The smaller caimans are generally<br />

not of enough market value to farm, though<br />

some captive breed<strong>in</strong>g of the spectacled caiman<br />

does take place <strong>in</strong> South America (Revol,<br />

1995; Stickney, 2000; Tisdell, 2005).<br />

Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) farm<strong>in</strong>g has<br />

been practiced for the past 25 years <strong>in</strong> southern<br />

Africa. In 1963, crocodile farmers were allowed<br />

to collect a prescribed number of crocodile eggs<br />

from the wild and <strong>in</strong>cubate them <strong>in</strong> captivity with<br />

a license given <strong>in</strong> Zimbabwe. The captive bred<br />

crocodiles were than slaughtered and exported to<br />

other countries. In South Africa, crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

started <strong>in</strong> the late 1960s and 40 farms were<br />

licensed by 1992. Crocodile <strong>in</strong>dustry traditionally<br />

focuses on produc<strong>in</strong>g sk<strong>in</strong>s used <strong>in</strong> the production<br />

of high-quality fashion accessories. The<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> production costs <strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

forced the farmers to look at alternative means of<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the profitability of this farm<strong>in</strong>g style.<br />

Tourism and meat production have been <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />

<strong>in</strong>to the major <strong>com</strong>ponent of sk<strong>in</strong> production.<br />

In South Africa, most of the crocodile meat<br />

produced is either exported or sold to the restaurant<br />

trade or used as unprocessed crocodile feed<br />

on the farm (Hoffman, 2000).


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

Crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g first started with the demand<br />

for their sk<strong>in</strong>s. These sk<strong>in</strong>s were as valuable<br />

as hundreds of dollars apiece. With the<br />

grow<strong>in</strong>g farm<strong>in</strong>g applications, alligator meat began<br />

to be sold and shipped around the world. Alligator<br />

meat is a high priced food <strong>in</strong> select restaurants,<br />

and <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a it is regarded as medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />

food which has protective properties aga<strong>in</strong>st cancer,<br />

these beliefs does not have any scientific basis.<br />

Advances <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ed with high demand for<br />

alligator sk<strong>in</strong>s resulted <strong>in</strong> an expansion <strong>in</strong> alligator<br />

farm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry dur<strong>in</strong>g 1980s (MacGregor,<br />

2006).<br />

American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis,<br />

Image 2) is a member of Crocodilia. This<br />

order <strong>in</strong>cludes alligators, crocodiles and caimans.<br />

American alligator can grow up to 5 meters or<br />

more <strong>in</strong> length. Another species of alligator is A.<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ensis (Image 3) which is found <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a. This<br />

species is endangered. Crocodiles <strong>in</strong>habit tropical<br />

regions of the world. There are 15 species of<br />

crocodiles around the world. Four species of<br />

caimans are smaller <strong>com</strong>pared to alligators and<br />

crocodiles. All of these species are valued for<br />

their sk<strong>in</strong>s (Image 4). They have approximately<br />

the same value based on length and grade. The<br />

<strong>com</strong>mercial importance of these species led to the<br />

decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> wild populations of crocodilians and<br />

many species are regarded as endangered<br />

throughout the world. There are more than 500<br />

farms <strong>in</strong> 47 countries around the globe with a<br />

worldwide crocodilian population of more than 1<br />

Image 3. Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Alligator, A. s<strong>in</strong>ensis.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

million on farm (Staton et al., 1977; Lance, 1989;<br />

Joanen et al., 1989; Stickney, 2000).<br />

Image 2. American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis.<br />

45


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

46<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Image 4. Luxury items made of crocodilian sk<strong>in</strong> (Photo: http://www.wlf.louisiana.gov)<br />

Biology, Ecology and Life History<br />

Crocodilians have dist<strong>in</strong>ctive features such as<br />

almost <strong>com</strong>pletely four-chambered heart, teeth<br />

that are set <strong>in</strong>to sockets <strong>in</strong> the jaw (Image 5), a<br />

palate that separates the mouth from the nasal<br />

chambers, and spongy lungs. These animals also<br />

have a protective cover<strong>in</strong>g of partially calcified,<br />

horny plates on their back (Image 6). These<br />

plates are not connected with each other, and are<br />

set <strong>in</strong>to the thick, scaly sk<strong>in</strong>, allow<strong>in</strong>g a great<br />

freedom of movement. Crocodilians have a heavy<br />

body with squat legs and a large, strong, scaleridged<br />

tail (Staton et al., 1977; Hara et al., 1978;<br />

Lance, 1989; Joanen et al., 1989; Stickney,<br />

2000).<br />

The tail (Image 7) has s<strong>in</strong>usoidal motions<br />

which are used to propel while swimm<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Sometimes the tail is used as a weapon which is<br />

used for both offense and defense. Crocodilians<br />

can move very quickly although they are seen<br />

unmotile for long periods. They are known to lift<br />

their body off the ground and run on with four<br />

legs (Stickney, 2000).<br />

Crocodilians are adapted to live <strong>in</strong> water (Image<br />

8). Their feet are webbed (Image 9) to swim <strong>in</strong><br />

water and nostrils, eyes and ears are located high<br />

on the head (Image 10). This localization is effective<br />

to hide their body <strong>in</strong> the water without<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g seen by their prey and hunt. Eyes of a<br />

crocodilian are covered by a semi-transparent<br />

membrane, nostrils and ears are sealed with sk<strong>in</strong><br />

to stop <strong>in</strong>flow of water. Crocodiles prefer to float<br />

submerged with only their eyes and nostrils<br />

exposed. This is ac<strong>com</strong>plished by regulat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

amount of air held <strong>in</strong> the lungs. Researchers has<br />

concluded that stones found <strong>in</strong> crocodile stomachs<br />

are used to control buoyancy. These stones<br />

takes up %1 of the body weight. (Hutton,<br />

1987; Perez, 1989; Stickney, 2000).<br />

Crocodilians are poikilothermic; they do not regulate<br />

their body temperature. They warm themselves<br />

by bask<strong>in</strong>g (Image 11) <strong>in</strong> the sun which<br />

takes up much of their time. Most species are<br />

nocturnal predators, if prey is available, they are<br />

known to hunt dur<strong>in</strong>g day time (Banerjee, 1989;<br />

Wallace et al., 2008).


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

Image 5. Crocodilian teeth.<br />

Image 6. Crocodilian plates.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

47


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

48<br />

Image 7. Crocodilian tail.<br />

Image 8. Crocodiles <strong>in</strong> water.<br />

Image 9. Webbed crocodile feet.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong>


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Image 10. Crocodilian head with nostrils, eyes and ears over the water surface.<br />

Image 11. Crocodiles bask<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the sun.<br />

49


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

Crocodilians are poikilothermic; they do not<br />

regulate their body temperature. They warm<br />

themselves by bask<strong>in</strong>g (Image 11) <strong>in</strong> the sun<br />

which takes up much of their time. Most species<br />

are nocturnal predators, if prey is available; they<br />

are known to hunt dur<strong>in</strong>g day time (Banerjee,<br />

1989; Wallace et al., 2008).<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g breed<strong>in</strong>g seasons male crocodiles be<strong>com</strong>e<br />

teritorial and chase other males from areas<br />

where there is good bask<strong>in</strong>g, nest<strong>in</strong>g and feed<strong>in</strong>g<br />

grounds. Territory proclaim<strong>in</strong>g is achieved<br />

mostly by loud roar<strong>in</strong>g and jaw snapp<strong>in</strong>g. Male<br />

crocodiles chase away any <strong>in</strong>truders; match<strong>in</strong>g<br />

males might get <strong>in</strong> fights result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the death of<br />

one of the <strong>in</strong>divicuals. Females choose this proclaimed<br />

area for breed<strong>in</strong>g if they consider this<br />

region high quality (Staton, 1977; Ogden, 1978;<br />

Hara, 1978; Joanen, 1989; Kofron, 1989).<br />

Crocodilians are predators which have large<br />

strong jaws that grip their prey with numerous<br />

sharp teeth. Their teeth are not for cutt<strong>in</strong>g. Crocodiles<br />

tear larger prey by roll<strong>in</strong>g their body while<br />

the prey is gripped <strong>in</strong> their jaw. Crocodiles leave<br />

larger prey to de<strong>com</strong>pose and consume later<br />

when their sk<strong>in</strong> is soft and able to be torn apart<br />

(Hutton, 1987; Stickney, 2000).<br />

All crocodilians are oviparous. They lay hard<br />

shelled white eggs (Image 12). They make nests<br />

with vegetation or dig pits on the beach. The eggs<br />

are <strong>in</strong>cubated by the heat of the de<strong>com</strong>pos<strong>in</strong>g<br />

plants positioned <strong>in</strong> the nest. Females guard their<br />

nests (Staton, 1977; Ogden, 1978; Hara, 1978;<br />

Joanen, 1989; Kofron, 1989).<br />

Crocodilians are known to <strong>in</strong>habit all types of<br />

fresh water to slightly brackish water bodies.<br />

Males grow larger than females. Growth rates<br />

and maturity depends on the temperatures related<br />

with the climate and the available food supply <strong>in</strong><br />

the region they reside. Sexual maturity can take 9<br />

years up to 18 years. Optimum growth rates are<br />

achieved at 29-33 0 C. Below 21 degrees, no visible<br />

growth can be seen and above 34 degree<br />

sometimes results <strong>in</strong> death (Lance, 1989).<br />

Crocodilian diet changes with size. Small<br />

crocodilians consume mostly crayfish and <strong>in</strong>sects<br />

As they grow they start feed<strong>in</strong>g on fish. Mammals<br />

like muskrats and nutria are amongst animals<br />

<strong>in</strong> adult crocodilian diet. Large crocodilians<br />

are known to feed on reptiles, birds and small<br />

crocodilians. They consume carrion (rotten car-<br />

50<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

cass) whenever available (Banerjee, 1989; Wallace<br />

et al., 2008).<br />

Image 12. Crocodilian Eggs <strong>in</strong> crocodilian<br />

farm <strong>in</strong> Bangkok (Sukree<br />

Sukplang/Reuters,<br />

www.abcnews.go.<strong>com</strong>/sports/pop<br />

up?id=4872266)<br />

Adult females do not migrate long distances.<br />

They prefer heavily vegetated marsh-type ecosystems<br />

(Stickney, 2000). Males are territorial<br />

and prefer open waters. Larger males have more<br />

chance of successful breed<strong>in</strong>g (Lance, 1989).<br />

Depend<strong>in</strong>g on the climate and environmental<br />

conditions, crocodilians breed from April to July.<br />

Courtship and breed<strong>in</strong>g takes place <strong>in</strong> deep (2m)<br />

open waters. Vigorous swimm<strong>in</strong>g and bellow<strong>in</strong>g<br />

are <strong>com</strong>mon dur<strong>in</strong>g courtship. Although both<br />

sexes bellow, male is much more bass and vocal<br />

<strong>com</strong>pared to the female. Courtship is known to<br />

occur after sunrise and lasts for 45 m<strong>in</strong>utes. Repeated<br />

copulation is <strong>com</strong>monly observed (Staton,<br />

1977; Ogden, 1978; Hara, 1978; Joanen, 1989;<br />

Kofron, 1989; Masser, 1993; Tisdell, 2005).<br />

Follow<strong>in</strong>g occupation and mat<strong>in</strong>g, females<br />

choose isolated ponds preferably <strong>in</strong> vegetated areas<br />

for nest<strong>in</strong>g. Nest<strong>in</strong>g starts after two to three<br />

weeks after mat<strong>in</strong>g. Females build their nests and<br />

lay their eggs dur<strong>in</strong>g night time. Females nests<br />

once a year and not every year. 20 to 60 eggs are<br />

laid <strong>in</strong> the nest built by the female with surround<strong>in</strong>g<br />

vegetation and soil. After lay<strong>in</strong>g eggs,<br />

females cover these eggs with 25 cm thick vegetation.<br />

Nests are guarded by the females aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

predators (Staton, 1977; Ogden, 1978; Hara,<br />

1978; Joanen, 1989; Kofron, 1989; Masser, 1993;<br />

Stickney,2000; Tisdell, 2005).<br />

Incubation time varies with species and temperature.<br />

Nile Crocodiles hatches <strong>in</strong> 11 to 14


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

weeks. Lizards, mongooses, dogs, raccoons and<br />

evenants are natural predators for both the eggs<br />

and <strong>in</strong>fants of crocodiles. Warm summer time<br />

temperatures, <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ed with heat generated from<br />

the decay<strong>in</strong>g mound of vegetation, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s<br />

temperatures between 24-33 o C and relative humidity<br />

of 94-99% <strong>in</strong> the nest. Eggs hatch after 65<br />

days after constant temperature over 28 o C. In<br />

nature, hatch<strong>in</strong>g results <strong>in</strong> less than % 60 successes<br />

and survival of a youngl<strong>in</strong>g to 1.2 m is less<br />

than %17. When an alligator reaches 1.2 m <strong>in</strong><br />

length, it has few predators other than larger<br />

crocodiles and humans (Staton, 1977; Ogden,<br />

1978; Hara, 1978; Joanen, 1989; Kofron, 1989;<br />

Masser, 1993; Stickney, 2000; Tisdell 2005).<br />

An <strong>in</strong>fant crocodilian breaks out of the shell<br />

with “egg tooth” (Image 12). Sometimes female<br />

crocodile helps the <strong>in</strong>fants by crack<strong>in</strong>g the eggs<br />

with their mouths. All eggs are hatched with<strong>in</strong> a<br />

short time of each other. Females protect the <strong>in</strong>fants<br />

by keep<strong>in</strong>g them close and allow<strong>in</strong>g them to<br />

climb on their heads and body. This stage of the<br />

crocodilians is very vulnerable because of the<br />

predation (Stickney, 2000).<br />

Controlled Breed<strong>in</strong>g<br />

In some areas it is possible to collect eggs<br />

from the wild. This is mostly approved <strong>in</strong> areas<br />

with high populations to ensure population control.<br />

But mostly it is forbidden to collect these<br />

eggs from the wild because of the endangered<br />

status. Crocodilian farmers must obta<strong>in</strong> their eggs<br />

by buy<strong>in</strong>g from exist<strong>in</strong>g alligator farms if they do<br />

not have broodstock. It is a well known fact that<br />

captive alligators behave differently <strong>com</strong>pared to<br />

wild specimens. It is not easy to achieve successful<br />

reproduction. Farm raised alligators accepts<br />

crowd<strong>in</strong>g better than wilds ones as well as conf<strong>in</strong>ement.<br />

The social establishment amongst the<br />

captive alligators allows them to breed more frequently<br />

than the wild alligators. It is very important<br />

to establish ponds with the right land to<br />

water ratio to ensure successful breed<strong>in</strong>g. Ponds<br />

must be built 3-1 land-water ratio with a long<br />

shorel<strong>in</strong>e (Image 13 and Image 14). The ponds<br />

should be built <strong>in</strong> such a way that male alligators<br />

don’t see each other dur<strong>in</strong>g mat<strong>in</strong>g season. This<br />

will decrease the amount of fights between<br />

males. Breed<strong>in</strong>g ponds should have 1.8m depth<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the breed<strong>in</strong>g season with dra<strong>in</strong>s. Dra<strong>in</strong>s<br />

are necessary to dra<strong>in</strong> water to capture alligators<br />

if needed. Alligators are known to dig and climb,<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

because of this, shorel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> the ponds should<br />

not be closer than 30 m to the fences (Revol,<br />

1995; Stickney, 2000; Yılmaz, 2000; Tisdell,<br />

2005; Peucker et al., 2006; Macgregor, 2006).<br />

Vegetation around the pond is very important.<br />

Dense vegetation provides nest<strong>in</strong>g material,<br />

cover and shade. Natural wetland plants, tall and<br />

deep grasses and hay sacks provide good materials<br />

for the alligators. Shades are important to prevent<br />

overheat<strong>in</strong>g. Without adequate shades, alligators<br />

will burrow (Revol, 1995; Tisdell, 2005;<br />

Peucker et al., 2006; Macgregor, 2006).<br />

Alligator stock<strong>in</strong>g is important as well as<br />

pond design. Overcrowd<strong>in</strong>g of a pond may result<br />

<strong>in</strong> lethal fights between the residents. Farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

ponds should at least have 5 ha of area with 25 to<br />

50 <strong>in</strong>dividuals per 1 ha. It is essential to stock 6<br />

years to 20 years old <strong>in</strong>dividuals for a successful<br />

breed<strong>in</strong>g. Best breed<strong>in</strong>g age for females are 8 to<br />

10 years old. Female to male ratio has to be near<br />

3 to 1 and less than 4 to 1 (Revol, 1995; Stickney,<br />

2000; Yılmaz, 2000; Tisdell, 2005; Peucker et al.,<br />

2006; Macgregor, 2006).<br />

Feed<strong>in</strong>g should be utilized from different stations<br />

around the ponds to ensure homogenous<br />

allocation of the adults. Bask<strong>in</strong>g areas and the<br />

shorel<strong>in</strong>e is the best places for feed<strong>in</strong>g. Feed<strong>in</strong>g<br />

should be practiced when the temperature is over<br />

21 o C which is the spr<strong>in</strong>g time till it falls below<br />

21 o C <strong>in</strong> fall and w<strong>in</strong>ter. Alligators are fed 4-6%<br />

of body weight per week. Percentage rises to 6 <strong>in</strong><br />

summer time. Once per week is enough for<br />

feed<strong>in</strong>g the adults. For a good egg development it<br />

is essential to feed the females dur<strong>in</strong>g early fall.<br />

Over feed<strong>in</strong>g the adults does not result <strong>in</strong> good<br />

egg developments. Adult breeders should not be<br />

disturbed dur<strong>in</strong>g February to August through egg<br />

maturation, court<strong>in</strong>g and nest<strong>in</strong>g. Handl<strong>in</strong>g of<br />

animals and ponds should be done <strong>in</strong> between<br />

September and January. Nest<strong>in</strong>g success depends<br />

on many variables like pond design, stock<strong>in</strong>g<br />

density, social structure and diet. As mentioned<br />

before, nest<strong>in</strong>g success is around %60 <strong>in</strong> wild<br />

populations while it is lower <strong>in</strong> captivity. Egg<br />

amount is different between <strong>in</strong>dividuals, larger<br />

and older females lay more eggs. Egg amount<br />

should be around 35-40 eggs. Fertility as well as<br />

survival differs between 70-95% (Revol, 1995;<br />

Stickney, 2000; Yılmaz, 2000; Tisdell, 2005;<br />

Peucker et al., 2006; Macgregor, 2006).<br />

51


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

52<br />

Image 13. Crocodilian pond <strong>in</strong> Bangkok.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Image 14. Crocodilians crowded and bask<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a farm<strong>in</strong>g pond.


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

Basic crocodile welfare requirements<br />

A crocodilian farmer should provide some<br />

necessary conditions to achieve good health and<br />

growth for the animals <strong>in</strong> their farm;<br />

a) There should be appropriate food and water<br />

sufficient for healthy culture conditions.<br />

b) Area of the farm should be suitable for the<br />

culture conditions and crocodiles/alligators<br />

to exhibit normal behavior.<br />

c) Adequate protection from predation should<br />

be provided for the animals<br />

d) Animals should be protected from diseases<br />

and if exposed they should be cared as fit<br />

Crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g has the potential to provide<br />

an answer for the future management of this species.<br />

Controlled breed<strong>in</strong>g and support of the natural<br />

habitats will result <strong>in</strong> a susta<strong>in</strong>able crocodile<br />

production for future generations. Espacially <strong>in</strong><br />

develop<strong>in</strong>g countries, farm<strong>in</strong>g will result <strong>in</strong> renewable<br />

resourse management rather than exploitation<br />

and destruction of the species. (Blake<br />

et al., 1975; Revol, 1995; Stickney, 2000;<br />

Yılmaz, 2000; Tisdell, 2005; Peucker et al.,<br />

2006; Macgregor, 2006).<br />

Crocodile Meat as by-product<br />

Crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g is a grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry. With<br />

the growth <strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>dustry, farmers needed more<br />

than the sk<strong>in</strong>s to be able to profit. Firstly meat<br />

was seen as a byproduct for the farmers but lately<br />

it started to f<strong>in</strong>d its way as an important economic<br />

source for the farmers. A s<strong>in</strong>gle South African<br />

crocodile farm can harvest 20.000 <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />

per year and all this meat is exported to Europe<br />

and Far East. Meat production resulted <strong>in</strong><br />

focus to growth characteristics rather than sk<strong>in</strong><br />

yield. Better feed<strong>in</strong>g regimes, feed <strong>com</strong>positions,<br />

studies on chemical <strong>com</strong>positions, nutritional<br />

values and better meat process<strong>in</strong>g techniques are<br />

needed for further growth of this <strong>in</strong>dustry. Crocodile<br />

meat can be marketed as a healthy food for<br />

its unsaturated lipid fatty acid profile and its low<br />

sodium content. It is accepted as a unique delicacy<br />

<strong>in</strong> luxury restaurants for tourists (Hoffman<br />

et al., 2000).<br />

Current state of global crocodile trade<br />

Global statistics about crocodile trade mostly<br />

depends on the reports submitted to CITES by<br />

the countries. Limitations of data are directly related<br />

to the lack of these reports which are not<br />

submitted by those countries. It is important to<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

differentiate available data <strong>in</strong> terms of whole<br />

sk<strong>in</strong>, live animal or sk<strong>in</strong> parts to be able to provide<br />

accurate statistics. It is known that live animals<br />

might be reported as sk<strong>in</strong>s and sk<strong>in</strong> parts<br />

might be reported as whole sk<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> some occasions.<br />

This k<strong>in</strong>d of misreport<strong>in</strong>g results <strong>in</strong> false<br />

statistics and it is essential to cross check these<br />

reports to obta<strong>in</strong> accurate statistics. Table 1<br />

shows global crocodile trade statistics taken from<br />

the 2011 IACTS report (Caldwell 2010).<br />

Crocodile meat is the ma<strong>in</strong> by-product for this<br />

type of aquaculture. Statistics shows that 400<br />

tonnes per year is <strong>in</strong> circulation s<strong>in</strong>ce 1990 <strong>in</strong>ternationally.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> species used for meat are<br />

American crocodiles, Nile crocodiles and Siamese<br />

crocodiles. Ch<strong>in</strong>a and Hong Kong are the<br />

ma<strong>in</strong> importers of crocodile meat. It is known<br />

that blood (pharmaceuticals), bones, fat (traditional<br />

medic<strong>in</strong>es), teeth, heads, skulls (tourist curios)<br />

and others parts of the crocodiles are also<br />

used. There is a m<strong>in</strong>or trade <strong>in</strong> live crocodilians<br />

between zoos and for pet trade where it is licensed.<br />

Live crocodiles are traded between<br />

countries as hatchl<strong>in</strong>gs for farm<strong>in</strong>g purposes <strong>in</strong><br />

larger numbers (eg 268.000 hatchl<strong>in</strong>g Nile Crocodiles<br />

from Mozambique to Zimbabwe and South<br />

Africa <strong>in</strong> a 7-year period; Siamese Crocodile<br />

hatchl<strong>in</strong>gs from Cambodia to Vietnam and Thailand)<br />

(Caldwell 2010).<br />

Caldwell (2010), states that over all total<br />

number of sk<strong>in</strong>s enter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ternational circulation<br />

is about 1.2 million. This is a return to the levels<br />

of 1999-2005. The amount of sk<strong>in</strong> peaked <strong>in</strong><br />

2006 with a number of 1.8 million. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

ten year period between 1999-2008 the species<br />

<strong>com</strong>position of the sk<strong>in</strong> trade varied. Diversifications<br />

mostly started <strong>in</strong> 2001 with Crocodylus<br />

acutus from Columbia and Honduras, Caiman<br />

latirostris from Argent<strong>in</strong>a and Brazil, Caiman<br />

crocodilus crocodilus from Guyana, enter<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternational trade. Caiman yacare was first exported<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2005. There is a decrease <strong>in</strong> alligator<br />

missisipiensis exports from United States of<br />

America <strong>in</strong> the last two years. This decrease is<br />

l<strong>in</strong>ked with two major hurricanes that altered the<br />

local conditions. The general global economic<br />

crysis might also be a reason to describe this decrease<br />

<strong>in</strong> the exports. Crocodylus niloticus is <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>ternational trade with 140.000 to 170.000 sk<strong>in</strong>s<br />

per year s<strong>in</strong>ce 2000. The major producers are<br />

Madagascar, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.<br />

Thailand exports C. siamensis which they<br />

are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the production steadily s<strong>in</strong>ce 2002<br />

53


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

with 39.000 sk<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> 2008. Vietnam contributes<br />

to the production of C. siamensis as well (Caldwell<br />

2010).<br />

Eco-Park design for more economical<br />

benefits<br />

One of the most important characteristics of<br />

crocodilian farms is that they can be attractions<br />

for touristic purposes. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the farm<strong>in</strong>g applications,<br />

a farm designed for visitors would easily<br />

benefit from economic <strong>in</strong><strong>com</strong>e other than crocodilian<br />

sk<strong>in</strong> and meat. Entrance fee and gift shop<br />

sales as well as <strong>in</strong>tegrated restaurants highly benefit<br />

the farmer with a side <strong>in</strong><strong>com</strong>e. This type of<br />

applications are widely scattered around Asia.<br />

54<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Asian crocodile farmers <strong>in</strong>tegrated eco-park design<br />

<strong>in</strong> most of the farms closer to the cities.<br />

These parks offer crocodile shows (Image 15 and<br />

Image 16), feed<strong>in</strong>g (Image 17), sightsee<strong>in</strong>g, gift<br />

shop sales and similar touristic attractions all related<br />

with crocodiles as a side <strong>in</strong><strong>com</strong>e to farm<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Some of them even have other animals, mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the farm a small zoo for the tourists to visit.<br />

Thailand is one of the biggest producers <strong>in</strong> the<br />

world <strong>in</strong> crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g. A majority of the<br />

producers implemented eco-park design <strong>in</strong> their<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestment for a greater profit from crocodile<br />

farm<strong>in</strong>g. This type of design is mostly preferable<br />

for touristic nations.<br />

Table 1. World trade (1000s of sk<strong>in</strong>s) <strong>in</strong> classic crocodilian and caiman sk<strong>in</strong>s, 2001-2008 (Caldwell<br />

2007, 2010)<br />

Species 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008<br />

Alligator<br />

mississippiensis<br />

Crocodylus<br />

acutus<br />

Crocodylus<br />

johnstoni<br />

Crocodylus<br />

moreletii<br />

Crocodylus<br />

niloticus<br />

Crocodylus<br />

novaegu<strong>in</strong>eae<br />

Crocodylus<br />

porosus<br />

Crocodylus<br />

rhombifer<br />

Crocodylus<br />

siamensis<br />

Subtotal -<br />

classic<br />

Caiman c.<br />

crocodilus<br />

Caiman c.<br />

fuscus<br />

Caiman<br />

latirostris<br />

343.1 237.8 341.7 368.4 356.4 421.2 262.1 230.5<br />

0.1 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 1.4<br />

- - - - 0.1 - - -<br />

2.4 1.6 1.0 0.5 0.9 0.2 - 0.7<br />

150.8 160.0 148.6 140.5 151.5 166.3 154.3 169.3<br />

30.6 30.7 27.3 39.8 32.0 38.6 28.7 28.2<br />

28.2 24.3 26.6 30.7 37.4 34.2 45.2 53.9<br />

- - - - - - - -<br />

4.4 3.6 11.0 20.9 31.5 48.0 54.3 63.5<br />

560.0 458.6 557.0 601.1 578.5 708.6 545.0 547.4<br />

25.5 22.7 34.6 70.7 65.1 69.9 44.9 37.0<br />

710.1 552.1 572.0 621.7 603.2 972.9 670.8 533.5<br />

0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 2.8 1.7 1.1 0.8<br />

Caiman yacare 32.1 78.8 60.3 41.9 53.2 53.0 65.5 56.2<br />

Subtotal -<br />

caiman<br />

767.8 653.7 667.1 734.5 724.9 1097.2 782.3 627.5<br />

Total 1327.5 1112.3 1224.1 1335.6 1303.4 1805.8 1327.3 1175.0


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

Image 15. A crocodile show <strong>in</strong> Bangkok.<br />

Image 16. A crocodile show <strong>in</strong> Bangkok.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

55


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

56<br />

Image 17. Tourists feed<strong>in</strong>g the crocodilians<br />

with a chicken, us<strong>in</strong>g a long l<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

Conclusions<br />

Crocodilian farm<strong>in</strong>g is an essential animal<br />

culture s<strong>in</strong>ce its sk<strong>in</strong> is a valuable asset for textile<br />

and luxury <strong>in</strong>dustry. Wild populations are under<br />

pressure which could lead to the ext<strong>in</strong>ction of<br />

these animals due to over catch<strong>in</strong>g and destruction<br />

of their habitats for <strong>in</strong>dustrial reasons.<br />

Farm<strong>in</strong>g these animals will give the wild populations<br />

a chance to recover. Also with farm<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

crocodile sk<strong>in</strong> may be<strong>com</strong>e less expensive and<br />

reachable for a larger socio-economic group of<br />

people. This venture may provide labor for many<br />

where regional conditions are <strong>in</strong> favor of crocodilian<br />

farm<strong>in</strong>g. Although it seems like tropical or<br />

high temperature regions are suitable for this type<br />

of culture, there are other options that can be<br />

used to achieve farm<strong>in</strong>g conditions for the crocodilians.<br />

Geothermal water sources are one of the<br />

well known sources throughout the world for<br />

their electricity produc<strong>in</strong>g characteristics. These<br />

sources can easily be used for crocodilian farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

as well. This would benefit for cold weather<br />

countries to be able to farm crocodilians where it<br />

is possible to harvest geothermal waters. Geothermal<br />

waters can be used directly or <strong>in</strong>directly<br />

to farm crocodilians. For direct use the harvested<br />

geothermal waters should have low temperatures.<br />

If the source has high temperatures it may be <strong>in</strong>directly<br />

used to heat water bodies used <strong>in</strong> the<br />

crocodilian farm<strong>in</strong>g establishment. This system<br />

may be used <strong>in</strong> the same way for the nuclear energy<br />

plants. The cool<strong>in</strong>g water used <strong>in</strong> the nuclear<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

energy plants may be used <strong>in</strong> crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />

establishments. This way it would benefit for the<br />

farmer to lower expenses of heat<strong>in</strong>g water for the<br />

crocodiles to reach optimum growth rates and<br />

provide a suitable ecosystem <strong>in</strong> a cold weathered<br />

country to farm crocodilians <strong>in</strong> a feasible way.<br />

Entrepreneurs should keep <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d that although<br />

crocodilian farm<strong>in</strong>g seems to be a farm<strong>in</strong>g operation<br />

for specific countries, it is possible to<br />

achieve successful farm<strong>in</strong>g where crocodilians<br />

are not a native species and there is a market for<br />

the animal all around the world. The touristic attraction<br />

part of the farm<strong>in</strong>g is a great opportunity<br />

for the countries where crocodiles are not native.<br />

This would also give the farmer an edge to promote<br />

the farm as a recreational eco-park which<br />

will provide extra <strong>in</strong><strong>com</strong>e even before necessary<br />

growth of the crocodiles to market size.<br />

References<br />

Alpbaz, A., (2005). Su Ürünleri Yetiştiriciliği,<br />

ISBN. 975-97056-1-3, Alp Yayınevi,<br />

İstanbul.<br />

Blake, D.K., Loveridge, J.P., (1975). The role of<br />

<strong>com</strong>mercial crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> crocodile<br />

conservation, Biological Conservation, 8(4):<br />

261-272.<br />

doi: 10.1016/0006-3207(75)90004-X<br />

Banerjee, R. Nandi, N.C., Raut, S.K., (1989).<br />

Food and feed<strong>in</strong>g habits of estuar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

crocodile Crocodylus porosus Schneider <strong>in</strong><br />

captivity, Acta Biologica Cracoviensia.<br />

Series Zoologica, 30: 95-98.<br />

Hara, K., Kikuchi, F., (1978). Breed<strong>in</strong>g the west<br />

African Dwarf Crocodile, International Zoo<br />

Yearbook, 18(1): 84-87.<br />

doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1090.1978.tb00226.x<br />

Hoffman, L. C., Fisher, P.P., Sales, J., (2000),<br />

Carcass and meat characteristics of the Nile<br />

crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), Journal of<br />

the Science of Food and Agriculture,<br />

80: 390-396.<br />

doi: 10.1002/1097-<br />

0010(200002)80:33.0.CO;2-G<br />

Hutton, J.M. (1987) Growth and feed<strong>in</strong>g ecology<br />

of the nile crocodile crocodylus niloticus at<br />

ngezi, Journal of Animal Ecology, 56: 25-<br />

38.<br />

doi: 10.2307/4797


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Tosun, 7(1): 43-57 (2013)<br />

Joanen, T., Mcnease, L.L., (1989). Ecology and<br />

Physiology of Nest<strong>in</strong>g and Early<br />

Development of the American Alligator,<br />

American Zoologist, 29(3): 987-998.<br />

doi: 10.1093/icb/29.3.987<br />

Caldwell, J., (2007). World Trade <strong>in</strong> Crocodilian<br />

Sk<strong>in</strong>s, 2003-2005. UNEP-WCMC/Louisiana<br />

Fur and Alligator Advisory Council:<br />

Cambridge.<br />

Caldwell, J., (2010). World trade <strong>in</strong> crocodilian<br />

sk<strong>in</strong>s 2006-2008, UNEP-WCMC,<br />

Cambridge.<br />

Kofron, C.P. (1989) Nest<strong>in</strong>g ecology of the nile<br />

crocodile (crocodylus niloticus), African<br />

Journal of Ecology, 27(4): 335-341.<br />

doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2028.1989.tb01027.x<br />

Lance, V.A., (1989). Reproductive cycle of the<br />

american alligator, American Zoologist, 29:<br />

999-1018.<br />

Masser, M.P., (1993). Alligator production: an<br />

<strong>in</strong>troduction, SRAC Publication No:23.<br />

MacGregor, J., (2006). The Call of the Wild:<br />

Captive Crocodilian, Production and the<br />

Shap<strong>in</strong>g of Conservation Incentives.<br />

TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, UK.<br />

Ogden, J.C., (1978). Status and nest<strong>in</strong>g biology<br />

of the ameriacan crocodile, Crocodylus<br />

acutus <strong>in</strong> Florida, Journal of Herpetology,<br />

12(2): 183-196.<br />

doi: 10.2307/1563406<br />

Perez G.,Rangel A., Smith, H.M., Chiszar, A.<br />

(1989) Comments on the food and feed<strong>in</strong>g<br />

habits of Morelet’s Crocodile, American<br />

Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists,<br />

1989(4): 1039-1041.<br />

Peucker, S.K.J., Jack, R.H., (2006). Crocodile<br />

farm<strong>in</strong>g research, RIRDC Publication No<br />

06/016, RIRDC Project No DAQ-300A.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Revol, B., (1995). Crocodile farm<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

conservation, the example of Zimbabwe,<br />

Biodiversity and Conservation, 4(3): 299-<br />

305.<br />

doi: 10.1007/BF00055975<br />

Staton, M.A., Dixon, J.R., (1977). Breed<strong>in</strong>g<br />

biology of the spectacled Caiman, Caiman<br />

Crocodilus Crocodilus <strong>in</strong> the Venezuelan<br />

Llanos, Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife<br />

Research Report, 5.<br />

Stickney, R.R., (2000). Encyclopedia of<br />

Aquaculture. ISBN. 0-471-29101-3, Wiley-<br />

İnterscience Publication.<br />

Thorbjarnarson, J. (1992). Crocodiles. An Action<br />

Plan for their Conservation (Messel, H.,<br />

K<strong>in</strong>g, F.W. & Ross, J.P. eds). IUCN/SSC<br />

Crocodile Specialist Group, Gland,<br />

Switzerland. 136 pp.<br />

Tisdell, C., Nantha, H.S., (2005). Management,<br />

Conservation and Farm<strong>in</strong>g of Saltwater<br />

Crocodiles: An Australian Case Study of<br />

Susta<strong>in</strong>able Commercial Use. Work<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Papers on Economics, Ecology and the<br />

Environment, Work<strong>in</strong>g Paper, No:126, ISSN<br />

1327-8231.<br />

Wallace, K.M., Leslie, A.J., (2008). Diet of the<br />

Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Okavango Delta, Botswana, Journal of<br />

Herpetology, 42(2):361-368.<br />

doi: 10.1670/07-1071.1<br />

Yılmaz, H., Yanık, T., Yılmaz, M. (2000) Timsah<br />

Kültürü, IV. Su Ürünleri Sempozyunu 28-<br />

30, Erzurum.<br />

57


7(1): 58-71 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013006<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

REVIEW ARTICLE DERLEME MAKALESİ<br />

SU ÜRÜNLERİNİN KALİTE VE GÜVENLİĞİ İÇİN<br />

TÜRKİYE VE DÜNYADA UYGULANAN MEVZUATLAR<br />

Ahmet Faruk Yeşilsu 1∗ , Gülsün Özyurt 2<br />

1 Su Ürünleri Merkez Araştırma Enstitüsü, Kaşüstü, Yomra, Trabzon<br />

2 Çukurova Üniversitesi, Su Ürünleri Fakültesi, Avlama ve İşleme Teknolojisi Bölümü, Balcalı, Adana<br />

Özet: Su ürünleri çok çabuk bozulabilen gıda ürünleri arasında yer almaktadır. Bu nedenle avlamadan<br />

işlemeye kadar geçen sürede çok dikkatli bir biçimde işlem görmeli ve kontrol altında bulundurulmalıdırlar.<br />

Türkiye’de gıda mevzuatı konusunda özellikle Avrupa Birliği uyum müzakereler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

başlamasıyla birlikte uygulamaya konulan düzenlemeler, ürünlerimiz<strong>in</strong> gıda güvenliği<br />

açısından başta Avrupa Birliği olmak üzere tüm dünyadaki ülkeler<strong>in</strong> gıda ürünleriyle ile<br />

rekabet edebilme imkânı doğurmuştur. Bu derlemede su ürünler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kalite ve güvenliği iç<strong>in</strong><br />

Türkiye’de ve dünyada uygulanan çevresel, kimyasal, mikrobiyolojik etkiler ile ilgili ve katkı<br />

maddeler<strong>in</strong>e ilişk<strong>in</strong> mevzuatların <strong>in</strong>celenmesi amaçlanmıştır.<br />

58<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Su ürünleri kalitesi, Su ürünleri güvenliği, Su ürünleri mevzuatı<br />

Abstract: Turkish and Global Legislations for Seafood Safety and<br />

Quality<br />

Seafood is among the most perishable food products. Therefore, dur<strong>in</strong>g fish<strong>in</strong>g and process,<br />

seafood products should be processed and controlled very carefully. In Turkey, especially with<br />

the applied regulations about food safety due to EU <strong>com</strong>pliance negotiations, our products be<strong>com</strong>e<br />

<strong>com</strong>petitive especially <strong>in</strong> the EU and world market. This review is aimed to exam<strong>in</strong>e the<br />

legislation of environmental, chemical, microbiological and additives for food safety <strong>in</strong> Turkey<br />

and around the world.<br />

Keywords: Seafood quality, Seafood safety, Seafood legislation<br />

∗ Correspondence to: Ahmet Faruk YEŞİLSU, Su Ürünleri Merkez Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü, 61250,<br />

Kaşüstü, Yomra, Trabzon -TÜRKİYE<br />

Tel: (+90 462) 341 10 53/314 Fax: (+90 462) 341 10 56<br />

E-mail: afyesilsu@sumae.gov.tr; yesilsu@gmail.<strong>com</strong>


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

Giriş<br />

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) ve<br />

World Health Organization (WHO), Gıda Kodeksi<br />

uzmanlar komisyonunun tanımlamasına<br />

göre gıda güvenliği, “sağlıklı ve kusursuz gıda<br />

üretimi sağlamak amacı ile gıdaların, üretim, işleme,<br />

muhafaza ve dağıtım sırasında gerekli kurallara<br />

uyulması ve önlemler<strong>in</strong> alınması” anlamına<br />

gelmektedir (Öner, 2010). Gıda güvenliği<br />

ve gıda kalitesi terimleri bazen karıştırılabilmektedir.<br />

Gıda güvenliği, tüketici sağlığına zarar verebilecek<br />

durumdaki kronik veya akut tehlikeleri<br />

ifade etmektedir. Kalite ise üretici ve tüketici açısından<br />

memnuniyet yaratacak nitelikler ve fiyat<br />

üstünlüğü sağlayan bir ölçüttür, aynı zamanda<br />

tüketici iç<strong>in</strong> bir ürünün değer<strong>in</strong>i etkileyen tüm<br />

özellikler olarak da tanımlanabilmektedir. Bunlar;<br />

bozulma, kirlenme, renk kaybı, kötü koku<br />

gibi olumsuz etkili özellikler ve orij<strong>in</strong>, renk,<br />

aroma, tekstür ve gıda işleme metotları gibi<br />

olumlu etkili özelliklerdir. Güvenlik ve kalite<br />

arasındaki bu ayırım, kamu politikaları üzer<strong>in</strong>de<br />

de etkilidir ve önceden belirlenen ulusal hedefleri<br />

karşılamak iç<strong>in</strong> en uygun gıda kontrol sistemler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

oluşturulmasını sağlamaktadır (F.A.O.,<br />

2003).<br />

Gıda güvenliği yasaları denildiğ<strong>in</strong>de genel<br />

anlamda, halk sağlığını korumak niyet<strong>in</strong>i taşıyan<br />

ve gıda maddeleriyle ilgili olan kanun, yönetmelik,<br />

talimat ve tebliğler<strong>in</strong> kamu yetkilileri tarafından<br />

yayınlanması anlaşılmaktadır. Bu yasalar<br />

gıda bilimi ve teknolojisi ile ilgili olduğu kadar,<br />

tıbbi bilimlerle de ilgili olması açısından multidisipl<strong>in</strong>er<br />

bir niteliğe sahiptirler. Bununla birlikte<br />

bu alandaki kararlar, sosyal sorunlar ve buna<br />

bağlı endişeler, kamu politikaları ve uluslararası<br />

ölçekte artan sorunların gıda güvenliği konusunu<br />

etkilemesiyle daha karmaşık bir hal almaktadır<br />

(Jouve, 1998).<br />

Ülkemizde kısaca “Gıda Yasası” olarak bil<strong>in</strong>en<br />

5179 Sayılı Yasanın çıkarılmasının en<br />

önemli nedenler<strong>in</strong>den biri Avrupa Birliği’ne<br />

uyum sürecidir. 2000 yılında, öncelikli ilke olarak<br />

gıda güvenliğ<strong>in</strong>i esas alan “Beyaz Doküman<br />

(White Paper)” adlı bir bildiri yayımlanmıştır. Bu<br />

bildiriye göre oluşturulan “European Food Safety<br />

Authority (EFSA)” tarafından gıda güvenliğ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

başlıca ilkeleri belirlenmiştir. Gıda ürünler<strong>in</strong>i bilimsel<br />

risk analiz yöntemleriyle destekleyen European<br />

Food Safety Authority (EFSA)’n<strong>in</strong> yaklaşımı,<br />

yalnızca son ürün değil, ürünün oluşturduğu<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

üretim z<strong>in</strong>cir<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> de desteklenmesidir. Bu yaklaşımla<br />

yayınlanan beyaz doküman da “çiftlikten<br />

sofraya etk<strong>in</strong> bir gıda kontrolü” prensibiyle güvenilir<br />

gıda üretimi amaçlanmış ve buna uygun<br />

etkili bir mevzuat hazırlanması hedeflenmiştir.<br />

Avrupa Gıda Otoritesi’n<strong>in</strong> dayanağını EC<br />

178/2002 sayılı düzenleme oluşturmaktadır. Bu<br />

düzenlemeyle tüketici haklarının korunması, gıda<br />

ve yeme ilişk<strong>in</strong> güvenlik konusundaki genel ilkeleri,<br />

ulusal ve topluluk düzey<strong>in</strong>de belirlemek<br />

gibi konular ele alınmıştır. 178/2002 sayılı tüzük<br />

esas alınarak hazırlanan EC 852/2004, EC<br />

853/2004, EC 854/2004 ve EC 82/2004 no’lu diğer<br />

tüzükler de uygulamada bu tüzüğün kapsamında<br />

ele alınmaktadır. Avrupa Birliği uyum<br />

müzakereleri sürec<strong>in</strong>de birçok mevzuat ve yönetmelik<br />

açısından tam bir uyum içeris<strong>in</strong>de olan<br />

Türkiye’de Avrupa Gıda Otoritesi benzeri bağımsız<br />

bir kurul oluşturulamamıştır. Ülkemizde bu<br />

görevi yapmakla yükümlü olan kurum, 5179 Sayılı<br />

Yasa gereği Gıda, Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı<br />

olmuştur. Bunun yanı sıra Avrupa Birliği’nde<br />

Gıda Otorites<strong>in</strong>e bağlı bağımsız bilimsel<br />

bir komite de bulunmakta ve bilimsel görüşler<br />

sunabilmektedir. Türkiye’de böyle bir komite ya<br />

da oluşumun varlığından söz etmek mümkün değildir.<br />

Y<strong>in</strong>e Avrupa Birliği’nde Gıda Kodeksi<br />

yasa olarak uygulanmakta iken ülkemizde yönetmelik<br />

hükmündedir (Giray ve Soysal, 2007).<br />

Ülkemizde su ürünleri ile ilgili mevzuatlar; Su<br />

Ürünleri Kanunu, Su Ürünleri Yönetmeliği, Su<br />

Ürünleri Toptan ve Perakende Satış Yerleri Yönetmeliği,<br />

Su Ürünleri Alanında Faaliyet Gösteren<br />

Gemilere İlişk<strong>in</strong> Hijyen Kuralları Yönetmeliği,<br />

Balıkçı Barınakları Yönetmeliği, 2008/48 -<br />

Ticari Amaçlı Su Ürünleri Avcılığını Düzenleyen<br />

2/1 Numaralı Tebliğ, 2008/49 -Amatör (Sportif)<br />

Amaçlı Su Ürünleri Avcılığını Düzenleyen 2/2<br />

Numaralı Tebliğ, Su Ürünleri İşletme ve Değerlendirme<br />

Tesisler<strong>in</strong>de Su Kullanımı ve Kalite<br />

Kontrolü Genelgesi (2005/24), Ork<strong>in</strong>os Dış Ticaret<strong>in</strong>e<br />

İlişk<strong>in</strong> Uygulama Genelgesi (2010-48),<br />

Avcılık Yoluyla Elde Edilen Su Ürünler<strong>in</strong>de Ağır<br />

Metal İzleme Programına İlişk<strong>in</strong> Uygulama Talimatı,<br />

Ork<strong>in</strong>os Avcılığı Talimatı, Çift Kabuklu<br />

Yumuşakça Arındırma Merkezler<strong>in</strong>e ilişk<strong>in</strong> standartlar’dır<br />

(Anonim, 2011a).<br />

Su ürünleri çok çabuk bozulma eğilim<strong>in</strong>de oldukları<br />

iç<strong>in</strong> avlanmadan tüketime kadar olan bütün<br />

aşamalarda dikkatli bir şekilde işlem görmek<br />

59


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

zorundadırlar. Hassasiyet gerektiren bu süreçte<br />

aksaklıklar olması durumunda üründe istenmeyen<br />

değişimler meydana gelmesi ve gerek tüketici<br />

sağlığı bakımından gerekse de oluşacak kayıplar<br />

bakımından ciddi miktarda zararlar oluşması kaçınılmazdır<br />

(Gökoğlu, 2002).<br />

Bu derlemede su ürünler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kalite ve güvenliği<br />

iç<strong>in</strong> Türkiye’de ve dünyada uygulanan çevresel,<br />

kimyasal, mikrobiyolojik etkiler ile ilgili ve<br />

katkı maddeler<strong>in</strong>e ilişk<strong>in</strong> mevzuatların <strong>in</strong>celenmesi<br />

amaçlanmıştır.<br />

Çevresel ve Kimyasal Kontam<strong>in</strong>antlar ile<br />

İlgili Mevzuatlar<br />

Su ürünler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kalite ve güvenliği konusu ilk<br />

olarak avlandığı gemilerden başlar. Bu amaçla<br />

ülkemiz Su Ürünleri Yönetmeliği’nde; uzunluğu<br />

22 metre ve daha büyük gemilerde, pis su tankı<br />

ve asgari soğuk muhafaza şartlarına haiz izotermik,<br />

frigorik gibi depoların bulundurulması zorunluluğu<br />

vardır (Anonim, 1995). EC 853/2004<br />

sayılı düzenlemeye göre ise; soğuk muhafaza iç<strong>in</strong><br />

balıkçılık gemiler<strong>in</strong>de büyüklük şartı bulunmamaktadır,<br />

ancak 24 saatten fazla bir süre ile depolama<br />

yapacaksa soğuk muhafaza şartlarına sahip<br />

olma koşulu vardır (Anonymous, 2004).<br />

Balık ve su ürünler<strong>in</strong>de bulunabilen pek çok<br />

element iz miktarlarda <strong>in</strong>san hayatı iç<strong>in</strong> elzem<br />

olabilmektedir. Ancak bu elementler<strong>in</strong> organizmada<br />

yüksek miktarlarda birikim<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>san sağlığı<br />

iç<strong>in</strong> zararlı olduğu bil<strong>in</strong>mektedir. Kurşun,<br />

kadmiyum ve civa gibi elementler ise uzun süre<br />

düşük oranlarda dahi tüketilirlerse toksik etki<br />

gösterebilmektedirler (Çaklı, 2007). Ağır metaller<br />

olarak ifade edilen bu elementler<strong>in</strong> su ürünler<strong>in</strong>de<br />

en fazla ne kadar bulunması gerektiği Türk<br />

Gıda Kodeksi Yönetmeliği (T.G.K.Y.)’ne bağlı<br />

“Gıda Maddeler<strong>in</strong>deki Bulaşanların Maksimum<br />

Limitleri Hakkında Tebliğ” ile belirlenmiştir<br />

(Tablo 1) (Anonim, 2002a). Söz konusu değerler<br />

EC 1881/2006 No’lu Direktifteki limitlerle tamamen<br />

aynıdır (Anonymous, 2006). Günümüzde<br />

Avrupa Birliği’ne aday konumunda olan ülkeler<br />

de bu direktifte belirtilen kriterlere uygun düzenlenemeler<br />

yapmaktadırlar. Dünyadaki bazı<br />

ülkeler<strong>in</strong> ithal ettikleri taze balıkta istedikleri<br />

60<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

maksimum kurşun, kadmiyum ve civa limitleri<br />

ise Tablo 2’de görülmektedir (Anonymous,<br />

2011b).<br />

Dioks<strong>in</strong> ve benzeri bileşikler günümüzde çoğu<br />

kaynakta bulunabilen ve sağlığı tehdit eden, toksisitesi<br />

yüksek organik aromatik bileşiklerdir.<br />

Oksijence fakir ortamlarda klorlu bileşikler<strong>in</strong> ısıtılmasıyla<br />

ortaya çıkan bu bileşikler<strong>in</strong> en önemlileri,<br />

tetraklorludibenzo-p-dioks<strong>in</strong> (TCDD), poliklorludibenzofuranlar<br />

(PCDF) ve poliklorlubifeniller<br />

(PCB)’dir. Bu bileşikler suda az çözünürler<br />

ve lipofilik karaktere sahiptirler. Bu nedenle<br />

canlı vücudunda veya gıdalarda birikim<br />

yapabilmekte ve uzun süre aktif durumda kalabilmektedirler.<br />

En çok et ve et ürünleri, süt ve süt<br />

ürünleri ile su ürünleri gibi hayvansal kökenli gıdalarda<br />

bulunmaktadırlar. Akut semptomları içeris<strong>in</strong>de<br />

deride değişimler gözlenirken, kronik rahatsızlıklar<br />

iç<strong>in</strong>de güçlü bir kanser etkeni olduğu,<br />

karaciğer fonksiyonlarında anomaliler ve endokr<strong>in</strong><br />

sistemde bozulmalar görüldüğü bil<strong>in</strong>mektedir.<br />

Bundan dolayı gıda güvenliği ve toplum sağlığı<br />

açısından dioks<strong>in</strong> bulaşmalarının engellenmesi<br />

veya mümkün olan en az seviyede tutulması büyük<br />

önem arz etmektedir (Arıkan vd., 2009).<br />

Ülkemiz mevzuatına göre çeşitli su ürünler<strong>in</strong>deki<br />

dioks<strong>in</strong>, furan ve PCB’ler<strong>in</strong> maksimum bulunma<br />

limitleri EC 1881/2006 Sayılı düzenlemede<br />

belirtildiği şekliyle Tablo 3’de görülmektedir<br />

(Anonim, 2002a; Anonymous, 2006).<br />

Avrupa Birliği ise yayınladığı yönetmelikte, 1<br />

Ocak 2012 tarih<strong>in</strong>den itibaren geçerli olmak<br />

üzere dioks<strong>in</strong> limit<strong>in</strong>i; balık ve su ürünler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> yenilebilen<br />

kısımları (yengeç et<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kahverengi<br />

kısmı ve iç organsız kafadan bacaklılar da dahil)<br />

ve bunların ürünleri iç<strong>in</strong>; 3,5 pg/g (yaş ağırlık),<br />

<strong>in</strong>san tüketim<strong>in</strong>e sunulan balık yağı iç<strong>in</strong> ise 1,75<br />

pg/g (yağ) olarak belirlenmiştir (Anonymous,<br />

2011e).<br />

Dioks<strong>in</strong> düzeyleri konusunda dünyada uluslararası<br />

bir standart bulunmamaktadır. A.B.D., su<br />

ürünleri iç<strong>in</strong> dioks<strong>in</strong> limit<strong>in</strong>i önceleri 50 pg/g olarak<br />

belirlemişken daha sonra iptal etmiştir.<br />

Avustralya ise herhangi bir maksimum düzey<br />

bildirmemiştir (Anonymous, 2011c).


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 1. Su ürünler<strong>in</strong>deki bulaşanların maksimum limitleri<br />

Table 1. Maximum limits of contam<strong>in</strong>ants on seafood (Anonim, 2002a)<br />

Kurşun Kadmiyum Civa<br />

(mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)<br />

Balık Eti 0,30 0,05 * 0,50 **<br />

Kabuklular (yengeç et<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kahverengi kısmı, istakoz<br />

ve benzeri büyük kabukluların (Nephropidae<br />

ve Pal<strong>in</strong>uridae) baş ve göğüs etleri hariç)<br />

0,50 0,50 0,50<br />

Çift kabuklu yumuşakçalar 1,50 1,00 -<br />

Kılıçbalığı (Xiphias gladius) eti - 0,30<br />

*<br />

tebliğde belirtilen bazı su ürünleri çeşitleri iç<strong>in</strong> bu değer 0.1’e kadar çıkmaktadır.<br />

**<br />

tebliğde belirtilen bazı su ürünleri çeşitleri iç<strong>in</strong> bu değer 1.00’e kadar çıkmaktadır.<br />

Tablo 2. Taze balık iç<strong>in</strong> bazı ülkeler<strong>in</strong> kurşun, kadmiyum ve civa yasal limitleri<br />

Table 2. Lead, cadmium and mercury legal limits of some countries for fresh fish (Anonymous, 2011b)<br />

Kurşun<br />

Kadmiyum<br />

Civa<br />

(mg/kg)<br />

(mg/kg)<br />

(mg/kg)<br />

A.B.D. - - 1<br />

Rusya - - 0.3<br />

a b c<br />

Etobur balıklarda bu değer 1 mg/kg’dir. Ton ve mers<strong>in</strong> balığı hariç. Etobur balıklarda bu değer 0,6 mg/kg’dir.<br />

c<br />

Ç<strong>in</strong> 0.5 0.1 0.5 a<br />

Japonya - - 0.4 b<br />

H<strong>in</strong>distan 5 - 0.5<br />

Brezilya - - 0.5 a<br />

Güney Kore 0.3 - 0.5<br />

İsrail - - 1<br />

Yeni Zelanda 2 1 0.5<br />

Filip<strong>in</strong>ler 0.5 - 0.5<br />

Şili 2 - -<br />

Tablo 3. Su Ürünler<strong>in</strong>deki maksimum dioks<strong>in</strong> (PCDD), furan (PCDF) ve PCB limitleri *<br />

Table 3. Maximum limits of diox<strong>in</strong> (PCDD), furan (PCDF) ve PCB on seafood * (Anonim, 2002a)<br />

Gıda Maddesi<br />

Balık eti, su ürünleri ve bunlardan üretilen ürünler (yılan<br />

balığı hariç) (1) . Kabuklular (yengeç et<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kahverengi<br />

kısmı, istakoz ve benzeri büyük kabukluların<br />

(Nephropidae ve Pal<strong>in</strong>uridae) baş ve göğüs etleri hariç)<br />

Yılan balığı eti (Anguilla anguilla) ve ürünleri<br />

Deniz ürünler<strong>in</strong>den elde edilen yağlar (balık yağı, balık<br />

karaciğer yağı, ve <strong>in</strong>san tüketim<strong>in</strong>e sunulan diğer deniz<br />

canlılarından elde edilen yağ)<br />

Toplam<br />

Dioks<strong>in</strong><br />

4,0 pg/g<br />

(yaş ağırlık)<br />

4,0 pg/g<br />

(yaş ağırlık)<br />

2,0 pg/g<br />

(yağ)<br />

Toplam Dioks<strong>in</strong> ve<br />

Dioks<strong>in</strong> Benzeri<br />

PCB’le<br />

8,0 pg/g<br />

(yaş ağırlık)<br />

12,0 pg/g<br />

(yaş ağırlık)<br />

10,0 pg/g<br />

(yağ)<br />

* 2008-26 Sayılı Tebliğ/Ek-6. (1) Balık, bütün halde tüketiliyorsa maksimum limit bütün haldeki balığa uygulanır.<br />

61


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (W.H.O.), dioks<strong>in</strong> ve<br />

benzeri bileşikler<strong>in</strong> azami günlük alım miktarını<br />

(ADI) her kg vücut ağırlığında 1-4 pg TEF (Dioks<strong>in</strong><br />

Toksik Eşdeğeri Faktörü) olarak sınırlamıştır.<br />

2010 yılının Aralık ayında dioks<strong>in</strong>li endüstriyel<br />

yağın hayvan yem<strong>in</strong>e bulaşması sonucu<br />

ortaya çıkan dioks<strong>in</strong> sorunu, Avrupa Birliği’nde<br />

gıda güvenliği uygulamalarının bilime dayalı,<br />

açık ve net olması sebebiyle erken teşhis ve müdahale<br />

olanağı ile çözülmüş ve geliştirilen hızlı<br />

alarm sistemi sayes<strong>in</strong>de Avrupa Birliği ülkeleri<br />

arasında risk koord<strong>in</strong>asyonu sağlanarak gerekli<br />

bütün önlemler<strong>in</strong> alınması yoluna gidilmiştir (Şireli<br />

ve Tuncer, 2011). Yasal dayanağı EC<br />

178/2002 sayılı düzenleme olan hızlı alarm sistemi<br />

ile gıda ve yemlerde herhangi bir risk oluşması<br />

durumunda yetkili kontrol mekanizmaları<br />

arasında o risk ile ilgili ne tür önlemler alınacağıyla<br />

ilgili etk<strong>in</strong> bir bilgi aktarımının yapılması<br />

amaçlanmıştır (Anonymous, 2007).<br />

Gıdaların bünyes<strong>in</strong>de bulunan am<strong>in</strong>oasitler<strong>in</strong><br />

enzimatik dekarboksilasyonu sonucu histam<strong>in</strong>,<br />

tiram<strong>in</strong>, agmat<strong>in</strong>, putresc<strong>in</strong>, kadaver<strong>in</strong>, sperm<strong>in</strong><br />

ve spermid<strong>in</strong> gibi birçok am<strong>in</strong>li bileşik oluşmaktadır.<br />

Bu biyojen am<strong>in</strong>ler gıdaların tazelik ve bozulma<br />

dereceler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> bir <strong>in</strong>dikatörü oldukları gibi<br />

aynı zamanda toksik bileşiklerdir. Yüksek oranda<br />

histam<strong>in</strong> ihtiva eden gıdaların fazlaca tüketilmesi<br />

sonucu ortaya çıkan bir rahatsızlık olan histam<strong>in</strong><br />

zehirlenmesi, pek çok ülkede görülmektedir. İnsan<br />

sağlığı açısından gıdada az miktarda bulunan<br />

histam<strong>in</strong> bünyeye bağlı olarak herhangi bir tehlike<br />

arz etmezken, özellikle bazı mikroorganizma<br />

türleri işleme sırasında fazla miktarda histam<strong>in</strong><br />

oluşturarak bozulmaya neden olmakta ve sağlığı<br />

tehdit etmektedirler. Bu yüzden histam<strong>in</strong> özellikle<br />

su ürünler<strong>in</strong>de bir kalite parametresi ve bozulma<br />

göstergesi olarak ele alınmaktadır (Duyar,<br />

2011). Ülkemizde yayınlanan Su Ürünleri Yönetmeliği’ne<br />

göre balıklarda maksimum bulunması<br />

gereken histam<strong>in</strong> miktarı taze, dondurulmuş<br />

veya konserve balık iç<strong>in</strong> 100 ppm, işlenmiş balık<br />

iç<strong>in</strong> maksimum 200 ppm olarak belirlenmiştir.<br />

Tolerans değer olarak; 100 ppm’lık gruptaki örneklerde<br />

ilk 2 örneğ<strong>in</strong> 100 ppm’i geçebileceği,<br />

ancak 200 ppm’i aşmaması gerektiği, ik<strong>in</strong>ci gurup<br />

iç<strong>in</strong>se bu değer<strong>in</strong> 400 ppm’den az olması ge-<br />

62<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

rektiği belirtilmiştir (Anonim, 1995). Yönetmelikteki<br />

değerler, 2008/26 sayılı tebliğde olduğu<br />

gibi uyum çerçevesi gereği EC 1881/2006 sayılı<br />

Avrupa Birliği düzenlemes<strong>in</strong>de de belirtilen değerlerle<br />

aynıdır (Anonymous, 2006). Food and<br />

Drug Adm<strong>in</strong>istration (F.D.A.); 50 ppm’<strong>in</strong> üzer<strong>in</strong>de<br />

histam<strong>in</strong> düzey<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> hastalığa neden olabileceğ<strong>in</strong>i<br />

açıklamış ve konserve ak ork<strong>in</strong>os, kızıl ork<strong>in</strong>os<br />

ve sarı tonbalığı iç<strong>in</strong> yasal histam<strong>in</strong> limit<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

20 ppm’<strong>in</strong> altında olması gerektiğ<strong>in</strong>i bildirmiştir<br />

(Anonymous, 2011b; F.D.A., 2011). Avrupa<br />

Birliği’ne aday konumundaki ülkeler de<br />

mevzuatlarındaki histam<strong>in</strong> limit<strong>in</strong>i EC 1881/2006<br />

no’lu düzenlemeye uygun olarak düzenlemişlerdir.<br />

Bunun dışında Avustralya, Yeni Zelanda ve<br />

İsrail’de de su ürünler<strong>in</strong>deki histam<strong>in</strong> limiti 200<br />

ppm olarak belirlenmiştir (Anonymous, 2011b;<br />

Lawley, 2007).<br />

Mikrobiyolojik Etkiler ile İlgili<br />

Mevzuatlar<br />

Balık ve diğer su ürünleri yapısında denizel<br />

ortamdan kaynaklanan ve taşıma-işleme sırasında<br />

kontam<strong>in</strong>e olabileceği birçok mikroorganizmayı<br />

içerir. Diğer gıdalarda olduğu gibi balık ve diğer<br />

su ürünler<strong>in</strong>de de mikroorganizma aktivitesi sonucu<br />

çeşitli bozulmalar meydana gelmektedir.<br />

Balığın tazelikten bayatlığa geçiş süresi ve sonrasındaki<br />

tüketilemez duruma gelişi oldukça hızlı<br />

bir biçimde gerçekleşmektedir (Ünlütürk ve Turantaş,<br />

1998). Bu nedenle su ürünler<strong>in</strong>deki sağlık<br />

açısından kabul edilebilir mikroorganizma seviyeler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

yasalarla belirlenmesi zorunludur. Bu<br />

miktarlar Su Ürünleri Yönetmeliği’nde (Değişik:RG-21/9/2008-27004/EK-8)<br />

belirtilmiştir ve<br />

Tablo 4’te görülmektedir (Anonim, 1995).<br />

Avrupa Birliği’nde, EC 2073/2005 sayılı<br />

“Gıda Maddeleri İç<strong>in</strong> Mikrobiyolojik Kriterler”<br />

başlıklı düzenlemede taze balık, tüketime hazır<br />

gıdalar kapsamında ele alınmakta ve Listeria monocytogenes<br />

miktarının 100 KOB(Koloni Oluşturan<br />

Birim)/g olması gerektiği, kabuklu ve yumuşakçaların<br />

25 gramında Salmonella bulunmaması,<br />

E. coli oranın pişmiş ürünlerde, n=5, c=2, m=1<br />

KOB/g, M=10 KOB/g, çift kabuklu yumuşakçalarda<br />

ise 230 KOB/100 g’dan az olması gerektiği<br />

bildirilmektedir (Anonymous, 2005).


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 4. Su ürünler<strong>in</strong>de bulunan mikroorganizmaların kabul edilebilir değerleri<br />

Table 4. Acceptable limits of microorganisms on seafood (Anonim, 1995).<br />

Mikroorganizma Dondurulmuş İşlenmiş Konserve Havyar<br />

Salmonella<br />

25 g’da<br />

olmayacak<br />

M=5x10 3<br />

25 g’da<br />

olmayacak<br />

n=5, c=0<br />

- n=5, c=0<br />

Vibrio<br />

parahaemolyticus<br />

Hiç olmamalı Hiç olmamalı - -<br />

Vibrio cholera Hiç olmamalı Hiç olmamalı - -<br />

Mezofilik Aerobik<br />

Bakteri<br />

n=5, c=2,<br />

m=10 6 , M=10 7<br />

n=5, c=2,<br />

m=10 5 , M=10 6 -<br />

n=5, c=2,<br />

m=10 4 , M=10 5<br />

Staphylococcus aureus<br />

n=5, c=2,<br />

m=10 3 ,<br />

n=5, c=2,<br />

m=10 2 , M=5x10 3 - n=5, c=0<br />

Koliform<br />

Escherichia coli<br />

Listeria<br />

monocytogenes<br />

n=5, c=2,<br />

m=160, M=210<br />

n=5, c=2,<br />

m=9, M=12<br />

n=5, c=2,<br />

m=93, M=95<br />

n=5, c=2,<br />

m=3, M=6<br />

Clostiridium spp. - -<br />

- -<br />

- n=5, c=0<br />

n=5, c=0 n=5, c=0 n=5, c=0 n=5, c=0<br />

Hiç<br />

olmamalı<br />

Clostridium<br />

n=5, c=2, m=10,<br />

- - -<br />

perfr<strong>in</strong>gens<br />

M=10 2<br />

n : Analizi yapılması gereken örnek ünite sayısı.<br />

c : m ve M değerleri arasında değer gösteren kabul edilebilir maksimum örnek ünite sayısıdır. (Hatalı numune<br />

üniteler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kabul edilebilir maksimum sayısı.)<br />

m : Hatalı kabul edilen örnek üniteler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> g’ında bulunmasına müsaade edilen mikroorganizma sayısı. (Hiçbir<br />

örnek M’den fazla değer gösteremez.)<br />

M : Örnek üniten<strong>in</strong> g’ında kabul edilebilecek maksimum mikroorganizma sayısı. (Hiçbir örnek M’den fazla<br />

değer gösteremez.)<br />

Bunun yanısıra <strong>in</strong>san tüketim<strong>in</strong>e sunulan su<br />

ürünler<strong>in</strong>de bulunan ölümcül parazitler ile ilgili<br />

8Aralık 2011 tarih<strong>in</strong>de yayımlanan 1276/2011<br />

sayılı Avrupa Birliği düzenlemes<strong>in</strong>e göre;<br />

1. Ürünler çiğ olarak tüketileceklerse yada<br />

mar<strong>in</strong>e,tuzlama veya ölümcül parazitler<strong>in</strong><br />

ölmesi iç<strong>in</strong> yetersiz kalacak bir işleme<br />

yöntemi seçilecekse parazitler<strong>in</strong> öldürülebilmesi<br />

iç<strong>in</strong> dondurma işlem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> uygulanması<br />

gerektiği,<br />

2. Trematodlar dışındaki parazitler iç<strong>in</strong>;<br />

ürünün tüm bölümler<strong>in</strong>i kapsayacak şekilde<br />

dondurma işlem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> , ürün 24 saatten<br />

daha az bir sürede işlenecekse -<br />

20°C’ye, 15 saatten daha az bir süre işlenecekse<br />

de -35°C’ye dondurulması gerektiği,<br />

3. Y<strong>in</strong>e Trematodlar dışındaki parazitler<br />

iç<strong>in</strong>; eğer ürünler dondurulmayacaksa<br />

merkez sıcaklığının en az 1 dakika süre<br />

ile 60 °C veya daha fazla sıcaklığa getirilmesi<br />

gerektiği bildirilmiştir (Anonymous,<br />

2011f).<br />

Food and Drug Adm<strong>in</strong>istration (F.D.A.) tarafından<br />

yayımlanan rehberde bulunan mikrobiyolojik<br />

tolerans limitleri ise Tablo 5’de görülmektedir<br />

(F.D.A., 2011).<br />

-<br />

63


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

64<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 5. Bazı su ürünleri iç<strong>in</strong> F.D.A. tarafından belirlenen güvenlik limitleri<br />

Table 5. Safety limits set by F.D.A. for some seafood (F.D.A., 2011)<br />

Mikroorganizma<br />

Listeria<br />

monocytogenes<br />

Salmonella spp.<br />

Staohylococcus<br />

aureus<br />

Vibrio cholera<br />

Vibrio<br />

parahaemolyticus<br />

Tüketime Hazır Su<br />

Ürünleri<br />

(M<strong>in</strong>imal Bir Pişirme<br />

Gerektiren )<br />

Tüm Balıklar<br />

Taze Kabuklu<br />

ve<br />

Yumuşakçalar<br />

25 g’da olmayacak - - -<br />

-<br />

Toksik suşlar olan<br />

O1 ve O139<br />

olmayacak yada 25<br />

g örnekte<br />

bulunmayacak<br />

25 g’da<br />

olmayacak<br />

Enterotoks<strong>in</strong><br />

bulunmayacak<br />

ve 10 4<br />

KOB * /g’dan<br />

fazla olmayacak<br />

-<br />

- -<br />

- - -<br />

10 4 KOB/g’dan<br />

fazla olmayacak - -<br />

Vibrio vulniicus Hiç olmayacak - -<br />

Clostiridium<br />

botul<strong>in</strong>um<br />

Eschericia<br />

coli/Fekal<br />

Koliform<br />

* KOB: Koloni oluşturan birim.<br />

-<br />

Yaşayabilir<br />

sporlar ve<br />

vejetatif<br />

hücreleri ile<br />

toks<strong>in</strong>leri<br />

bulunmamalı<br />

- -<br />

Katkı Maddeleri ile İlgili Mevzuatlar<br />

Gelişen teknoloji ile birlikte gıda muhafaza<br />

teknikler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> geliştirilmes<strong>in</strong>e duyulan ihtiyaç ve<br />

tüketici nezd<strong>in</strong>de gıdanın mevcut kalites<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> daha<br />

iyi algılanmasını sağlamakla ilgili meseleler;<br />

uluslararası gıda ticareti de göz önünde bulundurulduğunda<br />

gıda katkı maddeler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kullanılmasının<br />

zem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>i oluşturmaktadır. İnsan sağlığı açısından<br />

bakıldığında ise yetkili kurumların onayı<br />

neticesi kullanıma sunulan bu maddeler<strong>in</strong> bir<br />

kısmı sağlık açısından herhangi bir sorun teşkil<br />

etmezken, bazıları ise uzun süreli alımlarda<br />

önemli rahatsızlıklara sebebiyet verecek potansi-<br />

İşlenmiş<br />

Kabuklu ve<br />

Yumuşakçalar<br />

30 KOB/g’dan<br />

daha az olmalı.<br />

30 KOB/g’dan<br />

daha az olmalı.<br />

- -<br />

330/100 g KOB’i<br />

aşan 5 örnekten 1<br />

veya daha<br />

fazlası, 230/100<br />

g’ı aşandan 2<br />

veya daha<br />

fazlası;<br />

yele sahiptirler. Sorun oluşturabilecek gıda katkı<br />

maddeler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kullanımı her ne kadar mevzuatlarla<br />

birlikte sınırlansa da, özellikle denetimler<strong>in</strong> yetersiz<br />

olduğu; üreticis<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> ve tüketicis<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> bil<strong>in</strong>çsiz<br />

olduğu ülkelerde daha büyük bir tehdit oluşturmaktadır<br />

(Çalışır ve Çalışkan, 2003).<br />

Ülkemiz Gıda Kodeks<strong>in</strong>de gıda katkı maddesi;<br />

“tek başına gıda olarak tüketilmeyen veya<br />

gıdanın karakteristik bileşeni olarak kullanılmayan,<br />

tek başına besleyici değeri olan veya olmayan,<br />

teknolojik bir amaç doğrultusunda üretim,<br />

işleme, hazırlama, ambalajlama, taşıma veya depolama<br />

aşamalarında gıdaya ilave edilmesi so-<br />

-


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

nucu kendisi ya da yan ürünleri, doğrudan ya da<br />

dolaylı olarak o gıdanın bileşeni olan maddeler”<br />

olarak tanımlanmaktadır (T.G.K.Y., 2008). Ülkemiz<br />

mevzuatında katkı maddeleri 3 başlık altında<br />

<strong>in</strong>celenmektedir.<br />

Renklendiriciler ile İlgili Mevzuatlar<br />

Gıdalarda Kullanılan Renklendiriciler Tebliği’n<strong>in</strong><br />

Ek-2 maddes<strong>in</strong>de; Ek-3, Ek-4 veya Ek-<br />

5’de belirtilen durumlar dışında, “balık, kabuklular,<br />

yumuşakçalar, et, kümes hayvanları ve av<br />

hayvanlarının etleri ve bunların preparatları,<br />

bunları içeren yemekler hariç, renklendirici kullanılamaz”<br />

ibaresi yer almaktadır (T.G.K.Y.,<br />

2007). Aynı tebliğ<strong>in</strong> Ek-4 maddes<strong>in</strong>de su ürünleri<br />

ile ilgili kısıtlama getirilen katkı maddeleri ise<br />

Tablo 6’da verilmiştir.<br />

Ek-5’<strong>in</strong> 2. bölümüne göre ise aşağıdaki gıdalarda<br />

bu bölümde yer alan renklendirici katkı<br />

maddeleri Tablo 7’de belirtilen maksimum seviyelere<br />

kadar tek veya birlikte kullanılabilir. Ancak<br />

tebliğde yer alan E-110, E-122, E-124 ve E-<br />

155 kodlu renklendiriciler<strong>in</strong> hiç biris<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> miktarı<br />

50 mg/kg veya 50 mg/l’yi geçemez (T.G.K.Y.,<br />

2007).<br />

Ülkemizdeki renklendiriciler tebliği Avrupa<br />

Birliği’n<strong>in</strong> EC 94/36 sayılı direktif<strong>in</strong>den uyarlanmıştır<br />

ve su ürünleri ile ilgili olan kısım ve<br />

bulunması gereken m<strong>in</strong>imum miktarlar aynıdır<br />

(Anonymous, 1994). Bu katkı maddeler<strong>in</strong>den E-<br />

104, E-131 ve E160d’n<strong>in</strong> Avustralya’da, E-<br />

104’ün de çeşitli toksik etkileri nedeniyle<br />

A.B.D.’de gıda amaçlı kullanımına iz<strong>in</strong> verilmemektedir<br />

(Anonymous, 2011d; EFSA, 2009).<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tatlandırıcılar ile İlgili Mevzuatlar<br />

Avrupa Birliği EC 94/35 direktif<strong>in</strong>de belirtilen<br />

limitlerle uyum içeris<strong>in</strong>de olan Türkiye’de<br />

Gıdalarda Kullanılan Tatlandırıcılar Tebliği’ne<br />

göre, kullanımına iz<strong>in</strong> verilen tatlandırıcı gıda<br />

maddeler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>; balıklar, mar<strong>in</strong>e edilmiş balıklar,<br />

kabuklular ve yumuşakçaların tatlı-ekşi korunmuş<br />

veya yarı korunmuş olanları iç<strong>in</strong> belirtilen<br />

limitler Tablo 8’de görülmektedir (T.G.K.Y.,<br />

2010).<br />

Yüksek yoğunluklu bir tatlandırıcı olan aspartam’ın<br />

güvenilirliği üzer<strong>in</strong>e birçok ülkede<br />

araştırma yapılmıştır. Aspartamın ADI değeri ise;<br />

A.B.D. iç<strong>in</strong> 50 mg/kg, Avrupa Birliği ülkeleri,<br />

Kanada, Avustralya ve Brezilya iç<strong>in</strong> 40 mg/kg<br />

olarak belirlenmiştir. Aspartam ayrıca 100’den<br />

fazla ülkede gıda tatlandırıcısı olarak onaylanmıştır<br />

(Öz, 2003; Nabors, 2001).<br />

Özellikle mar<strong>in</strong>e deniz ürünler<strong>in</strong>de kullanılan<br />

Asesülfam K; JECFA (Gıda Katkı Maddeleri<br />

Üzer<strong>in</strong>e F.A.O./W.H.O. Birleşik Ortak Uzman<br />

Komitesi) tarafından 0-15 mg/kg vücut ağırlığı<br />

ADI değeri baz alınarak gıdalarda kullanımına<br />

iz<strong>in</strong> vermiştir. Daha sonra bu görüşe ilaveten Avrupa<br />

Ekonomik Topluluğu, Bilimsel Gıda Komitesi<br />

tarafından bu değer<strong>in</strong> 0-19 mg/kg olması gerektiği<br />

bildirilmiştir. Bu karara Kanada, Japonya,<br />

Avustralya ve Yeni Zelanda başta olmak üzere<br />

100’den fazla ülke uymuşlardır (Nabors, 2001).<br />

Neohesperid<strong>in</strong> DC ile ilgili olarak pek çok<br />

ülke Avrupa Birliği tarafından belirlenen kriterlere<br />

uyum sağlamakla birlikte Avustralya ve Yeni<br />

Zelanda, gıdalarda bulunması gereken miktar konusunda<br />

herhangi kısıtlama getirmemişlerdir<br />

(Nabors, 2001).<br />

Tablo 6. T.G.K.Y. renklendiriciler tebliği Ek-4 maddes<strong>in</strong>de bazı su ürünler<strong>in</strong>de kullanımına iz<strong>in</strong><br />

verilen renklendiriciler<br />

Table 6. Permitted used of colorants <strong>in</strong> Appendix-4 of TFC colorants <strong>com</strong>muniqués for some seafood<br />

(T.G.K.Y., 2007)<br />

Katkı Maddesi Ürün Miktar<br />

E-123 Amarant Balık Yumurtası 30 mg/L<br />

E-154 Brown FK<br />

E-160 Anatto<br />

Tuzlanmış ve tütsülenmiş r<strong>in</strong>ga balığı 20 mg/kg<br />

Biks<strong>in</strong><br />

Norbiks<strong>in</strong><br />

Füme Balık 10 mg/kg<br />

65


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

66<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 7. T.G.K.Y. renklendiriciler tebliği Ek-5 maddes<strong>in</strong>de bazı su ürünler<strong>in</strong>de kullanımına iz<strong>in</strong><br />

verilen renklendiriciler<br />

Table 7. Permitted used of colorants <strong>in</strong> Appendix 5 of TFC colorants <strong>com</strong>muniqués for some seafood<br />

(T.G.K.Y., 2007)<br />

Katkı Maddeleri<br />

E-100, E-102, E-104, E-110 * , E-120, E-122 * , E-124 * , E-129,<br />

E-131, E-132, E-133, E-142, E-151 , E-155 * , E-160d, E-160e,<br />

E-160f, E-161b<br />

Ürün Miktar<br />

Balıkların ve kabukluların ezmeleri 100 mg/kg<br />

Ön pişirme yapılmış kabuklular 250 mg/kg<br />

Somon balığı benzerleri 500 mg/kg<br />

Surimi 500 mg/kg<br />

Balık yumurtası 300 mg/kg<br />

Füme Balık 100 mg/kg<br />

Bitkisel prote<strong>in</strong> bazlı et ve balık<br />

100 mg/kg<br />

analogları<br />

E-100: Kurkum<strong>in</strong>, E-102: Tartraz<strong>in</strong>, E-104: K<strong>in</strong>ol<strong>in</strong> sarısı, E-110: Sunset yellow FCF Orange yellow S, E-120:<br />

Koş<strong>in</strong>eal, Karm<strong>in</strong>ik asit, Karm<strong>in</strong>ler, E-122: Azorub<strong>in</strong>, Karmos<strong>in</strong>, E-124: Ponso 4R, Koş<strong>in</strong>eal Red A, E-129:<br />

Allura Red AC, E-131: Patent Blue V, E-132: İndigot<strong>in</strong> (İndigo Karm<strong>in</strong>), E-133: Brilliant Blue FCF, E-142:<br />

Green S, E-151: Brilliant Black BN, Black PN, E-155: Brown HT, E-160d: Likopen,<br />

E-160e: Beta-apo-8’karotenel (C 30), E-160f: Beta-apo-8’karotenik asid<strong>in</strong> etil esteri(C 30), E-161b: Lute<strong>in</strong><br />

* 50 mg/kg veya 50 mg/L’yi geçemez<br />

Tablo 8. Türkiye’de su ürünler<strong>in</strong>de kullanımına iz<strong>in</strong> verilen tatlandırıcı katkı maddeler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> maksimum<br />

miktarları<br />

Tablo 8. Maximum limits of permitted used of sweeteners <strong>in</strong> seafood <strong>in</strong> Turkey (T.G.K.Y., 2010)<br />

Ürün Adı Maksimum Miktar (ppm)<br />

E-950 (Asesülfam K) 200<br />

E-951 (Aspartam) 300<br />

E-954 (Sakkar<strong>in</strong> ve sodyum, potasyum, kalsiyum tuzları) 160<br />

E-955 (Sukraloz)<br />

120<br />

E-959 (Neohesperid<strong>in</strong> DC)<br />

30<br />

E-962 (Aspartam-asesülfam tuzu) 200<br />

Diğer Katkı Maddeleri ile İlgili Mevzuatlar<br />

EC 95/2 no’lu Avrupa Birliği direktif<strong>in</strong>den<br />

uyarlanan ülkemiz 2008/22 numaralı<br />

Renklendiriciler ve Tatlandırıcılar Dışındaki<br />

Katkı Maddeleri Tebliği’nde belirlenen su ürünleri<br />

ile ilgili tüm yasal limitler Tablo 9,<br />

10,11,12’de verilmiştir (T.G.K.Y., 2008).<br />

Avustralya’da sorbik asit (E200) ve benzoik<br />

asid<strong>in</strong> (E210) mar<strong>in</strong>e balıklardaki kullanım sınırı<br />

1000 ppm olup Avrupa Birliği’n<strong>in</strong> belirlediği ve<br />

dolayısıyla Türkiye’de uygulanan yasal limit<strong>in</strong><br />

yarısı kadardır. Donmuş balıkta antioksidan olarak<br />

kullanılan eritorbik asid<strong>in</strong> (E315) yasal ilave<br />

limiti 400 ppm’dir ve bu da Avrupa ülkeler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

oldukça altındadır. Avsutralya’da fosfatların su<br />

ürünler<strong>in</strong>de kullanımı ile ilgili yasal limitler ise;<br />

donmuş balık: 1300 ppm (1,3g/kg), konserve<br />

yumuşakçalar: 3000 ppm, konserve ton balığı:<br />

5000 ppm, diğer konserve balıklar ise 2200<br />

ppm’dir (Anonymous, 2011b).<br />

Bazı gıda ve renk katkıları, kimi tüketicilerde<br />

aşırı duyarlılık reaksiyonlarına ve gıda <strong>in</strong>toleranslarına<br />

neden olabilmektedir. Çoğu durumda<br />

bil<strong>in</strong>en bir alerjik reaksiyon olmamasına rağmen,<br />

belirtiler gıda alerjenleri ile benzer şekilde seyretmektedir<br />

ve ağızda karıncalanma hissi, dil ve<br />

boğazda şişme, nefes almada zorluk (astım gibi),<br />

kurdeşen, kusma, karın ağrıları ve ishal gibi etkiler<br />

meydana gelebilmektedir (F.D.A., 2011).


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

Tablo 9. Antioksidanlar<br />

Table 9. Antioxidants (T.G.K.Y., 2008)<br />

Gıda Katkı Maddes<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

E Kodu ve Adı<br />

E 310 -E 311 -E 312<br />

–<br />

E 319-E 320 -E 321<br />

E 315<br />

E 316<br />

E 586<br />

Balık yağı<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Gıda Maddesi En Yüksek Değer (mg/kg)<br />

Korunmuş ve yarı korunmuş balık ürünleri<br />

Dondurulmuş ve der<strong>in</strong> dondurulmuş kırmızı<br />

derili balık<br />

Taze, dondurulmuş ve der<strong>in</strong> dondurulmuş<br />

kabuklu su ürünleri<br />

100 (1)<br />

(BHT) (yağ üzer<strong>in</strong>den)<br />

1500 (eritorbik asit c<strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>den)<br />

2 mg/kg<br />

(kabuklu su ürünü et<strong>in</strong>de)<br />

E 310 Propil gallat, E 311 Oktil gallat, E 312 Dodesil gallat, E 319 Ters<strong>in</strong>ir bütil hidrok<strong>in</strong>on (TBHQ), E 320<br />

Bütillendirilmiş hidroksianisol (BHA), E 321 Bütillendirilmiş hidroksitoluen (BHT), E 315 Eritorbik asit, E 316<br />

Sodyum eritorbat, E 586 4-heksilresors<strong>in</strong>ol<br />

( 1 ) : Gallatlar, TBHQ, BHA ve BHT birlikte kullanıldıklarında her bir<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> miktarı oransal olarak azaltılmalıdır.<br />

Tablo 10. Sorbatlar, benzoatlar ve p-hidroksibenzoatlar<br />

Table 10. Sorbates, benzoates and p-hydroxybenzoates (T.G.K.Y., 2008)<br />

Gıda Maddesi<br />

mg/kg veya mg/L (ppm)<br />

Sa<br />

1- E 200 Sorbik asit, E 202 Potasyum sorbat ve E 203 Kalsiyum sorbat "Sa" olarak kısaltılmıştır.<br />

2- E 210 Benzoik asit, E 211 Sodyum benzoat, E 212 Potasyum benzoat ve E 213 Kalsiyum benzoat "Ba" olarak<br />

kısaltılmıştır.<br />

3- Sa + Ba: Sa ve Ba tek veya birlikte kullanılabilir anlamındadır.<br />

(1) Ba (2) PHB (3) Sa+Ba (3)<br />

Balık yumurtası ürünleri de dâhil olmak üzere kısmen yarı korunmuş<br />

balık ürünleri<br />

2000<br />

Tuzlanmış, kurutulmuş balık 200<br />

Pişirilmiş çalı karidesi (Crangon crangon ve Crangon vulgaris) 6000<br />

Pişirilmiş kabuklular ve yumuşakçalar 1000 2000<br />

67


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

68<br />

Tablo 11. Kükürt dioksit ve tuzları<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Table 11. Sulphur dioxide and sulphites (T.G.K.Y., 2008)<br />

En Yüksek Değer<br />

Gıda Maddesi<br />

(Kükürtdioksit c<strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>den<br />

mg/kg veya mg/L)<br />

Kurutulmuş, tuzlanmış Gadidae/Mezgitgiller familyası balıklar 200 *<br />

Taze, dondurulmuş ve der<strong>in</strong> dondurulmuş kabuklular ve kafadan<br />

150 *<br />

bacaklılar<br />

Penaeidae, Solenoceridae ve Aristaeidae familyası karidesler<br />

- 80 adete kadar<br />

- 80-120 adet arası<br />

- 120 adet üzeri<br />

150 *<br />

200 *<br />

300 *<br />

Pişirilmiş kabuklular ve kafadan bacaklılar 50 *<br />

Pişirilmiş Penaeidae, Solenoceridae ve Aristaeidae familyası<br />

karidesler<br />

- 80 adete kadar<br />

- 80-120 adet arası<br />

- 120 adet üzeri<br />

135 *<br />

180 *<br />

270 *<br />

Kükürt dioksit ve tuzları olarak şu maddeler kullanılabilir: E 220 Kükürt dioksit, E 221 Sodyum sülfit, E 222<br />

Sodyum hidrojen sülfit, E 223 Sodyum metabisülfit, E 224 Potasyum metabisülfit, E 226 Kalsiyum sülfit, E 227<br />

Kalsiyum hidrojen sülfit, E 228 Potasyum hidrojen sülfit<br />

* Yenilebilir kısmında<br />

Tablo 12. İz<strong>in</strong> verilen diğer gıda katkı maddeleri<br />

Table 12. Other permitted food additives (T.G.K.Y., 2008)<br />

Gıda Katkı<br />

Maddes<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

E Kodu ve Adı<br />

Gıda Maddesi<br />

En Yüksek<br />

Değer<br />

Açıklama<br />

Aşağıdaki uygulamalarda E 338, E 339, E 340, E 341, E 343, E450, E 451, E 452 tek<br />

başına veya birlikte kullanımlarındaki en yüksek değerleri (P2O5 c<strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>den)<br />

E 338 - E 339 Çorbalar ve et/tavuk/balık suları 3 g/kg<br />

E 340 - E 341 Surimi 1 g/kg<br />

E 343 - E 450 Balık ve kabuklu su ürünü ezmeleri 5 g/kg<br />

E 451 - E 452 Dondurulmuş ve der<strong>in</strong> dondurulmuş işlenmemiş balık filetosu 5 g/kg<br />

İşlenmiş ve işlenmemiş yumuşakçalar, dondurulmuş ve der<strong>in</strong><br />

dondurulmuş kabuklu su ürünleri<br />

5 g/kg<br />

E 363 Çorbalar ve et/tavuk/balık suları 5 g/kg<br />

Kabuklu su ürünleri ve yumuşakça konserveleri 75 mg/kg<br />

E 385<br />

Balık konservesi 75 mg/kg<br />

Dondurulmuş ve der<strong>in</strong> dondurulmuş kabuklular 75 mg/kg<br />

E 420-E 421<br />

E 953-E 965<br />

E 966-E 967<br />

E 968<br />

Dondurulmuş ve der<strong>in</strong> dondurulmuş işlenmemiş balık,<br />

kabuklular, yumuşakçalar ve kafadan bacaklılar<br />

QS<br />

Tatlandırma<br />

amacı<br />

dışında<br />

E 473-E 474 Çorbalar ve et/tavuk/balık suları 2 g/L<br />

E 338 Fosforik asit, E 339 Sodyum fosfatlar, E 340 Potasyum fosfatlar, E 341 Kalsiyum fosfatlar, E 343<br />

Magnezyum fosfatlar ,E 450 Difosfatlar, E 451 Trifosfatlar, E 452 Polifosfatlar, E 363 Süks<strong>in</strong>ik asit, E 385<br />

Kalsiyum disodyum etilen diam<strong>in</strong> tetra-asetat (Kalsiyum disodyum EDTA), E 420 Sorbitol, E 421 Mannitol, E<br />

953 İzomalt, E 965 Maltitol, E 966 Laktitol, E 967 Ksilitol, E 968 Eritritol, E 473 Yağ asitler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> sukroz<br />

esterleri, E 474 Sukrogliseridler. QS: Belirlenmemiş miktar.


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tablo 13. F.D.A.’ya göre sülfitleme ajanlarının kullanıldığı üründe bildirilme kriterleri<br />

Table 13. Label declaration criteria of sulfit<strong>in</strong>g agent on seafood by F.D.A. (F.D.A., 2011)<br />

Son Ürün Kullanılma Amacı<br />

Çiğ, kabuklu istakoz ve karides<br />

Pişmiş Ahtapot<br />

Kabuklu Eti<br />

Çiğ, kabuksuz istakoz ve karides<br />

İngredient olarak çiğ, kabuksuz<br />

istakoz ve karides eti içeren<br />

gıdalar (örneğ<strong>in</strong> güveç)<br />

Karides ve istakoz gibi krustase türler<strong>in</strong>de genellikle<br />

depolama sırasında ortaya çıkan ve kara<br />

benek (black spot) olarak bil<strong>in</strong>en reng<strong>in</strong> koyulaşması<br />

olayını önlemek amacıyla sülfitleme<br />

ajanları kullanılmaktadır. Bu ajanlar ahtapot işleme<br />

tesisler<strong>in</strong>de pişirilmiş ahtapotun kırmızı<br />

reng<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> korunması amacıyla kullanıldığı gibi<br />

balık yemler<strong>in</strong>de renk stabilizasyonunu sağlamak<br />

iç<strong>in</strong> de kullanılabilmektedir. Sülfitleme ajanlarına<br />

duyarlı <strong>in</strong>sanlar, hafif şiddetten ölüm risk<strong>in</strong>e varan<br />

bir aralıkta çeşitli belirtilere maruz kalabilmektedir.<br />

Ülkemizde yayınlanan 2002-31 nolu<br />

“Su Ürünler<strong>in</strong>de Sodyum Metabisülfit Kullanımı<br />

Genelgesi” ile; SO2 c<strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>den sodyum metabisülfit<br />

miktarının; taze, soğutulmuş, dondurulmuş ve<br />

der<strong>in</strong> dondurulmuş kabuklular ve kafadan bacaklıların<br />

yenilebilir kısımlarda, 150 mg/kg, pişirilmiş<br />

kabuklular ve kafadan bacaklıların yenilebilir<br />

kısımlarda ise 50 mg/kg olacağı bildirilmiştir..<br />

Food and Drug Adm<strong>in</strong>istration (F.D.A.) su ürünler<strong>in</strong>e<br />

katılan ve özellikle 10 ppm’den fazla olan<br />

sülfitleme ajanları iç<strong>in</strong> etikette bildirilme zorunluluğu<br />

ise Tablo 13’te görülmektedir (Anonim,<br />

2002b; F.D.A., 2011).<br />

Ülkemizde su ürünleri üretimi esnasında katılabilecek<br />

en yüksek Potasyum nitrit (E 249),<br />

Sodyum nitrit (E 250), Potasyum nitrat (E 251)<br />

ve Sodyum nitrat (E 252) miktarı, her biri iç<strong>in</strong><br />

150 ppm olarak belirlenmiştir (T.G.K.Y., 2008).<br />

A.B.D.’de füme balık ve kürlenmiş ton balığında<br />

reng<strong>in</strong> sabitlenmesi amacıyla 200 ppm’e kadar<br />

Sodyum Nitrat ve 10 ppm’e kadar Sodyum Nitrit’e<br />

iz<strong>in</strong> verilmiştir. Ayrıca E-385 kodlu Kalsi-<br />

Blackspot’u önlemek iç<strong>in</strong><br />

Kırmızı reng<strong>in</strong> korunması<br />

iç<strong>in</strong><br />

Renk kaybını önlemek iç<strong>in</strong><br />

Blackspot’u önlemek iç<strong>in</strong><br />

Sülfitleme Ajanı Miktarı<br />


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

konuma gelmesi ve özellikle ihracatta yurtdışındaki<br />

rakipleri ile daha güçlü rekabet edebilmesi<br />

açısından önemlidir.<br />

Ancak mevzuat uyarlamaları yapılırken ülken<strong>in</strong><br />

sosyolojik ve demografik kriterler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> de göz<br />

önünde bulundurulması gerekmektedir. Örneğ<strong>in</strong><br />

işlenmiş bir su ürününün fiziksel, kimyasal ve<br />

mikrobiyolojik kalite kriterler<strong>in</strong>i Avrupa ülkeleriyle<br />

ile aynı limitlere çekmen<strong>in</strong> yanı sıra bilhassa<br />

ülkemiz açısından zorunlu olan “denetim” mekanizmasının<br />

da oldukça verimli bir şekilde işletilmesi<br />

gerekmektedir. Ülkemizdeki en büyük sorunlardan<br />

birisi de bu denetim mekanizmasını<br />

etk<strong>in</strong> bir şekilde sürdürecek denetim personel<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

yetersizliğidir. Türkiye’de gıda denetimi hizmetler<strong>in</strong>den<br />

sorumlu bakanlık olan Gıda, Tarım ve<br />

Hayvancılık Bakanlığı’nın su ürünler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> kalite<br />

ve güvenliğ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> denetimi iç<strong>in</strong> özellikle Su Ürünleri<br />

Mühendisleri ve Balıkçılık Teknolojisi Mühendisleri’n<strong>in</strong><br />

istihdamı ile “gıda denetçisi” sayısını<br />

arttırıp, bu tür denetimleri sıklaştırması gerekmektedir.<br />

Konulan mevzuatların sağlıklı bir<br />

biçimde işleyebilmesi iç<strong>in</strong> bu konunun üzer<strong>in</strong>de<br />

hassasiyetle durulması gerekmektedir.<br />

70<br />

Kaynaklar<br />

Anonymous, (1994). Regulation (EC) No:94/36<br />

of the European Parliament and of the<br />

Council of 30 June 1994.<br />

Anonim, (1995). Su Ürünleri Yönetmeliği. R.G:<br />

10.03.1995-22223.<br />

Anonim, (2002a). Gıda Maddeler<strong>in</strong>de Belirli<br />

Bulaşanların Maksimum Seviyeler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />

Belirlenmesi Hakkında Tebliğ. 23.09.2002-<br />

24885.<br />

Anonim, (2002b). Su Ürünler<strong>in</strong>de Sodyum<br />

Metabisülfit Kullanımı Genelgesi. Genelge<br />

No: 2002-31<br />

Anonymous, (2004). Regulation (EC)<br />

No:853/2004 of the European Parliament<br />

and of the Council of 29 April 2004: Lay<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Down Specific Hygiene Rules for Food of<br />

Animal Orig<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Anonymous, (2005). Commission Regulation<br />

(EC) 2073/2005 of the European Parliament<br />

and of the Council of 15 November 2005: on<br />

Microbiological Criteria for Foodstuffs.<br />

Anonymous, (2006). Commission Regulation<br />

(EC) 1881/2006: Sett<strong>in</strong>g Maximum Levels<br />

For Certa<strong>in</strong> Contam<strong>in</strong>ants İn Foodstuffs.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Official Journal of the European Union: 5-<br />

24.<br />

Anonymous, (2007). The Rapid Alert System for<br />

Food and Feed (RASFF) Annual Report<br />

2007.<br />

http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/rapidalert/repo<br />

rt2007_en.pdf<br />

Anonim, (2011a). Su Ürünleri İle İlgili Bilgi ve<br />

Mevzuatlar.<br />

http://www.kkgm.gov.tr/birim/su_urn/su_ur<br />

n2.html<br />

Anonymous, (2011b).<br />

www.<strong>in</strong>spection.gc.ca/english/fssa/fispoi/ex<br />

port/coupaye.shtml#aus<br />

Anonymous, (2011c). Sydney harbour seafood.<br />

http://www.foodauthority.nsw.gov.au/consu<br />

mers/keep<strong>in</strong>g-food-safe/special-carefoods/sydney-harbour-seafood/<br />

Anonymous, (2011d). Food Additive Code<br />

Breaker-Color<strong>in</strong>g Agents.<br />

http://nac.allergyforum.<strong>com</strong>/additives/colors<br />

100-181.htm<br />

Anonymous, (2011e). Commission Regulation<br />

(EC) 1259/2011. amend<strong>in</strong>g Regulation (EC)<br />

No 1881/2006 as regards maximum levels<br />

for diox<strong>in</strong>s, diox<strong>in</strong>-like PCBs and non<br />

diox<strong>in</strong>-like PCBs <strong>in</strong> foodstuffs.<br />

Anonymous, (2011f). Commission Regulation<br />

(EC) 1276/2011. amend<strong>in</strong>g Annex III to<br />

Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 of the<br />

European Parliament and of the Council as<br />

regards the treatment to kill viable parasites<br />

<strong>in</strong> fishery products for human consumption.<br />

Arıkan, D., Yetim, H., Sağdıç, O., Kesmen, Z.,<br />

(2009). Gıdalarda Dioks<strong>in</strong> Kontam<strong>in</strong>asyonu<br />

ve İnsan Sağlığı Üzer<strong>in</strong>e Etkileri, Gıda<br />

Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, 12(2): 9-<br />

15.<br />

Çaklı, Ş., (2007). Su Ürünler<strong>in</strong>de İşleme<br />

Teknolojisi-1. Ege Üniversitesi. İzmir, 696<br />

pp.ISBN: 978-975-483-791-2<br />

Çalışır, Z.E., Çalışkan, D., (2003). Gıda katkı<br />

maddeleri ve <strong>in</strong>san sağlığı üzer<strong>in</strong>e etkileri,<br />

Ankara Üniversitesi Eczacılık Fakültesi<br />

Dergisi, 32(3): 193-206.<br />

Duyar, H. A., (2011). Balık konserveler<strong>in</strong>de<br />

histam<strong>in</strong> ve pH düzeyler<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> belirlenmesi<br />

üzer<strong>in</strong>e bir çalışma, Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi<br />

Veter<strong>in</strong>er Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(2): 71-74


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Yeşilsu ve Özyurt, 7(1): 58-71 (2013)<br />

E.F.S.A., (2009). Scientific Op<strong>in</strong>ion on the reevaluation<br />

of Qu<strong>in</strong>ol<strong>in</strong>e Yellow (E-104) as a<br />

food additive, European Food Safety<br />

Authority Journal, 7(11): 1329-1369<br />

F.A.O., (2003). Assur<strong>in</strong>g Food Safety and<br />

Quality-Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for strengthen<strong>in</strong>g<br />

national food control systems. Jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />

F.A.O./W.H.O. Publication, 73 pp.<br />

F.D.A., (2011). Fish and Fishery Products<br />

Hazards and Controls Guidance. 4th Edition,<br />

Florida, 476 pp.<br />

Giray, H., Soysal, A., (2007). Türkiye’de Gıda<br />

Güvenliği ve Mevzuatı, Türk Silahlı<br />

Kuvvetleri Koruyucu Hekimlik Bülteni, 6(6):<br />

485-490.<br />

Gökoğlu, N., (2002). Su Ürünleri İşleme<br />

Teknolojisi. Su Vakfı Yayınları, İstanbul,<br />

157pp.<br />

J.E.T.R.O., (2011). Specifications and Standards<br />

for Foods, Food Additives, etc. Under the<br />

Food Sanitation Act (Abstracts) 2010. Japan<br />

External Trade Organization, 187 pp.<br />

Jouve, J.L., (1998). Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of food safety<br />

legislation, Food Control, 9(2): 75-81.<br />

doi: 10.1016/S0956-7135(97)00062-5<br />

Lawley, R., (2007). S<strong>com</strong>brotox<strong>in</strong> (Histam<strong>in</strong>e),<br />

http://www.foodsafetywatch.<strong>com</strong>/public/484<br />

.cfm<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Nabors, L. O., (2001). Alternative Sweeteners.<br />

Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 553 pp.<br />

Öner, Z., (2010). Gıda Güvenliğ<strong>in</strong>de<br />

Mikrobiyolojik Kriterler,<br />

http://www.ggd.org.tr/icerik.php?id=343<br />

Öz, Ş. G., (2003). Aspartam: Güvenilirliği<br />

Üzer<strong>in</strong>e Yapılan Araştırma, Ankara<br />

Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Mecmuası, 56(2):<br />

113-120.<br />

Şireli, T., Tuncer, Ş.D., (2011). Dioks<strong>in</strong><br />

hakkındaki öz bilgiler, Gıda Güvenliği<br />

Dergisi, 5(1): 52-53.<br />

T.G.K.Y., (2007). Gıdalarda Kullanılan<br />

Renklendiriciler Tebliğ<strong>in</strong>de Değişiklik<br />

Yapılması Hakkında Tebliğ. R.Gazete:<br />

01.11.2007-26687.<br />

T.G.K.Y., (2008). Renklendiriciler ve<br />

Tatlandırıcılar Dışındaki Gıda Katkı<br />

Maddeleri Tebliği. 22.05.2008.<br />

T.G.K.Y., (2010). Gıda Maddeler<strong>in</strong>de Kullanılan<br />

Tatlandırıcılar Tebliği. R.Gazete<br />

:07.01.2011-27808.<br />

Ünlütürk, A., Turantaş, F., (1998). Gıda<br />

Mikrobiyolojisi. Mengi Tan Basımevi,<br />

İzmir, 605 pp.<br />

71


7(1): 72-78 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013007<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

SHORT COMMUNICATION KISA BİLGİLENDİRME<br />

SPAWNING PATTERN OF INDIAN OIL SARDINE,<br />

Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps Valenciennes, 1847 OF OMAN<br />

SEA, MUSCAT, SULTANATE OF OMAN<br />

Ibrahim Said Al-Anbouri 1∗ , Mohd Azmi Ambak 1 , Shama Zaki Abdul Haleem 2<br />

1 Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agrotechnology and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030<br />

72<br />

Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia<br />

2 Mar<strong>in</strong>e Science and Fisheries Center, M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture and Fisheries wealth, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, P.O 427,<br />

P.C 100 Muscat<br />

Abstract: The spawn<strong>in</strong>g seasons of Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps of Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e was <strong>in</strong>vestigated based on<br />

exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g gonads along the area of Oman Sea, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. The length at first<br />

maturity (L50%) and Gonado-somatic <strong>in</strong>dex (GSI) of females were considered. Length at first<br />

maturity was estimated as 182 mm (TL). The GSI shows two spawn<strong>in</strong>g seasons: the m<strong>in</strong>or one<br />

from December to March and the major once from June to September. The maximum GSI atta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

between 5.0 and 5.2 dur<strong>in</strong>g June and September respectively, suggest<strong>in</strong>g a spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

peak occurred dur<strong>in</strong>g that period.<br />

Keywords: Spawn<strong>in</strong>g season, Oman Sea, Gonado-somatic <strong>in</strong>dex (GSI)<br />

Özet: Umman Sultanlığı, Muskat, Umman Deniz<strong>in</strong>den Yağlı<br />

H<strong>in</strong>t Sardalyası'nın Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps Valenciennes,<br />

1847 Üreme Şekli<br />

Yağlı h<strong>in</strong>t sardalyasının (sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps) üreme sezonları, Umman Sultanlığı-başkenti<br />

Maskat, Umman Denizi boyunca gonadların <strong>in</strong>celenmesisi temel alarak değerlendirilmiştir.<br />

Dişiler<strong>in</strong> ilk erişk<strong>in</strong>likteki uzunluğu (L 50 %) ve gonadosomatik <strong>in</strong>deks (GSI) değerleri dikkate<br />

alınarak, ilk yetişk<strong>in</strong>likteki uzunluk 182 mm olarak hesaplanmış, Aralık’ tan Mart’ a kadar<br />

olan dönemde küçük bir dönem, ve Haziran’ dan Eylül’ e kadar olan büyük bir dönem olarak,<br />

GSI iki üreme sezonunu göstermektedir. Bu dönemde bir üreme pik<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> oluşmasıyla<br />

birlikte, maksimum GSI, Haziran ve Eylül boyunca sırayla 5.0 ve 5.2 arası değerlere ulaşmıştır.<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Üreme sezonu, Umman denizi, Gonadosomatik <strong>in</strong>deks<br />

∗ Correspondence to: I. S. AL-ANBOURI, Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agrotechnology and<br />

Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu,<br />

Terengganu-MALAYSIA<br />

Tel: 0060-1116832325<br />

E-mail: camry2005@yahoo.<strong>com</strong>


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Al-Anhouri et al., 7(1): 72-78 (2013)<br />

Introduction<br />

The Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps is<br />

a <strong>com</strong>mercially important small pelagic resource<br />

<strong>in</strong> the Indo-Pacific region. It is widely distributed<br />

along the coast of Omani waters. This species<br />

forms a considerable proportion <strong>in</strong> the fish<br />

catches of Oman. In fact, no more studies <strong>in</strong><br />

terms of spawn<strong>in</strong>g pattern on this fish have been<br />

conducted <strong>in</strong> Oman. Hence, a study was carried<br />

out to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the spawn<strong>in</strong>g patterns based on<br />

gonado-somatic <strong>in</strong>dex analysis. Studies of ovaries<br />

on a monthly basis considered as appropriate<br />

method for biological analysis <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the spawn<strong>in</strong>g season and length at first maturity<br />

of <strong>com</strong>mercial species. Studies of spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

patterns of oil sard<strong>in</strong>e based on GSI have been<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigated by different scientists. Al-Jufaili et<br />

al. (2006) observed two major spawn<strong>in</strong>g peaks of<br />

S. longiceps <strong>in</strong> Oman; Muscat to be dur<strong>in</strong>g March<br />

to April and August. The length at first maturity<br />

(L50%) was estimated between 125-135 mm <strong>in</strong><br />

Oman and Arabian Sea (Dorr III, 1990). Recent<br />

reviews <strong>in</strong> India were also reported by Rohit and<br />

Bhat (2003) identified the spawn<strong>in</strong>g season dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

June to August, peak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> July along<br />

Manglore-Malpe coast. Banerji (1973) observed<br />

two spawn<strong>in</strong>g seasons <strong>in</strong> India, one <strong>in</strong> early season<br />

and the other at the end of season dur<strong>in</strong>g June<br />

to October.<br />

Oman has a long coastl<strong>in</strong>e of 3,165 km bordered<br />

by Arabian Gulf, Oman Sea and Arabian<br />

Sea and is rich <strong>in</strong> biodiversity of species. Fisheries<br />

resources <strong>in</strong> the Sultanate of Oman are one of<br />

the significant renewable resources and support<br />

the country's economy to a greater extent. Fisheries<br />

sector of Oman supports the second national<br />

economy after oil and gas. The total fish production<br />

of the Sultanate for the year 2009 stood at<br />

158.000 tons of which the artisanal fisheries<br />

sector contributed to about 84% of the total fish<br />

production and the rest by <strong>in</strong>dustrial fleet<br />

(MOFW, 2000-2009). The total value of fishery<br />

production <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> 2009 to RO 104 million,<br />

up by 9% from the previous year 2008 and about<br />

51% of the total fish produced had been exported<br />

to other countries. The small pelagic fishes contributed<br />

to about 34% of the artisanal production;<br />

while demersal fishes formed 32% and the large<br />

pelagics about 23% and crustaceans and mollusks<br />

5%, sharks 3% and rest others. Of the small pelagic<br />

fisheries resources of Oman, the clupeids<br />

are the most dom<strong>in</strong>ant group <strong>in</strong> the land<strong>in</strong>gs. Alt-<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

hough 19 species of clupeidae have been reported,<br />

only three species, such as Sard<strong>in</strong>ella<br />

longiceps, S. gibbosa and S. s<strong>in</strong>densis are <strong>com</strong>mon<br />

<strong>in</strong> the catches. These clupeids are coastal<br />

water species and occur <strong>in</strong> large schools. They<br />

are ma<strong>in</strong>ly targeted by the beach se<strong>in</strong>e which<br />

lands up to 59% of the total sard<strong>in</strong>e catches of the<br />

country.<br />

There was a dramatic decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> land<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> S.<br />

longiceps from 58,960 <strong>in</strong> 2001 to 32,092 tons <strong>in</strong><br />

2005. This decrease could be the reasons of<br />

heavy fish<strong>in</strong>g pressure dur<strong>in</strong>g that period. The<br />

market price of the species was probably high<br />

and was more preferred by fishermen to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

the catch. Further, other small pelagic and sard<strong>in</strong>e<br />

species might not be present dur<strong>in</strong>g that period<br />

and eventually Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e appeared to be<br />

highly targeted. As a result, some of mature<br />

fishes may have been reduced dur<strong>in</strong>g the spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

season <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> areas. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to that,<br />

GSI study is established to <strong>in</strong>vestigate spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

peak which helps to provide some <strong>in</strong>formation on<br />

spawn<strong>in</strong>g season’s period as well as the gonad<br />

analysis is aim<strong>in</strong>g to determ<strong>in</strong>e length at first<br />

maturation of Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> Oman Sea,<br />

Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.<br />

Materials and Methods<br />

Sample Collection<br />

Samples of S. longiceps were collected at random<br />

twice a month from artisanal catches ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

by beach se<strong>in</strong>e of 47 mm stretched mesh size<br />

along the Muscat coast (Figure 1) for a period of<br />

one year from October 2008 to September 2009.<br />

A total of 830 fish were collected for biological<br />

analysis. The fishes were brought to laboratory <strong>in</strong><br />

icebox, washed and prepared prior to biological<br />

measurements. The total length (TL), standard<br />

length (SL) and body depth were measured to the<br />

nearest 1 mm. The weight of each fish was taken<br />

to the nearest 1 g. Then the fish was dissected out<br />

to record the sex and maturity stage. The gonad<br />

was removed and weighted to the nearest 0.01g.<br />

Study of Maturity Stages<br />

The maturity stages of S. longiceps were<br />

studied on monthly basis. The gonad stages for<br />

female were exam<strong>in</strong>ed. Seven stages of maturity<br />

were identified accord<strong>in</strong>g to external appearance,<br />

color, shape and size of gonads shown (Table 1).<br />

Gonado-somatic <strong>in</strong>dex (GSI) was calculated for<br />

73


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Al-Anhouri et al., 7(1): 72-78 (2013)<br />

each fish on monthly basis <strong>in</strong> Muscat region us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the formula GSI = mass of gonad (g) / fish<br />

mass (g) <strong>in</strong> order to <strong>in</strong>dicate the spawn<strong>in</strong>g season.<br />

Estimation of Length at First Maturity<br />

(L50%)<br />

The size at which 50% of the fish reach reproductive<br />

maturity (L50) was estimated by plott<strong>in</strong>g<br />

cumulative maturity percentages versus total<br />

length (mm). Once that made, the length at first<br />

maturity was determ<strong>in</strong>ed by correspond<strong>in</strong>g length<br />

at first maturity (L50%) with the maturation percentage.<br />

74<br />

Results and Discussion<br />

A total of 830 fish were obta<strong>in</strong>ed for reproductive<br />

study. The length at first maturity of female<br />

(L50%) of S. longiceps is determ<strong>in</strong>ed as 182<br />

mm (TL) (Figure 2). In addition, the GSI of female<br />

was calculated on a monthly basis from<br />

October 2008 to September 2009. High GSI values<br />

were observed dur<strong>in</strong>g June and September<br />

with 5.0 to 5.2 respectively and moderately high<br />

values is occurred <strong>in</strong> March, April, May and August,<br />

suggest<strong>in</strong>g spawn<strong>in</strong>g season occurred twice<br />

a year, the m<strong>in</strong>or one from December to March<br />

and the major one from June to September (Figure<br />

3).<br />

Length at first maturity (L50%) was estimated<br />

as 182 mm (TL). Siddeek et al. (1994) concluded<br />

the species appeared to spawn earlier at 159.3<br />

mm (TL) <strong>in</strong> Omani waters. In the present study,<br />

the species reached maturity later at 182 mm<br />

which was appropriately reasonable as this species<br />

tend to shift their spawn<strong>in</strong>g and habitat seasonally<br />

due to biological and environmental<br />

events.<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to GSI, the species appeared to<br />

spawn twice a year. The first m<strong>in</strong>or spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

was observed dur<strong>in</strong>g December to March and the<br />

major once from June to September. This could<br />

be <strong>in</strong>terpreted that species may atta<strong>in</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

more than once <strong>in</strong> a year or dur<strong>in</strong>g its lifespan <strong>in</strong><br />

the tropical waters. This biological behavior was<br />

due to the species capability to shift back from<br />

stage 7 to stage 3 and resume spawn<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Al- Barwani (1989) identified the spawn<strong>in</strong>g season<br />

of S. longiceps <strong>in</strong> Oman occur <strong>in</strong> two<br />

spawn<strong>in</strong>g seasons dur<strong>in</strong>g September to February<br />

<strong>in</strong> Muscat and May to October <strong>in</strong> Eastern region<br />

of Oman Sea, whereas <strong>in</strong> Arabian Sea the<br />

spawn<strong>in</strong>g activity was observed to be from May<br />

to September. Al-Jufaili et al. (2006) also observed<br />

two major spawn<strong>in</strong>g peaks of S. longiceps<br />

<strong>in</strong> Oman; Muscat to be dur<strong>in</strong>g March to April and<br />

with peak dur<strong>in</strong>g August where the GSI value<br />

atta<strong>in</strong>ed 3.95, 4.07 and 4.41 respectively. Edward<br />

and Shaher (1986) observed the spawn<strong>in</strong>g season<br />

of Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the Gulf of Aden while<br />

GSI of S. longiceps did not <strong>in</strong>crease more than<br />

1% of body weight dur<strong>in</strong>g November to May and<br />

GSI <strong>in</strong>creased to 7.5% of body weight dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

May to July. It appeared to beg<strong>in</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a period from August to November and<br />

peaked dur<strong>in</strong>g July to September. Hence, it was<br />

suggested that the spawn<strong>in</strong>g peak <strong>in</strong> the Gulf of<br />

Aden was dur<strong>in</strong>g the period of upwell<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

growth <strong>in</strong>creased due to the abundance of plankton<br />

<strong>in</strong> the surface water. Those reviews were almost<br />

agreed with the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the present<br />

study.<br />

The GSI shows some <strong>in</strong>dications of spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

peaks dur<strong>in</strong>g June and September <strong>in</strong> the present<br />

study. This spawn<strong>in</strong>g peak was the period of<br />

upwell<strong>in</strong>g which improves the abundance of<br />

plankton <strong>in</strong> Arabian Sea as Oman Sea may have<br />

been <strong>in</strong>fluenced by South-west monsoon seasons.<br />

It was suggested there was a correlation between<br />

temperature rise and fall <strong>in</strong> Oman Sea (Al-Jufaili<br />

et al. 2006). This period of spawn<strong>in</strong>g peak was<br />

considered as a summer season and ris<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

temperature would develop and <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />

spawn<strong>in</strong>g activities. This was agreed as well by<br />

Siddeek et al. (1994), as he stated there was a<br />

relationship between sard<strong>in</strong>e spawn<strong>in</strong>g pattern<br />

and oceanographic changes <strong>in</strong> Muscat. Reviews<br />

of reproductive pattern of S. longiceps were<br />

identified <strong>in</strong> Table 2. The reproductive biology<br />

observations obta<strong>in</strong>ed by recent reviews <strong>in</strong> Table<br />

2 were almost agreed with the present study.


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Al-Anhouri et al., 7(1): 72-78 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Figure 1. The Study area of Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps <strong>in</strong> Muscat.<br />

Source: http://www.atfp.org.ae/english/countries/oman/oman.htm<br />

75


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Al-Anhouri et al., 7(1): 72-78 (2013)<br />

76<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Table 1. Maturity stages of female S. longiceps by macroscopic analysis (Raja, 1966).<br />

Stage Macroscopic of appearance of ovary<br />

Immature Ovaries soft, cyl<strong>in</strong>drical, p<strong>in</strong>k and <strong>com</strong>pletely transparent.<br />

Extend to about half of body cavity.<br />

Matur<strong>in</strong>g (2a) Ovaries soft, cyl<strong>in</strong>drical, p<strong>in</strong>k and extend more than half of<br />

body cavity. Ova not visible to naked eye.<br />

Spent rest<strong>in</strong>g (2b) Dark red or brownish red. Oviducts wider but shorter, extend<br />

more than half of body cavity.<br />

Matur<strong>in</strong>g (3) Turgid, opaque and yellow with granular appearance. Oviduct<br />

very much reduced. Extend to more than half of body cavity.<br />

Matur<strong>in</strong>g (4) Compact, vascular, bright yellow ovaries. Oviduct not dis-<br />

Cumulative % of maturity<br />

100<br />

90<br />

80<br />

70<br />

60<br />

50<br />

40<br />

30<br />

20<br />

10<br />

0<br />

n= 329<br />

Size group (mm)<br />

Figure 2. Length at first maturity (L50%) of S. longiceps<br />

t<strong>in</strong>ct. Occupy more than three-quarters of body cavity.<br />

Mature (5)<br />

Orange yellow and fully vascular. Extend more than the<br />

length of body cavity.<br />

Ripe (6)<br />

Appear as cream coloured cellophane bag filled with boiled<br />

sago. At a slight prick gelat<strong>in</strong>ous mass of transparent ova<br />

flows out. Extend more than the length of body cavity.<br />

Spent (7a) Dark red, either throughout or at the posterior half. A bit flaccid,<br />

shrunken with wr<strong>in</strong>kle on the tunica. Occupy about threequarters<br />

of body cavity.<br />

Spent (7b) Elongated, honey-coloured, bloodshot, flabby, limb, flattened<br />

and gelat<strong>in</strong>ous with wr<strong>in</strong>kles on the surface. Wide oviduct<br />

now discernible. Occupy to more than half of body cavity.<br />

Female


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Al-Anhouri et al., 7(1): 72-78 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Figure 3. Mean gonado-somatic Index (GSI) of S. longiceps aga<strong>in</strong>st months.<br />

Table 2. Reproductive biology <strong>in</strong> S. longiceps <strong>in</strong> various regions <strong>com</strong>pared with present study.<br />

Spawn<strong>in</strong>g season L50 % (TL) Area Author<br />

September to February<br />

March to April<br />

September to October<br />

March to April and<br />

August<br />

July to September<br />

December to March<br />

June to September<br />

Conclusions<br />

125-135 mm<br />

159.3 mm<br />

-<br />

16-20 cm<br />

182 mm<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the exam<strong>in</strong>ation of the ovaries,<br />

the S. longiceps species seemed to spawn generally<br />

along the year. However, the spawn<strong>in</strong>g peaks<br />

were observed dur<strong>in</strong>g June and September where<br />

GSI obta<strong>in</strong>ed as 5.0 to 5.2 respectively. The<br />

length at first maturity (L50%) suggested be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

182 mm <strong>in</strong> the <strong>com</strong>mercial catch along Muscat<br />

area which was more reasonable and representative<br />

considered as short lived species that <strong>in</strong>di-<br />

Oman, Muscat<br />

Oman, Muscat<br />

Dorr III (1990)<br />

Siddeek et al. (1994)<br />

Oman, Muscat Al-Jufaili et al. (2006)<br />

India<br />

Oman, Muscat<br />

Deshmukh et al. (2010)<br />

Present study<br />

cated this fish managed to spawn more than once<br />

of its life span. These biological key observations<br />

would help to provide some management utilities<br />

for the decisions maker <strong>in</strong> the future, suggest<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that spawn<strong>in</strong>g areas should be identified and<br />

protected as well as the allowable size of the<br />

catch should be determ<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

Acknowledgment<br />

My great appreciation goes to the M<strong>in</strong>istry of<br />

Agriculture and Fisheries Wealth, Mar<strong>in</strong>e Sci-<br />

77


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Al-Anhouri et al., 7(1): 72-78 (2013)<br />

ence and Fisheries Centre and the Directorate of<br />

Agriculture and Fisheries Developmental Fund<br />

for giv<strong>in</strong>g me the opportunity to work on the fish<br />

samples of Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps species <strong>in</strong> Sultanate<br />

of Oman and to provide the appropriate<br />

f<strong>in</strong>ancial support. I gratefully acknowledge assistance<br />

<strong>in</strong> samples collection, process<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

measurements by: R. A-Sanaidi, J. Jaffary and H.<br />

Busaidi.<br />

References<br />

Al- Barwani, M.A., Prabhakar, A., Dorr III, J.A.,<br />

Al- Mandhery, M., (1989). Studies on the<br />

biology of Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps<br />

(Valenciennes) <strong>in</strong> the Sultanate of Oman,<br />

1985-1986, Kuwait Bullet<strong>in</strong> of Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Sciences, 10: 201-209.<br />

Al-Jufaili, S.M., Al-Azri, A.R., Al-Shuaily, S.S.,<br />

Ambu-Ali, A.A., (2006). Observations on<br />

the fecundity and gonadosomatic <strong>in</strong>dex<br />

(GSI) of the Omani-Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps (Valenciennes 1847),<br />

Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences,<br />

9(4): 700-702.<br />

doi: 10.3923/pjbs.2006.700.702<br />

Antony Raja, B.T., (1966). On the maturity<br />

stages of Indian oil-sard<strong>in</strong>e, Sard<strong>in</strong>ella<br />

longiceps Val., with notes on <strong>in</strong>cidence of<br />

atretic follicles <strong>in</strong> advanced ovaries, Indian<br />

Journal of Fisheries, 13(1-2): 27-47.<br />

Bannerji, S.K., (1973). An assessment of the<br />

exploited pelagic fisheries of the Indian<br />

Seas. CMFRI Coch<strong>in</strong>. pp. 11435.<br />

78<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Deshmukh A.V., Kovale, S.R., Sawant, M.S.,<br />

Shirdhankar, M.M., Funde, A.B., (2010).<br />

Reproductive biology of Sard<strong>in</strong>ella<br />

longiceps along Ratnagiri coast off<br />

Maharashtra, Indian Journal of Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Sciences, 39(2): 274-279.<br />

Dorr III, J.A., (1990). Small pelagic f<strong>in</strong>al report<br />

for the contract for technical services for<br />

staff<strong>in</strong>g the Mar<strong>in</strong>e Science and Fisheries<br />

Center <strong>in</strong> Oman. Funded by the Omani-<br />

American Jo<strong>in</strong>t Commission as Project No.<br />

272-0101.1-1.<br />

Edwards, R.R.C., Shaher, S., (1987). Biometrics<br />

of Sard<strong>in</strong>ella longiceps Val. <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />

upwell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Gulf of Aden, Journal of<br />

Fish Biology, 30: 67-73.<br />

doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.1987.tb05733.x<br />

M<strong>in</strong>istry of Fisheries Wealth (MOFW), (2000-<br />

2009). Fisheries Statistics Book. Fisheries<br />

statistics and <strong>in</strong>formation department,<br />

General Directorate of Fisheries Research,<br />

Sultanate of Oman, Muscat.<br />

Rohit, P., Uma S.B., (2003). Sard<strong>in</strong>e fishery with<br />

notes on the biology and stock assessment of<br />

oil sard<strong>in</strong>e off Mangalore-Malpe, Journal of<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e Biological Association India ,45(1):<br />

61-73.<br />

Siddeek, M.S.M., Al-Habsi, H.N., Al-Jufaili,<br />

S.M., (1994). Spawn<strong>in</strong>g cycle, recruitment<br />

patterns and maturity length of Indian oil<br />

sard<strong>in</strong>e At-Azaiba, The Gulf of Oman, The<br />

Third Asian Fisheries Forum, Asian<br />

Fisheries Society, Manila, Philipp<strong>in</strong>es.


7(1): 79-82 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013008<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

SHORT COMMUNICATION KISA BİLGİLENDİRME<br />

Perca luth Walbaum, 1792, A SENIOR SYNONYM<br />

OF THE MEAGRE, Argyrosomus regius (Asso,<br />

1801) (PERCIFORMES: SCIAENIDAE),<br />

INVALIDATED BY “REVERSAL OF PRECEDENCE”<br />

Paolo Parenti ∗<br />

Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Ambiente e del Territorio e di Scienze della Terra, Università di Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy<br />

Abstract: Perca luth Walbaum, 1792, is shown to be a senior synonym of the meagre, Argyrosomus regius<br />

(Asso, 1801). Conditions exist, however, to allow “reversal of precedence” of the two<br />

names, as provided by Article 23.9.1 of the <strong>in</strong>ternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature.<br />

Thus, Argyrosomus regius (Asso, 1801), is regarded as valid, qualify<strong>in</strong>g as a nomen protectum,<br />

while the name Perca luth Walbaum, 1792, is recognized as <strong>in</strong>valid, qualify<strong>in</strong>g as a nomen<br />

oblitum.<br />

Keywords: Perca luth, Argyrosomus regius, Nomenclature<br />

Özet: Argyrosomus regius (Asso, 1801) (Perciformes:<br />

Sciaenidae),’un senior eşlanlamlısı olan Perca<br />

luth Walbaum, 1792, ism<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> “öncelik iptali”<br />

Perca luth Walbaum, 1792, ismi Argyrosomus regius (Asso, 1801)’ın senior eşlanlamlısı<br />

olarak gösterilmektedir. Koşullar var olduğunda, Uluslararası Zoolojik Adlandırma<br />

Kanunu’nun 23.9.1 numaralı kanun maddesi tarafından iki ism<strong>in</strong> “öncelik iptali” ne iz<strong>in</strong> vermiştir.<br />

Bu nedenle, “nomen oblitum” olarak tanımlanan Perca luth Walbaum, 1792, ismi<br />

geçersiz sayılırken, “nomen proctetum (korunan ad)” olarak tanımlanan Argyrosomus regius<br />

(Asso, 1801) ismi kabul görmektedir.<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Perca luth, Argyrosomus regius, Term<strong>in</strong>oloji<br />

∗ Correspondence to: Paolo PARENTI, Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Ambiente e del Territorio e di Scienze della<br />

Terra, Università di Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milano, ITALY.<br />

Tel: 0039 (0)2 6448 2752<br />

E-mail: paolo.parenti@unimib.it<br />

79


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Parenti, 7(1): 79-82 (2013)<br />

In his <strong>com</strong>pilation of genera and species of<br />

fishes Walbaum (1792) listed 75 specific names<br />

under the genus Perca, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a number of<br />

nom<strong>in</strong>a oblita (20) whose status rema<strong>in</strong>ed uncerta<strong>in</strong><br />

for two centuries. Quite recently, Parenti<br />

(2003) reviewed the status of this assemblage of<br />

fish names and was able to place all of them <strong>in</strong>to<br />

synonymy of well-established fish names. The<br />

name Perca luth, which was also <strong>in</strong>cluded by<br />

Walbaum <strong>in</strong> his account (1792:334), was overlooked<br />

because regarded as not orig<strong>in</strong>al and thus<br />

it was not treated by Parenti (2003). However, a<br />

recent re-exam<strong>in</strong>ation of the Walbaum’s <strong>com</strong>pilation<br />

led this name to be restored as available<br />

name (Eschmeyer, 2012).<br />

The name Perca (Luth) appeared as such for<br />

the first time <strong>in</strong> Hasselquist (1762: 402) preced<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the description of a percoid fish encountered<br />

by the author <strong>in</strong> his travel to Palest<strong>in</strong>e. This name<br />

is treated as not available from this author because<br />

published <strong>in</strong> a rejected work (ICZN Op<strong>in</strong>ion<br />

57) and also regarded as vernacular, non-scientific<br />

name. However, the name is available<br />

from Walbaum (1792:334).<br />

Walbaum listed Perca luth as eighteenth species<br />

of the genus Perca and he amassed the species<br />

together with others belong<strong>in</strong>g to highly diverse<br />

percoid families. As for other species, the<br />

name is followed by a brief diagnosis and by a<br />

second paragraph which <strong>in</strong>clude a somewhat detailed<br />

description. The diagnosis of P. luth is the<br />

same as provided by Hasselquist (dentibus longiusculis,<br />

distichis, acum<strong>in</strong>atis,<strong>in</strong>ferioribus duplicatis),<br />

whilst the description is <strong>com</strong>piled <strong>in</strong> a<br />

more schematic way accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Walbaum’s<br />

style. A translation of the description is here provided.<br />

Perca, Luth. Br. 7. D. 3/20, 1/30. P. 17. V. 6.<br />

A… C. 20. Body <strong>com</strong>pressed, elongate. Head of<br />

similar shape. Snout a little po<strong>in</strong>ted. Upper jaw<br />

longer and larger than lower jaw. Tongue, <strong>in</strong>terior<br />

of the mouth and palate smooth and yellow.<br />

Teeth <strong>in</strong> upper jaw considerably long, conical,<br />

bowed, separated, posterior shorter; <strong>in</strong> lower jaw<br />

similar, however twice shorter and doubled near<br />

the apex. Head and operculum scaled; upper<br />

opercular marg<strong>in</strong> serrate and with a sp<strong>in</strong>e, lower<br />

one as <strong>in</strong> other species of the genus. Dorsal f<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />

two parts, anterior with 10 sp<strong>in</strong>es. First very<br />

short, eighth and n<strong>in</strong>th with strong sp<strong>in</strong>es, 2, 3, 4,<br />

5, 6, 7 more flexible; 30 posterior rays, the first<br />

sp<strong>in</strong>uous, the remnant soft. Caudal f<strong>in</strong> rounded.<br />

80<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Anus and lateral l<strong>in</strong>e as <strong>in</strong> the congeners. Habitat<br />

<strong>in</strong> Red Sea.<br />

By <strong>com</strong>par<strong>in</strong>g the description given by Walbaum<br />

with that provided by Hasselquist it can be<br />

noticed that some traits were omitted, probably<br />

regarded of lesser importance by Walbaum.<br />

Among these there are: i) the convex shape of the<br />

head below the eye (lateribus sub oculis convexum,<br />

pone perpendiculare); ii) a large mouth<br />

(rictus oris magnus); iii) the shape of the tongue<br />

(magna, cartilag<strong>in</strong>ea, apice obtusa, depressa,<br />

basi convexiuscula, subtus ad bas<strong>in</strong> palato ligamento<br />

adnexa, antice libera); iv) the description<br />

of the nostrils (nares proxime ante oculos<br />

utr<strong>in</strong>que b<strong>in</strong>ae, admodum remotae; posteriores<br />

transversaliter elliptcae, ampliusculae, anteriores<br />

angustiores orbiculatae); v) the shape of<br />

the dorsal profile (dorsum parum a capite assurgens;<br />

ante p<strong>in</strong>na dorsi convexum; ab illo ad caudam<br />

sensim declive, acum<strong>in</strong>atum), the flank<br />

(latera convexa supra l<strong>in</strong>ea lateralis attenuata)<br />

and the belly (abdomen convexum); vi) the shape<br />

of the branchiostegal rays (I maximum arcuatum,<br />

exterius gibbus, reliqua ord<strong>in</strong>e m<strong>in</strong>ora. Branchiae<br />

ut <strong>in</strong> reliquis); vii) the position of pectorals<br />

(prope abdomen acum<strong>in</strong>ate); and viii) the size<br />

(magnitudo Scienae primae).<br />

In one aspect Walbaum was wrong: the type<br />

locality. Hasselquist reported that the fish came<br />

from Damietta (Habitat cum prima & reliquis<br />

promiscue circa litora Damiatae), whereas Walbaum<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicated the Red Sea (habitat <strong>in</strong> mari rubro).<br />

Damietta , also known as Damiata<br />

or Domyat, is a port and the capital of<br />

the Damietta Governorate <strong>in</strong> Egypt. It is located<br />

at the <strong>in</strong>tersection between the Mediterranean<br />

Sea and the Nile, about 200 kilometers north<br />

of Cairo. Perhaps Walbaum was misled by read<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that Arabian knew the fish as luth, as reported<br />

by Hasselquist (Arabis Luth) and believed the<br />

specimen <strong>in</strong>habit<strong>in</strong>g the Red Sea. The author is<br />

unable to f<strong>in</strong>d a different explanation for chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the type locality of P. luth.<br />

Although Walbaum omitted a number of features<br />

reported <strong>in</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al description by Hasselquist,<br />

there is no doubt that P. luth represents a<br />

senior synonym of the meagre Argyrosomus regius<br />

(Asso, 1801). Several features, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

meristics, general shape of the body and caudal<br />

f<strong>in</strong>, and <strong>in</strong> particular the color of the <strong>in</strong>ternal of<br />

the mouth allow positive identification of the<br />

species.


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Parenti, 7(1): 79-82 (2013)<br />

The consequence of the discovery that an<br />

older name predates a long-established one necessitates<br />

nomenclatural actions. The International<br />

Code of Zoological Nomenclature (1999)<br />

states that the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of Priority is to be used to<br />

promote stability and not to upset long-accepted<br />

names. Therefore, <strong>in</strong> accordance with that Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple,<br />

the application of reversal of precedence of<br />

two names and the cont<strong>in</strong>uation of prevail<strong>in</strong>g usage<br />

of a younger synonym is allowed when two<br />

conditions are met (see Article 23.9). These conditions<br />

are: (1) a name has not been used as valid<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce 1899 (Article 23.9.1.1) and (2) the valid<br />

name has been used as such <strong>in</strong> at least 25 works,<br />

published by at least 10 authors dur<strong>in</strong>g the past<br />

50 years, and en<strong>com</strong>pass<strong>in</strong>g a span not less than<br />

ten years (Article 23.9.1.2). Condition (1) and<br />

condition (2) exist for Perca luth and for Argyrosomus<br />

regius, respectively, to allow “reversal of<br />

precedence” of the two names. Argyrosomus regius<br />

(Asso, 1801), is thus regarded as valid,<br />

qualify<strong>in</strong>g as a nomen protectum, while Perca<br />

luth Walbaum, 1792, is recognized as <strong>in</strong>valid,<br />

qualify<strong>in</strong>g as nomen oblitum. As evidence that<br />

conditions of Article 23.9.1.2 have been met see<br />

Appendix 1:<br />

Appendix 1.<br />

Published works that cite Argyrosomus<br />

regius as valid, thus fulfill<strong>in</strong>g the requirements<br />

of Article 23.9.1.2 of the International<br />

Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN,<br />

1999), are as follows: Arruda L.M. 1997,<br />

Checklist of the mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes of the Azores,<br />

Arquivos do Museu Bocage (Nova série)<br />

3(2): 13-164; Ba<strong>in</strong>bridge, R., 1958, The<br />

speed of swimm<strong>in</strong>g as related to size and to<br />

the frequency and amplitude of the tail beat,<br />

Journal of Experimental Biology 35(1):109-<br />

133; Bilecenoglu, M., E. Taskavak, S. Mater<br />

and M. Kaya, 2002, Checklist of the mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

fishes of Turkey, Zootaxa 113:1-194; Caverivière,<br />

A. and G.A.R. Andriamirado, 1997,<br />

M<strong>in</strong>imal fish predation for the p<strong>in</strong>k<br />

shrimp Penaeus notalis <strong>in</strong> Senegal (West Africa),<br />

Bullet<strong>in</strong> of Mar<strong>in</strong>e Science 61(3):685-<br />

695; Chakroun, N. and M.H. Ktari, 1981,<br />

Diet of the Sciaenidae (Fishes, Teleosteans)<br />

of the Tunis Bay, Bullet<strong>in</strong> de l’Institut National<br />

de Science et Technique d'Océanographie<br />

et de Pêche de Salammbô 8: 69-80;<br />

Chao, L.N. and E. Trewavas, 1990, Sciaeni-<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

dae, p.813-826. In J.C. Quero et al. (eds.)<br />

Check-list of the fishes the eastern tropical<br />

Atlantic (CLOFETA), UNESCO, Paris, vol<br />

2; Coull, K.A., A.S. Jermyn, A.W. Newton,<br />

G.I. Henderson and W.B. Hall, 1989,<br />

Length/weight relationships for 88 species of<br />

fish encountered <strong>in</strong> the North Atlantic, Scottish<br />

Fisheries Research Report 43: 1-80;<br />

Costa, F., 199, Atlante dei pesci dei mari<br />

italiani, Gruppo Ugo Mursia Editore S.p.A.<br />

Milano, Italy, 438 p.; Dor, M.1984, Checklist<br />

of the fishes of the Red Sea, Israel Academy<br />

of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem, 437<br />

p.; Economidis, P.S., 1973, Catalogue of the<br />

fishes of Greece, repr<strong>in</strong>ted from Hellenic<br />

Oceanology and Limnology, Praktika of the<br />

Institute of Oceanography and Fish<strong>in</strong>g Research,<br />

vol. 11 (1972); Griffiths, M.H. and<br />

P.C. Heemstra, 1995, A contribution to the<br />

taxonomy of the mar<strong>in</strong>e fish genus<br />

Argyrosomus (Perciformes: Sciaenidae),<br />

with descriptions of two new species from<br />

southern Africa, Ichthyological Bullet<strong>in</strong>,<br />

J.L.B. Smith Insttute of Ichthyology 65, 1-40;<br />

L<strong>in</strong>dsey, C.C., 1978. Form, function and lo<strong>com</strong>otory<br />

habits <strong>in</strong> fish. p. 1-100. In W. S.<br />

Hoar and D. J. Randall (eds.) Fish Physiology<br />

VII. Academic Press, New York; Lythgoe<br />

J, and G. Lythgoe, 1992, Fishes of the<br />

sea. The North Atlantic and Mediterranean.<br />

The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts,<br />

256 pp.; Muus, B.J. and J.G. Nielsen, 1999.<br />

Sea fish. Scand<strong>in</strong>avian Fish<strong>in</strong>g Year Book,<br />

Hedehusene, Denmark. 340 p.; Nijssen, H.<br />

and S.J. de Groot, 1974. Catalogue of fish<br />

species of the Netherlands. Beaufortia<br />

21(285):173-207; Par<strong>in</strong>, N. V. 2003, An annotated<br />

catalogue of fish-like vertebrates and<br />

fishes of the seas of Russia and adjacent<br />

countries: Part 3. Orders Perciformes (exclud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

suborders Gobioidei, Zoarcoidei and<br />

Stichaeoidei) and Tetraodontiformes, Voprosy<br />

Ikhtiologii 43 (suppl. 1): S1-S40; Poli,<br />

B.M., Parisi, G., Mecatti, M., Lupi, P., Iurzan,<br />

F., Zampacavallo, G. & Gilmozzi, M.<br />

2001a.The meagre (Argyrosomus regius), a<br />

new species for Mediterranean aquaculture.<br />

1. Morphological, merchantable and nutritional<br />

traits <strong>in</strong> a <strong>com</strong>mercial wide size-range.<br />

European Aquaculture Society Special Pub-<br />

81


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Parenti, 7(1): 79-82 (2013)<br />

lication, 29: 209–210; Quéro, J.-C. and J.-J.<br />

Vayne, 1987, Le maigre, Argyrosomus regius<br />

(Asso 1801) (Pisces, Perciformes, Sciaenidae)<br />

du Golfe de Gascogne et des eaux<br />

plus septentrionales, Revue des Travaux de<br />

Péches Maritime 49(1-2):35-66; Quignard,<br />

J.-P. and J.A. Tomas<strong>in</strong>i, 2000, Mediterranean<br />

fish biodiversity, Biologia Mar<strong>in</strong>a Mediterranea<br />

7(3):1-66; Re<strong>in</strong>er, F., 1996, Catálogo<br />

dos peixes do Arquipélago de Cabo Verde.<br />

Publicações avulsas do IPIMAR No. 2: 339<br />

pp.; Rob<strong>in</strong>s, C.R., R.M. Bailey, C.E. Bond,<br />

J.R. Brooker, E.A. Lachner, R.N. Lea and<br />

W.B. Scott, 1991, World fishes important to<br />

North Americans. Exclusive of species from<br />

the cont<strong>in</strong>ental waters of the United States<br />

and Canada. American Fishery Society Special<br />

Publications 21: 243 p.<br />

Rochard, E. and P. Elie, 1994. La<br />

macrofaune aquatique de l'estuaire de la Gironde.<br />

Contribution au livre blanc de<br />

l'Agencie de l'Eau Adour Garonne. p. 1-56.<br />

In J.-L. Mauvais and J.-F. Guillaud (eds.)<br />

État des connaissances sur l'estuaire de la Gironde.<br />

Agence de l'Eau Adour-Garonne,<br />

Éditions Bergeret, Bordeaux, France. 115 p.;<br />

Saad, A., 2005. Check-list of bony fish collected<br />

from the coast of Syria, Turkish Journal<br />

of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 5: 99-<br />

106; Soljan, T., 1975. I pesci dell'Adriatico.<br />

Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Verona, Italy;<br />

Swaby, S.E. and G.W. Potts, 1990. Rare<br />

British mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes - identification and conservation,<br />

Journal of Fish Biology 37(Suppl.<br />

A):133-143.<br />

82<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

References<br />

Asso, I. de, (1801). Introduccion á la ichthyologia<br />

oriental de España, Anales de Ciencias<br />

Naturales, Instituto de José de Acosta,<br />

Madrid 4(10): 28-52.<br />

Eschmeyer, W.N., (ed). Catalog of Fishes.<br />

California Academy of Sciences<br />

(http://research.calacademy.org/research/icht<br />

hyology/catalog/fishcatma<strong>in</strong>.asp). Electronic<br />

version accessed 7 June 2012.<br />

Hasselquist, F., (1762). D. Friedrich Hasselquists,<br />

der Akademien der Wissenschaften zu<br />

Stockholm und Upsala Mitglieds, Reise<br />

nach Paläst<strong>in</strong>a <strong>in</strong> dem Jahren von 1749 bis<br />

1752. Johann Christian Koppe, Rostok.<br />

ICZN. (1999). International Code of Zoological<br />

Nomenclature. Fourth edition, adopted by<br />

the International Union of Biological<br />

Sciences. International Trust for Zoological<br />

Nomenclature, The Natural History<br />

Museum, London.<br />

Parenti, P., (2003). On the status of the species<br />

classified <strong>in</strong> the genus Perca by Johann<br />

Julius Walbaum, Zoological Studies, 42(4):<br />

491–505.<br />

Walbaum, J.J., (1792). Petri Artedi Sueci Genera<br />

piscium. In quibus systema totum<br />

ichthyologiae proponitur cum classibus,<br />

ord<strong>in</strong>ibus, generum characteribus,<br />

specierum differentiis, observationibus<br />

plurimis, Pars III. Ant. Ferd<strong>in</strong>. Rose,<br />

Greifswald.


7(1): 83-88 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013009<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

SHORT COMMUNICATION KISA BİLGİLENDİRME<br />

ZOOPLANKTON COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF OHI<br />

STREAM (ELAZIG-TURKEY)<br />

Necla İpek, Serap Saler ∗<br />

Faculty of Fisheries, Firat University, Elazıg, Turkey<br />

Abstract: This study was <strong>com</strong>pleted with periodical surveys <strong>in</strong> Ohi Stream between November 2010 -<br />

October 2011 period. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the study, a total of 23 species (16 belong<strong>in</strong>g to Rotifera, 5 to<br />

Cladocera and 2 to Copepoda) were identified <strong>in</strong> Ohi Stream. All of the zooplanktonic species<br />

have been detected for the first time <strong>in</strong> Ohi Stream. And also some chemical and physical parameters<br />

as pH, dissolved oxygen, water temperature were measured dur<strong>in</strong>g field trips.<br />

Keywords: Rotifera, Cladocera, Copepoda, Ohi Stream, Community, Turkey<br />

Özet: Ohi Çayı (Elazığ-Türkiye ) Zooplankton Kommünite<br />

Yapısı<br />

Bu çalışma Kasım 2010 - Ekim 2011 tarihleri arasında periyodik olarak alınan örnekler üzer<strong>in</strong>den<br />

yapılmıştır. Çalışma sırasında, toplam 23 tür (16 Rotifera, 5 Cladocera, 2 Copepoda’ya ait<br />

tür) teşhis edilmiştir.Teşhis edilen bütün zooplanktonik türler Ohi Çayı iç<strong>in</strong> ilk kayıttır. Aynı<br />

zamanda pH, çözünmüş oksijen, sıcaklık gibi bazı kimyasal ve fiziksel parametreler arazide<br />

anında ölçülmüştür.<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Rotifera, Cladocera, Copepoda, Ohi Çayı, Kommunite, Türkiye<br />

∗ Correspondence to: Serap SALER Faculty of Fisheries, Firat University, 23119, Elazıg, Turkey -TURKEY<br />

E-mail: neclaipek1@mynet.<strong>com</strong>; ssaler@firat.edu.tr<br />

83


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> İpek and Saler, 7(1): 83-88 (2013)<br />

Introduction<br />

In freshwater ecosystems, three groups of zooplankton,<br />

namely Rotifera, Cladocera, and Copepoda,<br />

have been reported (Berz<strong>in</strong>s and Pejler,<br />

1987). Zooplankton occupies the second trophic<br />

level <strong>in</strong> the food cha<strong>in</strong>, the first be<strong>in</strong>g occupied<br />

by phytoplankton. In aquatic ecosystems, these<br />

organisms are the ma<strong>in</strong> food source for <strong>in</strong>vertebrates,<br />

fishes, and sometimes for aquatic birds.<br />

Some species have been reported as characteristic<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicators of water quality and trophic level of<br />

lakes (Sladecek, 1983; Herzig, 1987; Saksena,<br />

1987).<br />

Many studies were carried out on zooplanktonic<br />

organisms <strong>in</strong> Turkey, Ozdemir and Sen<br />

(1994), Saler and Sen (2002), Saler (2004, 2009),<br />

Tellioglu and Yılmazturk (2005), Yigit (2006),<br />

Ipek and Saler (2008), Saler and Ipek (2009),<br />

Saler and Sen (2010), Saler et al. (2010), Saler et<br />

al. (2011a, b). We carried out this study to expla<strong>in</strong><br />

the zooplankton fauna of Ohi Stream and to<br />

discuss the species <strong>com</strong>positions and species<br />

richness. The importance of this study is that this<br />

is the first research on zooplankton <strong>in</strong> Ohi<br />

Stream.<br />

84<br />

Materials and Methods<br />

Ohi Stream is 105 km far from Elazıg and 52<br />

km far from B<strong>in</strong>gol, placed <strong>in</strong> the North of<br />

Elazıg. Ohi Stream borns from the Sarıcan Village<br />

and jo<strong>in</strong>s to Peri Stream (URL, 1). Sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />

was made monthly between November 2010 -<br />

October 2011 period. Three sampl<strong>in</strong>g stations<br />

were chosen <strong>in</strong> different areas of Ohi Stream<br />

(Table 1).<br />

The zooplankton samples were collected with<br />

a standart plankton net (Hydrobios Kiel, 25 cm<br />

diameter, 55 µ mesh size) horizontal hauls and<br />

the specimens were preserved <strong>in</strong> 4% formaldehyde<br />

solution <strong>in</strong> 100ml plastic bottles. Zooplankton<br />

species were exam<strong>in</strong>ed under Leitz <strong>in</strong>verted<br />

microscope. Relevant literatures as Edmondson<br />

(1959), Scourfield and Hardig (1966),<br />

Dussart (1969), Flössner (1972), Hard<strong>in</strong>g and<br />

Smith (1974), Kiefer (1978), Koste (1978 a, b),<br />

Dumont and De Ridder (1987), Reedy (1994)<br />

were used for the identification of the species. In<br />

addition, some physical and chemical parameters<br />

as water temperature and dissolved oxygen were<br />

measured with Oxi 315i/SET oxygen meter, pH<br />

was measured with Lamotte (pH 5-WC) pH meter<br />

<strong>in</strong> situ.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Results and Discussion<br />

In Ohi Stream, 23 species were found, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

16 Rotifera, 5 Cladocera and 2 Copepoda<br />

species Based on the number of <strong>in</strong>dividuals, rotifers<br />

were the dom<strong>in</strong>ant group <strong>in</strong> the stream<br />

(69.56 %) followed by Cladocera (21.72 %) and<br />

Copepoda (8.69 %).Dom<strong>in</strong>ant Rotifera species<br />

was Keratella cochlearis followed by Polyarthra<br />

dolichoptera. Alona rectangulata and Ceriodaphnia<br />

reticulata were the dom<strong>in</strong>ant cladoceran<br />

species. Cyclops vic<strong>in</strong>us was the dom<strong>in</strong>ant Copepoda<br />

species. The seasonal distributions of species<br />

are given <strong>in</strong> Table 2.<br />

There was a market decrease <strong>in</strong> total zooplankton<br />

species richness and <strong>in</strong>dividual number<br />

<strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter and a sharp <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g and autumn<br />

months.The most number of species were<br />

observed <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g ( A. saltans , A. priodonta, B.<br />

angularis, F. Longiseta, K. longisp<strong>in</strong>a, K. cochlearis,<br />

K. hispida , P. dolichoptera, S. pect<strong>in</strong>ata ,<br />

C. reticulata, A. rectangulata, A. denticornis, C.<br />

vic<strong>in</strong>us) but less number of species were observed<br />

<strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter K. cochlearis P. dolichoptera, N.<br />

Squamula, K. longisp<strong>in</strong>a , B. longirostris, D. cucullata,<br />

L. leydigi. The most number of species<br />

were recorded <strong>in</strong> the second station with 16 species<br />

(11 belong<strong>in</strong>g to Rotifera, 4 to Cladocera and<br />

1 to Copepoda ) <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g and the less number of<br />

species were recorded <strong>in</strong> the third station with 3<br />

species (2 belong<strong>in</strong>g to Rotifera and 1 to Copepoda)<br />

<strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter. Temperature, dissolved oxygen<br />

and pH values of the Ohi Stream were shown <strong>in</strong><br />

the Table 3.<br />

Zooplankton species are important <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />

for aquatic habitats s<strong>in</strong>ce most of them are used<br />

to determ<strong>in</strong>e the water quality, the trophic level<br />

and level of polutions <strong>in</strong> lakes and streams. For<br />

example, Keratella cochlearis and Polyarthra<br />

dolichoptera species of Rotifera are <strong>in</strong>dicators of<br />

productive habitats, while Notholca squamula is<br />

an <strong>in</strong>dicator of cold waters. These species were<br />

also observed <strong>in</strong> Ohi Stream. Species richness of<br />

Rotifera was found quite high, as <strong>com</strong>pared to<br />

Cladocera and Copepoda <strong>in</strong> Turkish <strong>in</strong>land waters.In<br />

other zooplanktonic studies that conducted<br />

<strong>in</strong> rivers, similar results were recorded (Saler et<br />

all 2011 a, b). In this study highest species richness<br />

and <strong>in</strong>dividual numbers were found to belong<br />

to Rotifera with 16 species.


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> İpek and Saler, 7(1): 83-88 (2013)<br />

Table 1. Coord<strong>in</strong>ates of stations <strong>in</strong> Ohi Stream<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

1. Station 2. Station 3. Station<br />

Ohi Stream 38 0 57′34′′N40 0 01′43′′E 38 0 57’31′′N40 0 01’45′′E 38 0 57′29′′N40 0 01′49′′E<br />

Table 2. Seasonal distribution of zooplankton fauna <strong>in</strong> the stations of Ohi Stream<br />

Seasons Autumn W<strong>in</strong>ter Spr<strong>in</strong>g Summer<br />

Stations 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3<br />

Rotifera<br />

As<strong>com</strong>orpha ovalis (Bergendahl,1892)<br />

As<strong>com</strong>orpha saltans Bartsch,1870<br />

Asplanchna priodonta (Gosse,1850)<br />

Asplanchna sieboldi (Leydig,1854)<br />

Brachionus angularis Gosse,1851<br />

Cephalodella gibba (Ehrenberg, 1830)<br />

Euclanis dilatata Ehrenberg,1832<br />

Fil<strong>in</strong>ia longiseta (Ehrenberg,1834)<br />

Kellicottia longisp<strong>in</strong>a (Kellicott,1879)<br />

Keratella cochlearis(Gosse,1851)<br />

Keratella hispida (Lauterborn,1890)<br />

Keratella quadrata (Muller,1786)<br />

Keratella tecta (Gosse,1851)<br />

Notholca squamula (Muller,1786)<br />

Polyarthra dolichoptera Idelson, 1925<br />

Synchaeta pect<strong>in</strong>ata Ehrenberg,1832<br />

Cladocera<br />

Alona rectangulata Sars,1862<br />

Bosm<strong>in</strong>a longirostris (Muller,1785)<br />

Ceriodaphnia reticulata (Jur<strong>in</strong>e,1820)<br />

Daphnia cucullata Sars,1862<br />

Leydigia leydigi (Schoedler,1863)<br />

Copepoda<br />

Acanthopdiaptomus denticornis (Wierjesky,<br />

1887)<br />

Cyclops vic<strong>in</strong>us Uljan<strong>in</strong>, 1875<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

Table 3. Seasonal average values of temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH <strong>in</strong> Ohi Stream<br />

Seasons Autumn W<strong>in</strong>ter Spr<strong>in</strong>g Summer<br />

Stations 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3<br />

Temperature (C o ) 11.5 9.1 7.7 8.4 12.0 13.0 14.3 17.6 20.3 22.0 18.3 15.5<br />

pH 9.1 9.7 11.2 10.3 9.4 8.3 7.6 7.4 7.3 7.1 7.8 8.6<br />

Dissolved Oxygen(mg/L)<br />

7.0 6.4 6.3 6.7 7.2 7.7 7.3 7.5 7.4 7.9 7.6 7.3<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

-<br />

-<br />

-<br />

+<br />

+<br />

85


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> İpek and Saler, 7(1): 83-88 (2013)<br />

All the recorded Rotifer species <strong>in</strong> the present<br />

study are widely distributed around the world.<br />

Keratella cochlearis, Keratella quadrata, Notholca<br />

squamula, Asplanchna priodonta, Bosm<strong>in</strong>a<br />

longirostris, Cyclops vic<strong>in</strong>us are cosmopolitan<br />

species and all of these species were recorded <strong>in</strong><br />

Ohi Stream. (Kolisko, 1974, Segers, 2007). Also<br />

many of the recorded species are <strong>com</strong>mon <strong>in</strong><br />

Turkey (Saksena 1987, Dumont and De Ridder<br />

1987, Kaya and Altındag, 2007).<br />

Only five species of Cladocera were observed<br />

<strong>in</strong> the stream. Among the identified species<br />

Leydigia leydigi, Daphnia cucullata were rarely<br />

found <strong>in</strong> the stream. Ceriodaphnia reticulata and<br />

Alona rectangulata were observed throughout all<br />

seasons. Cyclops vic<strong>in</strong>us and Acanthodiaptomus<br />

denticornis were the representatives of Copepods.<br />

Both species were recorded <strong>in</strong> all seasons<br />

too. These two species were recorded <strong>in</strong> Geban<br />

and Gorgusan Stream, Peri Stream, Kurk Stream<br />

(Ipek and Saler 2012, Saler et al. 2011a, b) In all<br />

of these streams rotifers were observed as dom<strong>in</strong>ant<br />

zooplanktonic group .<br />

The ecological features of the recorded species<br />

showed that most of them are cosmopolitan<br />

and littoral <strong>in</strong>habit<strong>in</strong>g (Kolisko, 1974). Additionally,<br />

among the recorded species, Bosm<strong>in</strong>a longirostris<br />

and Cyclops vic<strong>in</strong>us, Polyarthra dolichoptera,<br />

Keratella cochlearis are well known<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicators of eutrophy (Ryd<strong>in</strong>g and Rast, 1989).<br />

Polyarthra dolichoptera, Keratella cochlearis are<br />

predom<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>in</strong> the stream As<strong>com</strong>orpha ovalis<br />

and Notholca squamula are a perennial species<br />

while, Notholca squamula is a w<strong>in</strong>ter form <strong>in</strong> the<br />

stream.<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Stember and Gannon (1978) oligotrophic<br />

systems are represented by Copepoda<br />

fauna, and large groups of small herbivorous zooplankters.<br />

Rotifera and Cladocera are found <strong>in</strong><br />

advanced eutrophic habitats. In other words, Rotifera<br />

forms an important part of biomass <strong>in</strong> eutrophic<br />

water systems. Rotifers were found <strong>in</strong><br />

high number of <strong>in</strong>dividuals and high number of<br />

species <strong>in</strong> Ohi stream. Also they have showed an<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g and autumn. The zooplankton<br />

distribution and pattern of Har<strong>in</strong>get Stream, Seli<br />

Stream, Pulumur Stream, Kurk Stream and Peri<br />

Stream showed similarities with our f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

(Ozdemir and Sen, 1994; Ipek and Saler, 2008;<br />

Saler 2010; Saler et al., 2011a, b). In all of these<br />

streams, rotifers were found to be the dom<strong>in</strong>ant<br />

species as species richness and frequency of occurrence.<br />

86<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

It is known that there is a positive correlation<br />

between temperature and species richness of zooplankton<br />

<strong>in</strong> aquatic enviroments (Matsubara,<br />

1993; Castro et al., 2005; Hessen et al., 2007).<br />

Temperature fluctuations effect the zooplankton<br />

distribution and number of <strong>in</strong>dividuals. In the<br />

present study, species richness of zooplankton is<br />

positively affected by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature, so<br />

that this study supports the hypothesis that species<br />

richness of zooplankton is positively affected<br />

by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature.<br />

Conclusions<br />

Cladocera, Copepoda and Rotifera groups<br />

constituted the zooplankton of Ohi Stream. Rotifers<br />

were recorded as dom<strong>in</strong>ant group and represented<br />

with 16 species. Rotifera showed higher<br />

species richness, frequency of occurrence and <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />

number when <strong>com</strong>pared to other zooplankton<br />

groups.<br />

References<br />

Berz<strong>in</strong>s, B., Pejler, B., (1987). Rotifer Occurrence<br />

<strong>in</strong> Relation to pH, Hydrobiology, 147:<br />

107-116.<br />

doi: 10.1007/BF00025733<br />

Castro, B.B., Antunes, S.C, Pereira, R., Soares,<br />

A.M. Goncalves F., (2005). Rotifer <strong>com</strong>munity<br />

structure <strong>in</strong> three Shallow lakes: Seasonal<br />

fluctuations and explanatory factors,<br />

Hydrobiologia, 543: 221-231.<br />

doi: 10.1007/s10750-004-7453-8<br />

Dumond, H.J., De Ridder, M. (1987). Rotifers<br />

from Turkey, Hydrobiologia, 147: 65-73.<br />

doi: 10.1007/BF00025727<br />

Dussart, B. (1969). Les Copepodes des Eaux<br />

Cont<strong>in</strong>entales d’Europe Occidentale Tale II<br />

Cyclopoides et Biologie, N.Boubee et Cie,<br />

Paris.<br />

Edmondson, W. T. (1959). Rotifera <strong>in</strong> “Fresh<br />

Water Biology”. Ed. Edmondson W.T. Second<br />

edition, University of Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, Seattle.<br />

Flössner, D. (1972). Krebstiere, Crustacea. Kiemen<br />

and Blattfüsser Brachiopoda<br />

Fischlause, Branchiura, Tierwelt-Deutschlands,<br />

60. Tiel Veb. Gustav Fischer Verlag,<br />

Jena


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> İpek and Saler, 7(1): 83-88 (2013)<br />

Hard<strong>in</strong>g, J.P., Smith W.A. (1974). A Key to the<br />

British Freshwater, Biological Association<br />

Scientific Publication, No: 18, Westmorland.<br />

Herzig, A. (1987). The analysis of planktonic rotifers<br />

populations.A plean for long-term <strong>in</strong>vestigations,<br />

Hydrobiologia, 147: 163-187.<br />

doi: 10.1007/BF00025739<br />

Hessen, D.O., Bakkestuen, V., Walseng, B.<br />

(2007). Energy <strong>in</strong>put and zooplankton species<br />

richness, Ecography, 30: 749-758.<br />

doi: 10.1111/j.2007.0906-7590.05259.x<br />

Ipek, N., Saler, S. (2008). Seli Çayı (Elazığ-Türkiye)<br />

Rotifer Faunası ve Bazı Biyoçeşitlilik<br />

İndeksleri İle Analizi, Ege Üniversitesi Su<br />

Ürünleri Dergisi, 25(3): 211-215.<br />

Ipek, N., Saler, S. (2012). Görgüşan Çayı ve<br />

Geban Deresi (Elazığ- Türkiye) Zooplanktonu,<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong>,<br />

6(2): 155-163<br />

Kaya M., Altındag, A., (2007). Zooplankton<br />

Fauna and Seasonal Changes of Gel<strong>in</strong>gülü<br />

Dam Lake (Yozgat, Turkey), Turkish<br />

Journal of Zoology, 31: 347-351.<br />

Kiefer, F., (1978). Das Zooplankton der B<strong>in</strong>nengewasser,<br />

2. Teil, Freilebende Band XXVI,<br />

Stutgart.<br />

Kolisko, W.R., (1974). Planktonic Rotifers Biology<br />

and Taxonomy Biological Station. Lunz<br />

of The Austrian Academy of Science,<br />

Stuttgart.<br />

Koste, W., (1978a). Die Radertiere Mitteleuropas<br />

I. Textband, Berl<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Koste, W., (1978b). Die Radertiere Mitteleuropas<br />

II. Tofelband, Berl<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Matsubara, T. (1993). Rotifer <strong>com</strong>munity structure<br />

<strong>in</strong> the South Bas<strong>in</strong> of Lake Biwa,.<br />

Hydrobiologia, 271:1-10.<br />

doi: 10.1007/BF00005690<br />

Ozdemir, Y., Sen, D. (1994).Har<strong>in</strong>get Cayında<br />

Saptanan Zooplankter Organizmalar, Fırat<br />

Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik Bilimleri<br />

Dergisi, 6(2): 136-140.<br />

Reedy, R. Y. (1994). Copepoda: Calanoida: Diaptomidae.<br />

SPB Academic Publication, Leiden.<br />

Ryd<strong>in</strong>g, S.O. Rast. W., (1989). The Control of<br />

Eutrophication of Lakes and Reservoirs,<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Man Biosphere Series, Parthenon<br />

Publication Group, <strong>Vol</strong> 1, USA.<br />

Saksena, N.D. (1987). Rotifers as <strong>in</strong>dicator of<br />

water quality, Hydrobiology, 15: 481-485.<br />

Saler, S., Sen, D., (2002). A Taxonomical Study<br />

on the Rotifera Fauna of Tadım Pond<br />

(Elazıg), Ege Üniversitesi Su Ürünleri<br />

Dergisi, 19: 474-500.<br />

Saler, S., (2004). Observations on the Seasonal<br />

Variation of Rotifera Fauna of Keban Dam<br />

Lake Çemişgezek Region, Fırat Üniversitesi<br />

Fen ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 16(4):<br />

695–701.<br />

Saler, S. (2009). Rotifers of Kepektaş Dam Lake,<br />

(Elazığ-Turkey), Iranian Journal of Science<br />

and Technology, Transaction A1, 33: 121-<br />

126.<br />

Saler S., Ipek N. (2009). Cladocera and Copepoda<br />

(Crustacea) Fauna of Seli Stream<br />

(Elazığ-Turkey), Journal of<br />

<strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong>, 3: 318-322.<br />

doi: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2009036<br />

Saler, S., Sen, B., (2010). Long term changes <strong>in</strong><br />

rotifera fauna of Guluskur bay (Keban Dam<br />

Lake, Elazig-Turkey), Journal of Animal<br />

and Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Advances, 9: 1909-1912.<br />

doi: 10.3923/javaa.2010.1909.1912<br />

Saler, S., Ipek. N., Eroglu, M. (2010). Karakaya<br />

Baraj Gölü Battalgazi Bölgesi Rotiferleri, e-<br />

Journal of New World Sciences Academy,<br />

Ecological Sciences, 5(3): 216-221.<br />

Saler S., Aslan S., Ipek N., (2011a). Kürk Çayı<br />

(Elazığ-Türkiye) Zooplanktonu, Journal of<br />

<strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong>, 5: 219-225.<br />

doi: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2011026<br />

Saler, S., Eroglu, M., Haykır, H. (2011b). Peri<br />

Çayı (Tunceli-Türkiye) Zooplanktonu, e-<br />

Journal of New World Sciences Academy,<br />

6(2):14-20.<br />

Scourfield, D.J., Hardig, J.P. (1966). Freshwater<br />

Biology, Science Publication, New York.<br />

Serges,H. (2007). Annotated checklist of the rotifers<br />

(Phylum Rotifera), with notes on nomenclature,<br />

taxonomy and distribution,,<br />

Zootaxa, 1564: 1- 104.<br />

Sladecek, V. (1983). Rotifers as <strong>in</strong>dicators of<br />

water quality, Hydrobiologia, 100: 169-201.<br />

87


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> İpek and Saler, 7(1): 83-88 (2013)<br />

88<br />

doi: 10.1007/BF00027429<br />

Stemberger R.S., Gannon, J.E., (1978). Zooplankton<br />

(especially crustaceans and rotifers)<br />

as <strong>in</strong>dicatorsof water quality, Transactions<br />

of the American Microscopical Society,<br />

97: 16-35.<br />

doi: 10.2307/3225681<br />

URL,1. (2009).<br />

http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karako%C3<br />

%A7an<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Tellioglu, A. Yılmaztürk, Y. (2005). Keban Baraj<br />

Gölü Pertek Bölgesi’n<strong>in</strong> Kladoser ve Kopepod<br />

Faunası Üzer<strong>in</strong>e Taksonomik Bir<br />

Çalışma, Ege Üniversitesi Su Ürünleri<br />

Dergisi, 22(3-4): 431-433.<br />

Yigit, S., (2006). Analysis of the Zooplankton<br />

Community by the Shannon-Weaver Index<br />

<strong>in</strong> Kesikköprü Dam Lake, Turkey, Ankara<br />

Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi, Tarım Bilimleri<br />

Dergisi, 12(2): 216-220.


7(1): 89-98 (2013) DOI: 10.3153/jfs<strong>com</strong>.2013010<br />

Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

E-ISSN 1307-234X<br />

© 2013 www.fisheriessciences.<strong>com</strong><br />

RESEARCH ARTICLE ARAŞTIRMA MAKALESİ<br />

POPULATION DYNAMICS OF THE HOODED<br />

CUTTLEFISH Sepia prashadi (WINCKWORTH,<br />

1936) FROM THE OMANI COASTAL WATERS OF<br />

THE ARABIAN SEA<br />

Sahar F. Mehanna ∗ , Dawood Al-Mamry<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e Science and Fisheries Centre, Muscat, OMAN<br />

Abstract: Basic population parameters of the hooded cuttlefish Sepia prashadi, <strong>in</strong> the Arabian Sea were<br />

described from samples collected dur<strong>in</strong>g the demersal trawl survey of the Arabian Sea between<br />

September 2007 and August 2008. A total of 6869 S. prashadi with mantle lengths (ML)<br />

ranged from 3.4 to 21.2 cm were analyzed. Age and growth were studied us<strong>in</strong>g progression<br />

analysis model by apply<strong>in</strong>g Bhattacharya method. There were no significant differences <strong>in</strong><br />

population parameters between sexes. The asymptotic ML was 24.13 cm, while the growth coefficient<br />

K was 0.81/year and t0= -0.14 year. Mean total, natural and fish<strong>in</strong>g mortalities were<br />

3.66, 1.54 and 2.12 per year respectively. The exploitation ratio (E =0.58) suggests that the<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g pressure on S. prashadi <strong>in</strong> the Omani coastal waters is slightly high. Relative yield per<br />

recruit and relative biomass per recruit analysis showed that S. prashadi stock <strong>in</strong> the Arabian<br />

Sea is <strong>in</strong> its optimum situation as the current E is lower than that which gives the maximum<br />

Y’/R. For the management purpose and to reduce the risk due to the sampl<strong>in</strong>g bias, the current<br />

exploitation rate should be reduced by about 38% to achieve E0.5 as a target reference po<strong>in</strong>t and<br />

the present length at first capture should be raised to about 14 cm ML to conserve the first<br />

spawners of the stock.<br />

Keywords: Arabian Sea, Sepia prashadi, Cephalopods, Age, Growth, Mortality, Exploitation<br />

rates, Management<br />

∗ Correspondence to: Sahar F. MEHANNA, P.O.Box 427, PC 100, Muscat, OMAN<br />

E-mail: sahar_mehanna@yahoo.<strong>com</strong><br />

89


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Mehanna and Al-Mamry, 7(1): 89-98 (2013)<br />

90<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Özet: Arap Denizi Umman Kıyı Şerid<strong>in</strong>den Yakalanan Başlıklı<br />

Sübye Sepia prashadi (WINCKWORTH, 1936)’ n<strong>in</strong><br />

Populasyon D<strong>in</strong>amikleri<br />

Arap Denizi’ndeki başlıklı sübyen<strong>in</strong> Sepia prashadi, temel popülasyon parametreleri Eylül<br />

2007 ve Ağustos 2008 tarihleri arasında Arap Denizi dip trol araştırmasında toplanan<br />

örneklerden tanımlanmıştır. Manto boyu 3,4 cm ile 21,2 cm arasında değişen toplam 6869 adet<br />

S. prashadi <strong>in</strong>celenmiştir. Yaş ve büyüme, ileri Bhattacharya analiz modeli yöntemi<br />

kullanılarak <strong>in</strong>celenmiştir. C<strong>in</strong>siyetler arasındaki popülasyon parametreler<strong>in</strong>de anlamlı farklılık<br />

saptanmamıştır. Büyüme katsayısı K 0.81/yıl ve t0= -0.14 yıl iken, asimtotik manto uzunluğu<br />

24.13 cm bulunmuştur. Toplam, doğal ve balıkçılık nedeniyle ölümler sırasıyla yılda 3.66, 1.54<br />

ve 2.12 olarak saptanmıştır. Sömürü oranı (E = 0.58) Umman kıyı sularında S. prashadi<br />

üzer<strong>in</strong>de balıkçılık baskısının az oranda yüksek olduğunu göstermektedir. Yıllık stoğa katılan<br />

birey sayısı ve yıllık ağırlık (biomass) analizleri, mevcut sömürülme oranının (E), maksimum<br />

Y’/R’oranına göre daha düşük olduğunu ve Arap deniz<strong>in</strong>deki S. prashadi stoğunun optimum<br />

koşulda olduğunu göstermiştir. Yönetim ve örnekleme yanılmasının azaltılması amacı ile son<br />

sömürülme oranı E0,5’e ulaşabilmek iç<strong>in</strong> %38 oranına düşürülürken, stoğun ilk yumurtlayacak<br />

grubunu korumak amacıyla hedef referans noktası ve ilk avlanma boyu, 14 cm manto boyuna<br />

yükseltilmelidir.<br />

Anahtar Kelimeler: Arap denizi, Sepia prashadi, Cephalopods, Yaş, Büyüme, Ölüm, Sömürülme oranı,<br />

Yönetim<br />

Introduction<br />

Cuttlefishes are small to medium-sized cephalopods<br />

distributed on cont<strong>in</strong>ental shelves and<br />

slopes throughout most of the world’s oceans.<br />

There are over twenty hundred species of cuttlefishes<br />

currently recognized, grouped <strong>in</strong>to five<br />

families from which the family Sepiidae is the<br />

most important for artisanal and <strong>in</strong>dustrial fisheries.<br />

The most important genus exploited is Sepia<br />

which conta<strong>in</strong>s more than hundred species<br />

(Jereb and Roper, 2005). Cuttlefish is <strong>com</strong>mercially<br />

fished and consumed by humans. Its <strong>in</strong>k<br />

has many uses <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g homeopathic medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />

uses and used as dyes and pa<strong>in</strong>t. Many people<br />

keep cuttlefish as pets. People often give cuttlebones<br />

from cuttlefish to their pet birds as dietary<br />

supplements and to keep their birds' beaks <strong>in</strong><br />

good health (Dunlop, 2003; Wood, 2009; Davis,<br />

2010).<br />

Cephalopod fishery (cuttlefish, squid and octopus)<br />

is economically very important for Oman,<br />

due to their high <strong>com</strong>mercial values on national<br />

and <strong>in</strong>ternational markets. Cuttlefishes constitute<br />

about 16% of the total demersals’ catch <strong>in</strong> Oman<br />

coastal waters (Fishery statistics book, 2011).<br />

The cuttlefish catch <strong>in</strong> the Oman coastal waters is<br />

<strong>com</strong>posed of at least four species from which S.<br />

pharaonis and S. prashadi are the major ones<br />

while the other two species are of lesser importance<br />

(S. omani and S. arabica). Hooded cuttlefish<br />

Sepia prashadi, is a demersal, shallow<br />

water, small-sized species rang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> depth from<br />

the coastl<strong>in</strong>e to 200 m. It is widely distributed <strong>in</strong><br />

the Indian Ocean from northeastern India to the<br />

Oman Sea, Red Sea, Gulf of Suez, southern<br />

Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius and Andaman–Nicobar<br />

Seas.<br />

Despite the great importance of cuttlefish <strong>in</strong><br />

the Omani coastal waters, only three studies were<br />

carried out on those species. Meriem, et al.<br />

(2001) made a stock assessment study on the<br />

pharaoh cuttlefish collected dur<strong>in</strong>g 1999 from<br />

Oman Sea, while Al-Marzouqi et al. (2009) carried<br />

out biological and stock assessment study on<br />

the same species collected dur<strong>in</strong>g 2001-2002<br />

from the Arabian Sea and recently Mehanna et al.<br />

(2012) assessed the fishery status of the S. pharaonis<br />

collected from Arabian Sea dur<strong>in</strong>g 2007-<br />

2008 and 2011-2012. For cuttlefish stock assessment<br />

and management, studies on their fisheries<br />

status and population dynamics are urgently required.<br />

The present study is the first to estimate<br />

the basic parameters of S. prashadi stock <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Arabian Sea for the purpose of conservation and<br />

improv<strong>in</strong>g its future production.<br />

Materials and Methods<br />

Samples of S. prashadi were collected dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

five seasonal trawl surveys carried out <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Arabian Sea and covered the area between Ras<br />

Al-Had <strong>in</strong> the north and the Omani Yemeni border<br />

<strong>in</strong> the south between September 2007 and<br />

August 2008 (Fish resources assessment survey


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Mehanna and Al-Mamry, 7(1): 89-98 (2013)<br />

of the Arabian Sea coast of Oman project). The<br />

surveys were with an average duration of 47 days<br />

and carried out us<strong>in</strong>g RV Al Mustaqila I. RV Al<br />

Mustaqila I is of 47 m length overall, has a beam<br />

of 12.5 m, horsepower of 3602 and a displacement<br />

of 1745 ton. The trawl target distance of 2<br />

nm at speed over the ground of 3.5 knots. The<br />

trawl net used was 35 m long headl<strong>in</strong>e and 38 m<br />

long ground l<strong>in</strong>e. The cod-end with a nom<strong>in</strong>al<br />

<strong>in</strong>side mesh measurement of 40 mm. The length<br />

measurements were updated dur<strong>in</strong>g the period<br />

from November 2011 and June 2012<br />

Mantle length (ML) was measured to the<br />

nearest mm for each specimens and the total<br />

body weight (BW) was recorded to the nearest<br />

0.1 g. For each sex, the length frequencies were<br />

grouped <strong>in</strong>to 10 mm ML classes for modal progression<br />

analysis (MPA). FiSAT software of Gayanilo<br />

et al. (1997) was used to <strong>com</strong>pute the<br />

population parameters of sexes <strong>com</strong>b<strong>in</strong>ed as any<br />

regulations will proposed for both sexes. The<br />

follow<strong>in</strong>g methods were applied:<br />

The mantle length - weight relationship was<br />

estimated us<strong>in</strong>g the power equation W= aL b<br />

where W is the total weight, L is the mantle<br />

length.<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

The growth parameters (ML∞ and K) were estimated<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g Powell (1979)-Wetherall method<br />

(1986) which gave an estimate for the ML∞ and<br />

Z/K and ELEFAN I method (Pauly, 1987).<br />

Bhattacharya (1967) method <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong><br />

the FiSAT software to discrim<strong>in</strong>ate the age<br />

groups and then us<strong>in</strong>g the Ford (1933) - Walford<br />

(1949) plot to estimate the growth parameters.<br />

Growth performance <strong>in</strong>dex φ’ <strong>in</strong> terms of<br />

growth <strong>in</strong> length was estimated to validate the<br />

growth parameters (Gayanilo and Pauly, 1997).<br />

Beverton and Holt (1956) equation and<br />

Length converted catch curve method of Pauly<br />

(1983) to estimate total mortality coefficient Z.<br />

Pauly's formula (1980) and Rikhter and Efanov<br />

method (1976) to estimate natural mortality<br />

coefficient M.<br />

The fish<strong>in</strong>g mortality coefficient F was <strong>com</strong>puted<br />

as F = Z – M, while the exploitation rate E<br />

was <strong>com</strong>puted from the ratio F/Z (Gulland,<br />

1971).<br />

The relative yield per recruit (Y’/R) and relative<br />

biomass per recruit (B’/R) were estimated by<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g the Beverton and Holt model (1966) as<br />

modified by Pauly and Soriano (1986).<br />

91


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Mehanna and Al-Mamry, 7(1): 89-98 (2013)<br />

92<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Fig. (1). Oman coast of the Arabian Sea (red l<strong>in</strong>e shows the surveyed area)<br />

regression equations obta<strong>in</strong>ed from plott<strong>in</strong>g BW<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st ML (Fig. 2) were:<br />

Results and Discussion<br />

Mantle length - body weight relationship<br />

A total of 6869 specimens of the cuttlefish S.<br />

prashadi (2988 males, 2635 females and 1246<br />

unsexed) were used to describe the ML-BW relationship<br />

(Fig. 2). The samples rang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> ML<br />

from a m<strong>in</strong>imum of 3.4 cm for both sexes to a<br />

maximum of 19.6 cm for males and 21.2 cm for<br />

females and <strong>in</strong> BW from 5 g for both sexes to<br />

700 g for males and to 900 g for females. The<br />

Males: W = 0.3396 ML 2.4644 (r 2 = 0.95)<br />

Females: W = 0.2505 ML 2.5939 (r 2 = 0.946)<br />

Pooled data: W = 0.3545 ML 2.4571 (r 2 = 0.944)<br />

The estimated b-values were significantly different<br />

from 3 <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g negative allometric<br />

growth where b < 3 (CI= 2.42-2.47 for males and<br />

2.57-2.62 for females). The same f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g was observed<br />

by Imam (1994) who estimated the ML-<br />

BW relationship for S. prashadi sampled from<br />

Gulf of Suez as W = 0.4993 L 2.456 . The ML <strong>in</strong> his


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Mehanna and Al-Mamry, 7(1): 89-98 (2013)<br />

study ranged from 56 to 124 mm and the BW<br />

varied between 35 and 238 g.<br />

Age and growth<br />

Age was determ<strong>in</strong>ed based on pooled length–<br />

frequency data us<strong>in</strong>g the Bhattacharya's (1967)<br />

method (Fig. 3). It was possible to identify two<br />

<strong>com</strong>ponents which were considered as dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />

age groups or cohorts for S. prashadi. The<br />

Bhattacharya method was also used to analyze<br />

the monthly length frequency data to obta<strong>in</strong> the<br />

mean length and number of <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>in</strong> each<br />

month. The ML correspond<strong>in</strong>g to different<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

months was 6.11, 11.89, 16.33 and 18.86 cm for<br />

6, 12, 18 and 24 months old and the bulk of catch<br />

was belonged to age group of 12 months old<br />

(69%). The maximum growth rate was recorded<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the first six months of life for ML and at<br />

age of 18 months for BW us<strong>in</strong>g length-weight<br />

relationship to convert the length by age to<br />

weight. These results are <strong>in</strong> close agreement with<br />

the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs of Emam (1994). He found that the<br />

longevity of S. prashadi <strong>in</strong> the Gulf of Suez was<br />

18 months and rate of growth <strong>in</strong> length is much<br />

higher <strong>in</strong> young <strong>in</strong>dividuals than the old ones.<br />

Figure 2. Length-weight relationship of Sepia prashadi from Arabian Sea, Oman<br />

Figure 3. Bhattacharya plot of Sepia prashadi (pooled data) from Arabian Sea, Oman<br />

93


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Mehanna and Al-Mamry, 7(1): 89-98 (2013)<br />

Growth parameters<br />

First estimates of the asymptotic length (L∞)<br />

and the ratio between the coefficients of total<br />

mortality and growth (Z/K) obta<strong>in</strong>ed from Powell-Wetherall<br />

plot were 23.8 cm and 5.75. Subsequently<br />

the estimates of L∞ was used <strong>in</strong> ELEFAN<br />

I and the parameters obta<strong>in</strong>ed by this method are<br />

L∞ = 24.3 cm and K = 0.86 per year (Fig. 4). Although<br />

the growth parameter L∞ could be estimated<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g ELEFAN I program directly, the<br />

Powell-Wetherall method was used to facilitate<br />

the identification of K-value <strong>com</strong>patible with the<br />

value of L∞ which is more reliable than when this<br />

parameter is estimated together with L∞ (Pauly,<br />

1986). The mean lengths obta<strong>in</strong>ed from<br />

Bhattacharya method were applied to the Ford<br />

(1933)-Walford (1949) plot to estimate L∞, K and<br />

to. The values obta<strong>in</strong>ed were L∞ = 24.1 cm, K =<br />

0.81 per year and to = -0.14 year. Results of the<br />

ELEFAN I program <strong>com</strong>pare well with those of<br />

the Bhattacharya analysis.<br />

The growth performance <strong>in</strong>dex Ø’ values<br />

were estimated as 2.71 for ELEFAN I parameters<br />

and 2.67 for Ford-Walford parameters. The two<br />

values were with<strong>in</strong> a very narrow range <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that all estimates from the two methods<br />

po<strong>in</strong>ted towards similarity <strong>in</strong> the growth pattern.<br />

The growth parameters of non-l<strong>in</strong>ear least square<br />

method were used for subsequent calculations of<br />

stock assessment.<br />

Mortality estimates<br />

Beverton and Holt equation gave an estimate<br />

of Z = 3.62, this value is closed to the value of Z<br />

obta<strong>in</strong>ed us<strong>in</strong>g length – converted catch curve<br />

analysis (Z= 3.71) (Fig. 5). The natural mortality<br />

coefficient calculated from Pauly’s formula us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

mean annual water temperature of 26 0 C was 1.6<br />

per year. Rikhter and Efanov method gave an estimate<br />

of M = 1.49 per year. The mean values of<br />

Z and M gave a value of fish<strong>in</strong>g mortality F =<br />

2.12 and exploitation rate E = 0.58. Relatively<br />

high values of fish<strong>in</strong>g mortality and exploitation<br />

rate reflect the high level of exploitation. The<br />

higher level of exploitation may be due to the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

of fish<strong>in</strong>g effort target<strong>in</strong>g the cuttlefish<br />

fishery dur<strong>in</strong>g the recent years, where the number<br />

94<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

of fish<strong>in</strong>g boats operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Arabian Sea <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

by 36% <strong>in</strong> 2011 <strong>com</strong>pared with the number<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2007 (Annual fishery statistics book,<br />

2011).<br />

Length at recruitment and at first capture<br />

The mid-po<strong>in</strong>t of the smallest length group <strong>in</strong><br />

the catch of hooded cuttlefish dur<strong>in</strong>g the survey<br />

period was taken as length at recruitment (Lr),<br />

while the length correspond<strong>in</strong>g to the first value<br />

<strong>in</strong> the descend<strong>in</strong>g limb of the length converted<br />

catch curve was taken as the length at first capture<br />

(Lc). The estimated Lr and Lc were 3.5 and<br />

11.5 cm ML, respectively. It was observed that a<br />

considerable part of the catch was under-sized<br />

and not reaches its sexual maturation (61%).<br />

Relative yield per recruit Y’/R and reference<br />

po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />

The plot of Y’/R aga<strong>in</strong>st E (Fig. 6) gives an<br />

optimum level of exploitation rate at E = 0.74.<br />

The present level of E (0.58) was lower than that<br />

which gives the maximum Y’/R by about 28%<br />

but the raise of the current exploitation rate to<br />

this level will be associated with a negligible <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

<strong>in</strong> Y’/R (8.8%). Both of E0.1 (the level of<br />

exploitation at which the marg<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

yield per recruit reaches 1/10 of the marg<strong>in</strong>al <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

<strong>com</strong>puted at a very low value of E) and<br />

E0.5 (the exploitation level which will result <strong>in</strong> a<br />

reduction of the unexploited biomass by 50%)<br />

were estimated. The obta<strong>in</strong>ed values of E0.1 and<br />

E0.5 were 0.6 and 0.36, respectively. It is obvious<br />

that the current E is higher than the exploitation<br />

rate (E0.5) which ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> 50% of the stock biomass.<br />

For management purposes, the exploitation<br />

rate of S. Prashadi should be reduced from 0.58<br />

to 0.36 (38%) to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> a sufficient spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

biomass s<strong>in</strong>ce the maximum Y'/R is not the target<br />

po<strong>in</strong>t but the maximum constant yield (the<br />

maximum constant catch that is estimated to be<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>able, with an acceptable level of risk, at all<br />

probable future levels of biomass) is the target<br />

reference po<strong>in</strong>t for fisheries management (Caddy<br />

and Mahon, 1995). Besides, it is always safe to<br />

be on the left of the maximum Y'/R than to use<br />

its current value.


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Mehanna and Al-Mamry, 7(1): 89-98 (2013)<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Figure 4. K-scan us<strong>in</strong>g ELEFAN I for Sepia prashadi <strong>in</strong> the Arabian Sea, Oman<br />

95


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Mehanna and Al-Mamry, 7(1): 89-98 (2013)<br />

96<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Figure 5. Length converted catch curve of Sepia prashadi from Arabian Sea, Oman<br />

Figure 6. Relative yield per recruit analysis of Sepia prashadi from Arabian Sea, Oman<br />

Conclusion


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Mehanna and Al-Mamry, 7(1): 89-98 (2013)<br />

It could be concluded that there is a scope to<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease the annual yield of S. prashadi stock <strong>in</strong><br />

the Arabian Sea. This can be achieved by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the length at first capture through the<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease of nets mesh size. This will conserve the<br />

young <strong>in</strong>dividuals and give them the chance to<br />

grow up to a marketable size and reproduce at<br />

least once before catch<strong>in</strong>g. The results of stock<br />

assessment show that though there is scope to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

the effort by 20-30% to get MSY from the<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g grounds, the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> yield will be<br />

marg<strong>in</strong>al (5-9%). Also, separate catch statistics<br />

for this species and other Oman fish species is<br />

strongly re<strong>com</strong>mended.<br />

References<br />

Al-Marzouqi, A., Jayabalan, N.,Al-Nahdi, A.,<br />

(2009). Biology and stock assessment of the<br />

pharaoh cuttlefish, Sepia pharaonis<br />

Ehrenberg, 1831 from the Arabian Sea off<br />

Oman, Indian Journal of Fisheries, 56 (4):<br />

231-239.<br />

Annual fishery statistics book (2011). M<strong>in</strong>istry of<br />

Agriculture and Fisheries Wealth, Sultanate<br />

of Oman.<br />

Bertalanffy, L. von (1938). A quantitative theory<br />

of organic growth (Inquiries on growth<br />

Laws. 2 ), Human Biology, 10: 181-213.<br />

Beverton, R. J. H., Holt, S. J., (1956). A review<br />

of methods for estimat<strong>in</strong>g mortality rates <strong>in</strong><br />

exploited fish populations, with special<br />

reference to sources of bias <strong>in</strong> catch<br />

sampl<strong>in</strong>g. Rapp. P.-v. Reun, CIEM, 140: 67-<br />

83.<br />

Beverton, R.J.H., Holt, S.J., (1966). Manual of<br />

methods for fish stock assessment. Part 2.<br />

Tables of yield functions. FAO Fish. Tech.<br />

Pap./ FAO Doc. (38) Rev., 1: 67p.<br />

Bhattacharya, C.G., (1967). A simple method of<br />

resolution of a distribution <strong>in</strong>to Gaussian<br />

<strong>com</strong>ponents, Biometrics, 23: 115-135.<br />

doi: 10.2307/2528285<br />

Caddy, J.F., Mahon, R., (1995). Reference po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />

for fisheries management. FAO Fisheries<br />

Technical Paper, 347: 83pp.<br />

Davis, D., (2010). "Cuttlebone and birds - five<br />

reasons why cuttlebone is good for pet<br />

birds" (On-l<strong>in</strong>e). Ez<strong>in</strong>e articles. Accessed<br />

December 10, 2010 at<br />

http://ez<strong>in</strong>earticles.<strong>com</strong>/?Cuttlebone-and-<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Birds---5-Reasons-Why-Cuttlebone-is-<br />

Good-For-Pet-Birds&id=2382724<br />

Dunlop, C., (2003). "Cuttlefish basics" (On-l<strong>in</strong>e).<br />

The Octopus News Magaz<strong>in</strong>e Onl<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

Accessed December 10, 2010 at<br />

http://www.tonmo.<strong>com</strong>/articles/basiccuttlefi<br />

sh.php<br />

Emam, W. M. (1994). Stock assessment of the<br />

cuttlefish Sepia prashadi (Mollusca:<br />

Cephalopoda) <strong>in</strong> the Gulf of Suez, Indian<br />

Journal of Mar<strong>in</strong>e Science, 23: 35-38.<br />

Ford, E., (1933). An account of the herr<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>vestigations conducted at Plymouth dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the years from 1924 to 1933, Journal of<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e Biology Association, 19: 305-384.<br />

doi: 10.1017/S0025315400055910<br />

Gayanilo, Jr.F.C., Pauly, D., (1997). FAO–<br />

ICLARM stock assessment tools. Reference<br />

manual, FAO, Rome, 262 pp.<br />

Gayanilo Jr.F.C., Sparre, P., Pauly, D., (1997).<br />

The FAO-ICLARM Stock Assessment<br />

Tools (FiSAT). FAO Computerized<br />

Information Series (Fisheries). No. 8. Rome,<br />

FAO.<br />

Gulland, J.A., (1971). The fish resources of the<br />

Ocean. West Byfleet, Surrey, Fish<strong>in</strong>g News<br />

(Books), Ltd., for FAO Technical Paper, 97:<br />

255pp.<br />

Jereb, P., Roper, C., (2005). Cephalopods of the<br />

world. An annotated and illustrated<br />

catalogue of cephalopod species known to<br />

date. <strong>Vol</strong>ume 1. Chambered nautiluses and<br />

sepioids (Nautilidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae,<br />

Sepiadariidae, Idiosepiidae and Spirulidae),<br />

FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery<br />

Purposes, 1(4): 1-262.<br />

Mehanna, S.F., Al-Kharusi, L., Al-Habsi, S.,<br />

(2012). Population dynamics and fisheries<br />

management of the pharaoh cuttlefish Sepia<br />

pharaonis (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Arabian Sea Coast of Oman. (<strong>in</strong> press)<br />

Meriem, S.B., Mathews, C.P., Al-Mamry, J., Al-<br />

Rasadi, A. (2001). Stock assessment of the<br />

cuttlefish stock Sepia pharaonis <strong>in</strong> the Gulf<br />

of Oman. In: Goddard, S., Al-Oufi, H.,<br />

McIIwa<strong>in</strong>, J. and Claereboudt, M. (eds),<br />

Proc. 1 st International Conference on<br />

Fisheries, Aquaculture and Environment <strong>in</strong><br />

the NW Indian Ocean, Sultan Qaboos<br />

University, Muscat, Oman. p, 91-97.<br />

97


Journal of <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong> Mehanna and Al-Mamry, 7(1): 89-98 (2013)<br />

Pauly, D., (1983). Length-converted catch<br />

curves. A powerful tool for fisheries<br />

research <strong>in</strong> the tropics, Part 1. ICLARM<br />

Fishbyte, 1(2): 9-13.<br />

Pauly, D. (1986). On improv<strong>in</strong>g operation and<br />

use of the ELEFAN programs. Part II.<br />

Improv<strong>in</strong>g the estimation of L∞, Fishbyte,<br />

4(1): 18-20.<br />

Pauly, D., (1987). A review of the ELEFAN<br />

system for analysis of length- frequency data<br />

<strong>in</strong> fish and aquatic <strong>in</strong>vertebrates, ICLARM<br />

Conference Proceed<strong>in</strong>g, 13: 7-34.<br />

Pauly, D., Soriano, M.L., (1986). Some practical<br />

extensions to Beverton and Holt's relative<br />

yield-per-recruit model. In: J. L. Maclean, L.<br />

B. Dizon and L. V. Hosillo (eds.), The First<br />

Asian Fisheries Forum, pp 491-496.<br />

Powell, D.G., (1979). Estimation of mortality<br />

and growth parameters from the lengthfrequency<br />

<strong>in</strong> the catch. Rapp. P.-V. Réun.<br />

Cons. International Explorer de la Mer,<br />

175: 167-169.<br />

98<br />

Journal abbreviation: J <strong>FisheriesSciences</strong>.<strong>com</strong><br />

Rikhter, V.A., Efanov, V.N., (1976). On one of<br />

the approaches to estimation of natural<br />

mortality of fish populations. ICNAF<br />

Research Document, 76/VI/8: 12pp.<br />

Walford, L. A. (1946). A new graphic method of<br />

describ<strong>in</strong>g the growth of animals. Biology<br />

Bullet<strong>in</strong> of Mar<strong>in</strong>e Biology Lab. Woods<br />

Hole, 90(2): 141-147.<br />

doi: 10.2307/1538217<br />

Wetherall, J.A., (1986). A new method for<br />

estimat<strong>in</strong>g growth and mortality parameters<br />

from length-frequency data, ICLARM<br />

Fishbyte, 4(1): 12-14.<br />

Wood, J., (2009). "Cuttlefish husbandry: Part I -<br />

What is a cuttlefish anyway?" (On-l<strong>in</strong>e). The<br />

Cephalopod Page. Accessed December 10,<br />

2010 at<br />

http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/cuttle1.p<br />

hp

Hooray! Your file is uploaded and ready to be published.

Saved successfully!

Ooh no, something went wrong!