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LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 4.1. The coding of compression tested empty and filled boxes without montage plates. ............................................................................................... 76 Table 4.2. The coding of compression tested empty and filled boxes with montage plates. ............................................................................................... 78 Table 6.1. Desphande and Fleck foam model constants for Alulight Al foam. ........... 102 Table 6.2. Alulight Al foam material model parameters. ............................................. 102 Table 6.3. Tensile mechanical properties of 1050H14 Al. ............................................ 104 Table 6.4. Initial peak and mean load values of empty and filled crush box under quasi-static and dynamic loading. ...................................................... 131 Table 8.1. R 2 , Radj 2 and RMSE values of RMS of partially foam filled 1050H14 crash box. ..................................................................................................... 164 Table 8.2. Plastic-kinematic hardening material model (MAT 3) data of 6061T4 Al (Hou, et al. 2008). ...................................................................... 164 Table 8.3. Material parameters of HYDRO aluminum foam (Reyes, et al. 2003). ............................................................................................................ 165 Table 8.4. R2, Radj 2 and RMSE values for RMS of partially foam filled crush box. ............................................................................................................... 168 Table 8.5. Optimum thickness and relative foam density of partially Alulight and Hydro foam filled 1050H14 and 6061T4 Al boxes. ............................ 168 Table 9.1. Empty crash box crush force efficiency values. ........................................... 178 xx
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The recent economical global crisis and the continuing unstable prices of oil and raw materials have tended the manufacturer to reduce the weight of automobiles and increase the efficiencies of engines, transmission and active and passive safety systems. Other restrictions on the automobile weight come from the legal regulations of air pollution. USA (EPA 2000) and European union (EC 1998) have announced new regulations on the gas emission levels separately. These regulations aim to decline CO and NOx ratios in the exhaust gas emission. It is therefore expected that the weight saving possibilities in automobiles will be seriously considered and investigated by the automobile manufacturer as the new regulations appear in coming years. Since the end of 1980s, the number of parts made from aluminum has been continuously increasing. According to European Aluminum Association, the total weight of aluminum use in automobile bodies will reach approximately 160 kg in the year of 2010 (EAA 2008). This corresponds to approximately 10% reduction in the total weight of an average European car. The recent European project entitled ―Super Light Car‖ achieved 32% total weight reduction in the body in white of automobile using the combination of various kinds of materials including high strength steels, aluminum sheet/extrusions and casting, magnesium castings and carbon fiber reinforced plastics (Figure 1.1) (Duwe and Kopp 2009). 1
Page 1 and 2: OPTIMIZATION OF THE AXIAL CRUSHING
Page 3 and 4: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My PhD quest has b
Page 5 and 6: ÖZET KAPALI HÜCRELİ ALUMİNYUM K
Page 7 and 8: CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS ....
Page 9 and 10: CHAPTER 8 ALUMINUM CRASH BOX OPTIMI
Page 12 and 13: Figure 3.7. Simulations of the defo
Page 14 and 15: Figure 4.9. Dimensions of tensile t
Page 16 and 17: Figure 6.21. Sequential deformation
Page 18 and 19: Figure 7.20. Sequential deformation
Page 22 and 23: Figure 1. 1. The body in white stru
Page 24 and 25: Figure 1. 4. Commercial crash boxes
Page 26 and 27: CHAPTER 2 AL CLOSED CELL FOAMS: PRO
Page 28 and 29: The processing methods and mechanic
Page 30 and 31: Figure 2. 5 The preferred particle
Page 32 and 33: Figure 2. 8. Typical cellular struc
Page 34 and 35: Figure 2. 10. Manufacturing cost of
Page 36: Figure 2. 12. Laser assisted foamed
Page 41 and 42: Figure 2.16. Shear strength, normal
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2. 19. Yield strength vs. re
Page 45 and 46: Figure 2. 21. Unit cell geometry an
Page 47 and 48: Figure 2. 24. Load-displacement cur
Page 49 and 50: Figure 2. 26. The photographs of a
Page 51 and 52: CHAPTER 3 CRUSHING BEHAVIOR OF TUBU
Page 53 and 54: Figure 3.2. Diamond deformation mod
Page 57 and 58: deformation mode transition from ax
Page 59 and 60: Figure 3.8. Energy absorption of qu
Page 61: (a) (c) Figure 3.10. Deformation mo
Page 65 and 66: (a) (b) Figure 3.13. a) Schematic o
Page 67 and 68: (a) (b) (c) Figure 3.15. a) Load-di
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Figure 3.18. The crush terminology.
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The quasi-static compression behavi
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Figure 3.22. The variation of speci
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Figure 3.24. Deformation modes of e
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Figure 3.27. SEA values of empty an
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Figure 3.29. (cont.) 3.5. Motivatio
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CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS 4.1.
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(a) (b) Figure 4.3.Pictures of a) f
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oxes are shown in Figure 4.6. The l
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Figure 4.7. The method of trigger m
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4.4. Compression Tests of Crash Box
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4.5.2. Uniaxial Compression Testing
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Table 4.1 (Cont.) G1 T3 F2 G1T3F2 3
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Table 4.2 (Cont.) G1 T2.5 WP F2 G1T
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CHAPTER 5 SIMULATION AND OPTIMIZATI
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considered in axial and transverse
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were constrained. Since the width o
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5.4. The Crashworthiness Optimizati
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great effect on the crushing behavi
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CHAPTER 6 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 6.1.
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Figure 6.3.Tensile stress-strain cu
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(a) (b) Figure 6.5. Sequential defo
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plate (Figure 6(b)). The trigger is
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(a) (b) Figure 6.9. Deformation seq
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Figure 6.12. Sequential deformation
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Figure 6.18. (cont.) (c) (a) (b) Fi
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Figure 6.20.(cont.). (b) (c) 6.5.4.
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Figure 6.21.(cont.) (b) (c) 122
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Figure 6.22.(cont.) (c) Figure 6.23
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Figure 6.24.(Cont.) (b) (c) (a) Fig
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Figure 6.26.(cont.) (b) (c) 6.6. Dy
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Figure 6.27. (cont.) (b) (c) 130
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CHAPTER 7 MODELING RESULTS OF FOAM,
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experimental tensile stress-strain
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significant effect of weld seem ope
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Figure 7.7. Deformation photo of fi
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Figure 7.11. Deformation photos of
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(a) (b) (c) Figure 7.14. Load-displ
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7.4. Simulation of Empty and Partia
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Figure 7.16. (cont.) (c) (a) Figure
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(a) (b) Figure 7.18. Sequential def
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Figure 7.19. (cont.) (b) (c) 150
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Figure 7.20. (cont.) (c) (a) Figure
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(a) (b) Figure 7.26. Experimental a
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The constructed response surface of
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Table 8.1. R 2 , Radj 2 and RMSE va
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(a) (b) Figure 8.7. Response surfac
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an empty tube wall thickness higher
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where, K is a dimensionless constan
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The dynamic simulation and analytic
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Figure 9.4. (cont.) (c) (d) Figure
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Figure 9.6. (cont.) (c) (d) (a) Fig
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Equation 9.7 can also be rewritten
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(a) (b) Figure 9.10. Energy-absorbi
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Figure 9.11. (cont.) (d) The variat
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foam filling were evaluated. The re
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13. The interaction between foam fi
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Arora, J. S.,2004,Introduction to O
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Dannemann, K. A. and Lankford, J.,
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Hall, I. W., Guden, M. and Yu, C. J
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Kim, D-K. and Lee, S., 1999, Impact
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Mamalis, A. G., Manolakos, D. E., I
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Pugsley, A. G. and Macaulay, M., 19
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T. Miyoshi, M. Itoh S. Akiyama A. K
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Zhao, H., Elnasri, I. and Girard, Y
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