cross section crash boxes

Figure 3.7. Simulations of the deformation mode of circular tubes with
circumferential imperfections; a/t ratios a) 5%, b)10%, c)50% and
d)100%. ...................................................................................................... 38
Figure 3.8. Energy absorption of quasi-statically loaded of stainless steel, mild
steel and Al alloy tubes, L=250 mm. ......................................................... 39
Figure 3.9. a) Experimental and b) numerical deformation behavior of circular
tubes with 6 grooves and comparison of load-deformation graphs of
circular tubes with c) non-grooved, 3,4 and 6 grooves, d) 12 and 18
grooves. ...................................................................................................... 40
Figure 3.10. Deformation mode of a) concertina and diamond b) with 3
circumferential waves and c) 4 circumferential waves,. ............................ 41
Figure 3.11. Axial progressive collapse of square cross-section tubes, a)
inextensional and b) extensional mode. ..................................................... 42
Figure 3.12. Folding in square tubes of ASTM A36, A513, AISI 316 and 304 ............ 44
Figure 3.13. a) Schematic of the buckling initiator and b) experimental and
simulation deformation of the tube with and without buckling
initiator. ...................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.14. Deformed shape of 1T1L and 2l2T steel-CFRP square tubes. ................... 46
Figure 3.15. a) Load-displacement curve, b) absorbed energy-displacement
curves and c) simulation and experimental deformed shapes of
6060T5 Al square tubes. ............................................................................. 47
Figure 3.16. (a) Transition from progressive to global buckling in 6060T6 Al
square tubes and b) typical force vs. time history ...................................... 48
Figure 3.17. SEA vs. column mass for filled and wall thickened Al tubes. ................... 50
Figure 3.18. The crush terminology. .............................................................................. 52
Figure 3.19. Deformation load -drop hammer displacement curves of a single
and complete bumper system ..................................................................... 53
Figure 3.20. Deformation pattern of foam-filled square tube, a) experiment and
b) simulation (Source: Santosa, et al. 2000). .............................................. 54
Figure 3.21. Comparison between simulation and experimental deformation
modes and mean loads of polymer foam filled tubes. ............................... 56
Figure 3.22. The variation of specific absorbed energy with loading angle in an
empty and foam filled Al tube. ................................................................... 57
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