Understanding Human Communication

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lem of groupthink as it begins to manifest itself. If agreement comes quickly and easily, the group may be avoiding the tough but necessary search for alternatives.Beyond vigilance,a second step to discourage groupthink is to minimize status differences.If the group has a nominal leader,he or she must be careful not to use various types of power that come with the position to intimidate members. A third step involves developing a group norm that legitimizes disagreement. After members recognize that questioning one another’s positions doesn’t signal personal animosity or disloyalty,a constructive exchange of ideas can lead to topquality solutions. Sometimes it can be helpful to designate a person or subgroup as “devil’s advocate”who reminds the others about the dangers of groupthink and challenges the trend toward consensus. SUMMARY Despite the bad reputation of groups in some quarters, research shows that they are often the most effective setting for problem solving.They command greater resources,both quantitatively and qualitatively,than do either individuals or collections of people working in isolation;their work can result in greater accuracy;and the participative nature of the solutions they produce generates greater commitment from members. Groups aren’t always the best forum for solving problems.They should be used when the problem is beyond the capacity of one person to solve, when tasks are interdependent, when there is more than one desired solution or decision, and when the agreement of all members is essential. Groups use a wide variety of discussion formats when solving problems. Some use parliamentary procedure to govern decision-making procedures. Others use moderated panel discussions, symposia, or forums.The best format depends on the nature of the problem and the characteristics of the group. Since face-to-face meetings can be time-consuming and difficult to arrange, computer-mediated communication can be a good alternative for some group tasks. Some groupwork can be handled via computer or teleconferencing,where members communicate in real time over digital networks. Other taks can be handled via asychronous discussions, in which members exchange messages at their convenience. Mediated meetings provide a record of discussion and they can make it easier for normally quiet members to partici- CHAPTER 9 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN GROUPS 319 CULTURAL IDIOM “devil’s advocate”: one who argues against a widely held view in order to clarify issues pate, but they can take more time and they lack the nonverbal richness of face-to-face conversation. Given the pros and cons of mediated meetings, smart communicators should give thoughtful consideration about when to use this approach. Groups stand the best chance of developing effective solutions to problems if they begin their work by identifying the problem, avoiding the mistake of failing to recognize the hidden needs of individual members.Their next step is to analyze the problem, including identification of forces both favoring and blocking progress. Only at this point should the group begin to develop possible solutions, taking care not to stifle creativity by evaluating any of them prematurely. During the implementation phase of the solution,the group should monitor the situation carefully and make any necessary changes in its plan. Most groups can expect to move through several stages as they solve a problem.The first of these stages is orientation, during which the members sound each other out.The conflict stage is characterized by partisanship and open debate over the merits of contending ideas.In the emergence stage,the group begins to move toward choosing a single solution.In the reinforcement stage, members endorse the group’s decision. Groups who pay attention only to the task dimension of their interaction risk strains in the relationships among members. Many of these interpersonal problems can be avoided by using the skills described in Chapter 7 as well as by following the guidelines in
320 PART THREE COMMUNICATION IN GROUPS this chapter for building group cohesiveness and encouraging participation. Many naive observers of groups confuse the concepts of leader and leadership.We defined leadership as the ability to influence the behavior of other members through the use of one or more types of power—legitimate, coercive, reward, expert, information, or referent.We saw that many nominal leaders share their power with other members.Leadership has been examined from many perspectives—trait analysis, leadership style, and situational variables. Smart members will avoid some common dangers that threaten a group’s effectiveness.They will make sure to get the information they need, without succumbing to overload.They will make sure that participation is equal by encouraging the contributions of quiet members and keeping more talkative people on track.They will guard against groupthink by minimizing pressure on members to conform for the sake of harmony or approval. KEY TERMS authoritarian leadership style 312 brainstorming 301 buzz group 294 coercive power 309 cohesiveness 305 conflict stage 304 democratic leadership style 312 emergence stage 304 expert power 310 focus group 294 force field analysis 300 forum 295 groupthink 318 information overload 316 information power 310 information underload 316 laissez-faire leadership style 312 leader 308 Leadership Grid 314 legitimate power 308 nominal group technique 301 nominal leader 308 orientation stage 303 panel discussion 295 parliamentary procedure 294 participative decision making 292 power 308 probative question 299 problem census 294 referent power 310 reinforcement stage 304 reward power 309 situational leadership 315 symposium 295 trait theories of leadership 312 ACTIVITIES 1. When to Use Group Problem Solving Explain which of the following tasks would best be managed by a group: 1. Collecting and editing a list of films illustrating communication principles. 2. Deciding what the group will eat for lunch at a one-day meeting. 3. Choosing the topic for a class project. 4. Finding which of six companies had the lowest auto insurance rates. 5. Designing a survey to measure community attitudes toward a subsidy for local artists. 2. Increasing Group Creativity You can increase your skill at increasing creativity in group discussions by trying the approaches described in Understanding Human Communication. Your group should begin by choosing one of the following problems: 1. How can out-of-pocket student expenses (e.g., books, transportation) be decreased? 2. How can the textbook you are using in this (or any other) class be improved? 3. How could your class group (legally) earn the greatest amount of money between now and the end of the term? 4. What strategies can be used effectively when confronted with employer discrimination or harassment? (Assume you want to keep the job.) 5. Imagine that your group has been hired to develop a way of improving the course registration system at your institution.What three recommendations will be most effective? Choose either brainstorming or the nominal group technique to develop possible solutions to your chosen problem. Explain why you chose the method. Under what conditions would the other method be more appropriate? 3. Stages in Group Development Identify a problem-solving group, either from your personal experience or from a book or film. Analyze the group’s approach to problem solving. Does it follow the cyclical model pictured in Figure 9–1? Does it follow a more linear approach? Or does the group follow no recognizable pattern at all?
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Understanding Human Communication

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