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Maastricht European Studies Papers 2007/07 L. Unbehauen Since the Bologna Declaration in 1999, there have been regular ministerial conferences every two years. The 2001 conference in Prague issued the so-called Prague Communiqué which added three additional elements of importance to the original core objectives. 7. Lifelong learning The idea of lifelong learning has been emphasized in order to counter the challenges of competition and to promote the use of new technologies and the greater social cohesion. This also includes the recognition on vocational training and the focus on media skills (Prague Communiqué, 2001). 8. Higher education institutions and students Here the need to involve universities and students as active and knowledgeable partners when conducting European-wide education policy is acknowledged. Furthermore, it is stated that students should participate and shape the organizational structures and content of higher education institutes because they are the first to be concerned by these issues (ibid). Thus, in the Prague Communiqué the active involvement of the European University Association (EUA, before named CRE) and the National Unions of Students in Europe (ESIB) as consultative members of the BFUG has been established. 9. Promoting attractiveness of the EHEA (transnational education) According to the members of the Bologna Process it is important to make the profile of the EHEA more attractive for students from Europe and worldwide (ibid). In order to improve the comparability of European higher education degrees in other parts of the world, a common framework of qualifications and a coherent quality assurance and accreditation mechanism have to be developed to stay competitive in regard to other educational players such as the USA. The rationale is that as soon as ‘knowledge made in Europe’ becomes a recognizable label of qualification, it will be also draw students and high-skilled workers from all over the world. At the ministerial summit in Berlin in September 2003, a 10 th action line, namely the emphasis on doctorial studies (as the third educational cycle) and the synergy between the EHEA and the European Research Area (ERA) has been promoted. Moreover, three immediate priorities were singled out that were the most pressing and needed the greatest attention in the up-coming two years. These were: quality assurance (QA), the two-cycle 8
Maastricht European Studies Papers 2007/07 L. Unbehauen degree system and the recognition and periods of studying. Especially the issue of developing common criteria and methodologies for national QA was a hot topic. The educational ministers demanded that by 2005 national QA agencies should clearly define the responsibility of involved institutions, evaluate programs and institutions through internal assessment, external review, participation of students and the publication of results as well as a system of accreditation, certification or comparable procedures, international participation, co-operation and networking (Berlin Communiqué, 2003). The commitment to adopt guidelines and standards for QA has also been the focus of the last conference in Bergen in 2005. This ambition will be, however, difficult to realize because of the variety of QA systems that exist on the national level. Even countries with very similar structures (most- likely case) such as the Belgian Flanders and the Netherlands had to overcome various differences regarding procedures and strategies until they could establish the Dutch-Flemish Accreditation Organization NVAO in 2004 (Dittrich, Frederiks & Luwel, 2004, p. 300). The differences stem from “different cultures and traditions, but also different policy objectives and differences in policy implementation” (p. 309). The first set of disparity can be traced back to the procedural workings in a country, such as different authorization procedures for temporary accreditation and duration of accreditation (8 years in Flanders, 6 in the Netherlands). For example, in Flanders the decision to grant accreditation has to be taken in four months (three in the Netherlands); submission of application for accreditation is prescribed more in detail and application costs are lower than in the Netherlands; and complaints and appeal procedures differ as well (p. 311). This example demonstrates the complexity of establishing a European-wide system of QA which remains an open issue to debate on the agenda of the Bologna Process. 4. The Strategies of the European Commission to Promote Consensus When looking at the Bologna Process so far, it seems like a natural development that at least the members of the EU would give up their sovereignty in this field and pool their education policies. However, this trend has proven to be a contested and lengthy process. This is confirmed by the fact that despite acknowledging the extension of the EU’s higher education activities, the EU’s sphere of influence has been limited in the Treaty of Maastricht to encourage international mobility and to “only support and complement policy action at the 9
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