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CHAPTER 2 AL CLOSED CELL FOAMS: PROCESSING AND 2.1. Introduction CRUSHING BEHAVIOR The mechanical and physical properties and the application fields of metal foams are outlined in Figure 2.1, (Banhart 2005). Metal foams have relatively low densities as compared with the metals from which they are made, very long plateau stress region extending to 50-60% strains and relatively good damping properties. Therefore, they have great potentials to be used in the construction of light weight, energy absorbing structures, as well as in the structures involved acoustic and thermal insulation management. Currently, on the research basis, metal foams made of various metals such as steel (Park and Nutt 2002), magnesium(Wen, et al. 2004), zinc(Kitazono and Takiguchi 2006) and Al(Song, et al. 2001) haven been investigated, while only Al closed cell foams are commercially produced for the structural applications. Figure 2. 1. General application areas of metal foams. (Source: Banhart 2005) 6
In automobiles, the use Al foams improves the crash safety by increasing the energy absorbing capacity of crash boxes and the stiffness of specific areas of A/B pillars and by supporting the rail on chassis. They are also prominent materials, as being very light, for the space applications. An example of space applications, Ariene 5 rocket cone Al foam structure, was shown by Scwingel et al.(Schwingel, et al.). The mechanical properties of Al closed-cell foam have been extensively studied including uniaxial stress-strain response (McCullough, et al. 1999b), strain rate sensitivity (Hall, et al. 2000), energy absorption (Song and Nutt 2005), drop weight impact (Rajendran, et al. 2009a), fracture toughness (McCullough, et al. 1999a) and internal reinforcing with steel netting (Solorzano, et al. 2007). 2.2. Processing of Al Closed Cell Foams A cellular solid is one made up of an interconnected network of solid struts or plates which form the edges and faces of cell(Gibson and Ashby 1997). In this definition, strut stands for the cell edge and plate for the cell face. Note that, an open cell foam is solely made of struts (Figure 2.2(a)) and a closed-cell foam is made of struts and plates (Figure 2.2(b)). As noted in Figures 2.2 (b), the cell faces are thinner than cell edges. (a) (b) Figure 2. 2. Schematic representation of a) an open and b) an closed cell cellular structure (Source :Gibson and Ashby 1997). 7
Page 1 and 2: OPTIMIZATION OF THE AXIAL CRUSHING
Page 3 and 4: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My PhD quest has b
Page 5 and 6: ÖZET KAPALI HÜCRELİ ALUMİNYUM K
Page 7 and 8: CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS ....
Page 9 and 10: CHAPTER 8 ALUMINUM CRASH BOX OPTIMI
Page 12 and 13: Figure 3.7. Simulations of the defo
Page 14 and 15: Figure 4.9. Dimensions of tensile t
Page 16 and 17: Figure 6.21. Sequential deformation
Page 18 and 19: Figure 7.20. Sequential deformation
Page 20 and 21: LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 4.1
Page 22 and 23: Figure 1. 1. The body in white stru
Page 24 and 25: Figure 1. 4. Commercial crash boxes
Page 28 and 29: The processing methods and mechanic
Page 30 and 31: Figure 2. 5 The preferred particle
Page 32 and 33: Figure 2. 8. Typical cellular struc
Page 34 and 35: Figure 2. 10. Manufacturing cost of
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Page 41 and 42: Figure 2.16. Shear strength, normal
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2. 19. Yield strength vs. re
Page 45 and 46: Figure 2. 21. Unit cell geometry an
Page 47 and 48: Figure 2. 24. Load-displacement cur
Page 49 and 50: Figure 2. 26. The photographs of a
Page 51 and 52: CHAPTER 3 CRUSHING BEHAVIOR OF TUBU
Page 53 and 54: Figure 3.2. Diamond deformation mod
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Figure 3.22. The variation of speci
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Figure 3.24. Deformation modes of e
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Figure 3.27. SEA values of empty an
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Figure 3.29. (cont.) 3.5. Motivatio
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CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS 4.1.
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(a) (b) Figure 4.3.Pictures of a) f
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oxes are shown in Figure 4.6. The l
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Figure 4.7. The method of trigger m
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4.4. Compression Tests of Crash Box
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4.5.2. Uniaxial Compression Testing
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Table 4.1 (Cont.) G1 T3 F2 G1T3F2 3
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Table 4.2 (Cont.) G1 T2.5 WP F2 G1T
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CHAPTER 5 SIMULATION AND OPTIMIZATI
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considered in axial and transverse
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were constrained. Since the width o
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5.4. The Crashworthiness Optimizati
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great effect on the crushing behavi
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CHAPTER 6 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 6.1.
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Figure 6.3.Tensile stress-strain cu
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(a) (b) Figure 6.5. Sequential defo
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plate (Figure 6(b)). The trigger is
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(a) (b) Figure 6.9. Deformation seq
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Figure 6.12. Sequential deformation
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Figure 6.18. (cont.) (c) (a) (b) Fi
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Figure 6.20.(cont.). (b) (c) 6.5.4.
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Figure 6.21.(cont.) (b) (c) 122
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Figure 6.22.(cont.) (c) Figure 6.23
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Figure 6.24.(Cont.) (b) (c) (a) Fig
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Figure 6.26.(cont.) (b) (c) 6.6. Dy
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Figure 6.27. (cont.) (b) (c) 130
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CHAPTER 7 MODELING RESULTS OF FOAM,
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experimental tensile stress-strain
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significant effect of weld seem ope
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Figure 7.7. Deformation photo of fi
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Figure 7.11. Deformation photos of
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 7.14. Load-displ
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7.4. Simulation of Empty and Partia
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Figure 7.16. (cont.) (c) (a) Figure
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(a) (b) Figure 7.18. Sequential def
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Figure 7.19. (cont.) (b) (c) 150
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Figure 7.20. (cont.) (c) (a) Figure
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(a) (b) Figure 7.26. Experimental a
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The constructed response surface of
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Table 8.1. R 2 , Radj 2 and RMSE va
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(a) (b) Figure 8.7. Response surfac
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an empty tube wall thickness higher
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where, K is a dimensionless constan
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The dynamic simulation and analytic
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Figure 9.4. (cont.) (c) (d) Figure
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Figure 9.6. (cont.) (c) (d) (a) Fig
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Equation 9.7 can also be rewritten
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(a) (b) Figure 9.10. Energy-absorbi
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Figure 9.11. (cont.) (d) The variat
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foam filling were evaluated. The re
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13. The interaction between foam fi
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Arora, J. S.,2004,Introduction to O
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Dannemann, K. A. and Lankford, J.,
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Hall, I. W., Guden, M. and Yu, C. J
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Kim, D-K. and Lee, S., 1999, Impact
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Mamalis, A. G., Manolakos, D. E., I
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Pugsley, A. G. and Macaulay, M., 19
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T. Miyoshi, M. Itoh S. Akiyama A. K
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Zhao, H., Elnasri, I. and Girard, Y
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