education…….

Some Challenges for Science Education
(Why don't they love us any more?)
Outline
Svein Sjøberg, Oslo and Copenhagen University
svein.sjoberg@ils.uio.no -- http://folk.uio.no/sveinsj/
Science (and math) educations as academic fields
International comparisons: Learning from others, or..?
Crisis??
Knowledge: Falling level?
Problematic attitudes and interests?
Disenchantment and disillusionment?
Possible explanations: not (only) in schools, but in
Society:
Changes in the life worlds of the young
Changes in science and its relationship to society
1
2

"Science Education"
An interdisciplinary bridge! (Falling between chairs?)
Science
Science Education
"Naturwissenschaftliger
Didaktik" etc…
Education
Academic Identity:
(Natural) science or social science?
Problematic: "Didaktik" vs
Didactics: "Didactical: Moralistic ..
fond of instructing or advising others:
tending to give instruction or advice,
even when it is not welcome or not
needed"
Loyalty:
Theory or practice?
Academia or schools?
Basic questions of
'Didaktik':
Why? What? How?
(and for Whom?)
Science Education
Possible perspectives -- sources for theory and reflection:
History of science and
The history of School Science
Philosopy and
epistemology of science
Sociology of Science
(National) Science curriculum
Science content:
as research,
as a discipline of study
and as a school subject
Science
Education
General, National curriculum
Educational psychology
(cognitive, motivational etc.)
Science Education
General "Didaktik"
and curriculum theory
Theories of language, rethorics,
semiotics and communication
School
history
Educational
philosophy
3
Comparative and
international education
4

Sources of information
Surveys like Eurobarometer (and similar
for other continents)
Large scale comparative studies on
pupils’ achievement (IEA/TIMSS and
OECD/PISA)
Comparative studies on attitudes,
interests, perceptions of science and
scientists (the SAS-study, ROSE)
Educational statistics (UNESCO, OECD)
Science achievement at
school level
Evidence from
large scale comparative
studies
TIMSS and PISA
5
6

International assessments, the history..
IEA established 1959
Torsten Husén, Swedish educator and politician.
Vision: Rational planning and improvement of society
through education, based on research evidence
(Key element of the then dominant Nordic social
democratic rationale)
IEA based in Stockholm, later developed into a
university Institute, and IEA moved to the Netherlands
IEA now: Legally a "Non-profit international society",
raising funds from governments etc.
Members: Governments, universities, research
institutes etc.
IEA Results (FISS, SISS, TIMSS etc.) used by e.g.
OECD
Late 1990s: OECD decided to "make their own",
resulting in PISA, planned to last ….
The IEA/TIMSS-study
TIMSS: Third International Mathematics and
Science Study
Data collections in 1995 and 2000
Three levels: 9 year olds, 13 years and last
year in upper secondary
TIMSS continues ( with T for 'Trends')
Data collection April 2003
7
8

60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
Science Achievement and Age
Data from all three TIMSS' populations
Third
Grade
Eight
Grade
Final
Year
Sweden
Norway
USA
Gender difference in science score over time
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
Kjønnsforskjeller i naturfag: Utvikling over tid
(Forskjellene er gitt i prosent av standardavviket)
Norge
Sverige
Internasjonalt
0
FISS SISS TIMSS
Norway
New Zealand
Canada
USA
Australia
Netherlands
Czech Republic
Sweden
France
9
10

PISA (OECD): Programme for
International Student Assessment
Reading literacy
Mathematical literacy
Scientific literacy
Cross-Curriculum Competencies
(CCC)
PISA hvert tredje år
med ulike fokusfag
Fase 1 i 2000: Lesing
Fase 2 i 2003: Matematikk
Fase 3 i 2006: Naturfag
Alle tre fag med hver gang for å kunne
måle utvikling over tid
11
12

PISA 2000
International
results in
science
The graph indicates:
Means,
50 % percentiles,
95 % percentiles
Land Gj. snitt
St.
avvik
Korea 552 81
Japan 550 90
Finland 538 86
Storbritannia 532 98
Canada 529 89
New Zealand 528 101
Australia 528 94
Østerrike 519 91
Irland 513 92
Sverige 512 93
Tsjekkia 511 94
Frankrike 500 102
Norge 500 96
USA 499 101
Ungarn 496 103
Island 496 88
Belgia 496 111
Sveits 496 100
Spania 491 95
Tyskland 487 102
Polen 483 97
Danmark 481 103
Italia 478 98
Liechtenstein * 476 94
Hellas 461 97
Russland * 460 99
Latvia * 460 98
Portugal 459 89
Luxemburg 443 96
Mexico 422 77
Brasil * 375 90
PISA2000, Gender differences
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
Lesing Naturfag Matematikk
Naturfagskåre
Norge
Sverige
Danmark
Finland
Island
OECD
13
14

International comparisons --
The political context:
Internationalization and globalization
International cooperation (and
competition!)
Education as a driving force in economical
development
Education as a commodity, the world as a
market
Key words from techno-economical jargon:
transparency, efficiency, accountability etc
Hence: the need for comparisons,
indicators and benchmarks
International comparisons:
Two (incompatible?) perspectives
To open up for diversity…
Open for new visions, new alternatives, promote
critical discussions, give new ideas for
experimentation, learning from others …
To narrow down, to converge…
Establishment of 'universal standards' and
benchmarks for contents, aims and
assessment methods
Give authority to narrow definitions of quality and
efficiency by focussing on quantifiable
aspects.
Focus on technocratic utility
15
16

TIMSS and PISA:
The political context
Government-driven and financed, often
placed in MOEs or commissioned to
special institutes, often with psychometric
(and not educational?) expertise
Better funded than all other educational
research
Grants are commissioned and not
dependent on research applications
Legitimate aim: Policy-relevant information
on pupils’ achievement, efficiency, use of
resources etc.
"International" studies –
for the rich and by the rich?
TIMSS (2003): 68 countries, mainly the rich..
PISA (2003) = 28 OECD-countries (plus 11 more)
BUT: These studies have implicit effects on the
rest of the world (i.e. 150 other countries):
A normative effect: Defining standards,
perspectives, definitions, aims, contents, testing
methods etc.
Singapore: "Only one thing counts in our schools:
win the race!"
The 'winners' become models and ideals for other
countries!
17
18

Who defines ‘global standards’ …?
TIMSS: Biology without evolution!
TIMSS: Human biology without sexual
reproduction!
Explanation: Main finance from the US?
Avoidance of socio-scientific and (real!)
controversial issues a necessity to become
accepted by funders and stakeholders?
PISA and "real life challenges"
Key PISA words: "real life challenges"
BUT: "real life challenges" of children and
their cultures differ!
The need to identify common items removes
(or trivializes) the contexts from the items
PISA (probably) avoids all controversial socioscientific
issues (the 'real' issues?)
"probably" because:
Secrecy about items make ordinary academic
critique impossible
19
20

PISA as 'norm' and standard
PISA (and TIMSS) measure only
a few aspects of a few subjects!
Rankings on these are accepted by the public
and politicians as a valid measure of the
overall quality of the school
Indirectly:
Ignoring other subjects, ignoring the whole
curriculum,
Redefining and trivializing the purpose
schools!
PISA score:
An skewed (!) measure of quality?
21
22

PISA – the critique
Secrecy – departure from academic ideals of
openness and critique
Experts as bureaucrats – loyalty expected
Lack of transparency, Politically and
educationally
Conclusions have to be taken at face value
No peer review of products – secret items also
after publication
Only two items are published (Ozone and
Semmelweis) Serious critique is raised…
‘Real life contexts' turn out to be uncontroversial,
often historical – and not 'real' issues
TIMSS, PISA and public sphere
Results get War-like headings in
international and national media
Results are presented by prime
ministers and presidents and debated in
Parliaments
Results become key elements in
election campaigns (US, Germany etc.)
Action plans 'to get things right' abound
(millions of £,$ etc. released)
23
24

TIMSS and PISA:
Bad results are Good news! (for some)
'Bad' ranking used as a vehicle to
promote national programmes
Release of large sums of money for
national action
All countries are dissatisfied...
Even Japan had 'bad results' (no more
alone on top!) -- resulting in official
concern about falling standards
PISA:
Enormous Press coverage
German News report
(covering only 2 months)!
750 pages, 200 articles
Similar in other countries
25
26

"PISA Schock"
gives 11 600 hits on
Google!
OECD-Studie PISA
legt deutsche Schul-
Misere bloß
Deutschland im
Bildungsschock.
PISA i Tyskland
27
28

Krigsoppslag over hele
5. desember 2001
"Norway is a school loser"
"- this is sad –like coming home from
the winter olympics without gold
medals.
- and this time we cannot blame the
Finnish success on doping."
(Kristin Clemet, Norway's Minister of Education)
29
30

(But also the Swedes are dissatisfied!)
School performance and spending
per student
The Nordic countries:
31
Inverse relationship!
(Higher spending, lower results!)
32

PISA-TIMSS.
Not just ‘learning from others’
In this country, only one thing matters – be
best, teach to the test!
Helmer Aslaksen, professor in Math, Singapore
…TIMSS researcher … astonished to see the
young Taiwanese marching into the test room with
military discipline, shouting nationalistic slogans.
Times Education Supplement, 26 May 2000
“TIMSS-like” testing is used by donors (like the
World Bank) as condition for funding of education
in developing countries
Conclusions
PISA/TIMSS provides the Ministries with
(legitimate!) information for decisions!
BUT:
PISA is a sign of education becoming
globalized – a pressure to 'harmonize'
education – (like other aspects of society)
Prediction:
Educational Policy in OECD will be "PISAdriven"
in the years to come
There is a need for an informed and
critical debate about uses and potential
misuses
33
34

% Riktig
Lower level, falling standards?
(1)
Yes –
Based on tests and reports from
tertiary S&T institutions.
(But maybe the best students no
longer want to become scientists or
engineers?)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Falling standards in Mathematics in
higher education? (Norsk Matematikkråd)
68
"På Dahl skole er det 135 jenter og 115 gutter.
Hvor mange prosent er jenter?"
58
55
85
67
Ing Siv.Ing Teachers
64
53
45
1999
2000
2001
33
35
36

Lower level, falling standards?
(2)
No –
There is no evidence for falling
standards available through surveys
on Public Understanding of Science
or from the large scale school
comparative studies.
But we may be very dissatisfied with the
results!
Falling interest in S&T?
Yes– when recruitment (choice of schools subjects
and further studies) is the measure for interests
But: Large variations between different areas of S&T
(life sciences have less problems than e.g. physics!)
No – based on the interest for popular science in
books and magazines and other media, surveys
(Eurobarometer), visits to science centres etc
Conclusion: Recruitment to S&T is the main
challenge to be explained and addressed
In the long run: The lack of qualified science
teachers is more serious that the lack of recruitment
to research and industry!
37
38

SAS: Science And Scientists
Participating countries 2002
USA (2)
Chile
Trinidad
Iceland
Norway (2)
England (3)
Sweden
Spain Hungary
Sudan
Nigeria (4)
Uganda
Mozambique
Lesotho
Russia
India (3)
S-Korea
Japan
Philippines
Papua New Guinea
Australia (2)
10 000 13-year olds in 21 countries
answers, writes, draws…
The image of science,
scientists as persons
(SAS, Science And Scientists, Sjøberg 2002)
From drawings and free writing:
Children in developing countries:
A very positive image
Most children in developed countries also
have a positive image, but a considerable
number have a negative and stereotyped
image of scientists. ('The crazy scientists')
39
40

A scientist at work
Boy from Norway, 13 year (SAS-study)
A scientist at
work
(Boy from Norway, 13
years)
"I think they
experiment
with animals
and kill them.
And then they
develop
poisonous gases
and atomic bombs"
41
42

Girl, Norway
They try to
invent new
things to kill
people or to
help people
Boy, Norway
They research on
things that they
think may help
or destroy the
world.
43
44

Scientists at work: Developing countries
1. They are always thinking
2. They always have ideas
3. They (most) are brilliant
people.
4 They are always making
experiments new discoveries
5. If scientists were not here we
ordinary people wouldn't know
anything. (Girl Trinidad)
Europeans, Science
and Technology
Eurobarometer 55.2 (2001)
(one of many surveys)
New 2003: Including 13 potential
member states
Scientists helps people regain
their health.
They help those that are sick or ill
to get well.
They are fund of discoveries.
They are also kept in the hospital
to take care of those that are not
healthy. (Girl, Nigeria)
S&T related interest and knowledge
Values, science, technology
Responsibilities and accountability of
scientists
GMOs: an important issue
Levels of confidence
45
46

Interest in science and technology
(aggregate, adult population, EU 2001)
Interest in Science and technology (EU 2001)
Germany
Ireland
Portugal
France
The Netherlands
Denmark
Greece
Sweden
29,8
31,6
37,9
58,9
60,9
60,9
64,3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 47
Attitudes to science (EU 2001)
"Science is changing our ways of life too
quickly" Agree: 61.3%
"Scientists' knowledge gives them a
power which makes them dangerous"
Agree: 63.2%
"The authorities ought to formally oblige
scientists to observe ethical rules."
Agree: 80.3%
The more knowledge, the less trust? :
85% agreement among the highest knowledge
group (11 to 13 points on the knowledge index)
54
48

Opinions about scientists
(in situations like BSE, data from EU 2001)
Scientists ought to keep us better informed
about the possible hazards of certain
scientific or technological advances
Agree: 89.0 %
Scientists ought to communicate their
scientific knowledge better
Agree: 86 %
Industry ought to be better regulated
Agree: 82 %
Science versus non-science (% EU15)
For each of the following disciplines, please
indicate whether it appears to you rather
scientific or not very scientific.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Medicine
92,6 89,5 88,2
Physics
Biology
77,9
Astronomy
72,3
Mathematics
Psychology
64,5
Astrology
52,7
Economics
42,3
History
33,1
49
50

"Genetically modified food
(GMO) is dangerous"
Total for EU: Agree: 56.4 %
Trust in different groups and
occupations (%EU15)
Imagine that there has been a disaster in your
neighbourhood or district. Who would you most
trust to explain the reasons for this disaster?
70
60
50
62,6 59,8
55
40
31,6
30
20
10
0
19,9 17,7
Scientists
Env. protection ass.
Doctors
Consumer associations
Governm ent representatives
Journalists
4,4
Businesses
51
52

The disenchantment with science
– possible reasons
To be understood through social,
political, cultural changes ….:
1. Changes in the life world of the young
2. Changes in science itself,
the image and perceptions of science,
science and its relationship to society
Changes in Society and in S&T
New social role and function of S&T.
Witnesses:
Eric Hobsbawm (historian)
John Ziman (physicist, later science
policy analyst)
53
54

Witness 1:
Eric Hobsbawm:
The historical transition of
science:
From radical, antiauthoritarian
rebel in the pre-war period
To current loyal, conservative
On payroll from Industry and
Military
Acting in the interest of dominant
powers.
Pre-war science: The scientist as
intellectual heros and rebels
Intellectual hero:
"To be a scientist was to be envied.
Certainly those of us who were students
in Cambridge […] knew what we had
wanted to study, if our mathematics had
been good enough."
Radical rebel:
"The typical British scientist of the 1930s
was a member of the (Left-wing)
Cambridge Scientists Anti-War Group …
their distinctions ranged from the Royal
55
56

Changing times, changing
ideologies and commitment…
Some decades later:
"The political temperature of science
dropped after the Second World War.
Radicalism in the laboratories receded
rapidly… "
The generous support of governments
and large corporations encouraged a
breed of researchers who took their
paymaster's policies for granted and
preferred not to think about the wider
implications of their work especially
Witness 2:
John Ziman:
Thee narrow specialization of
scientists
The (increased) need for ethics and
social responsibility
Eroding ethos and ideal?
Farewell to scientific objectivity?
• From critical, radical and
antiauthoritarian –
to accepting, conservative and
complacent
Transition from academic to postacademic
science
57
58

From academic to post-academic science
(based on Ziman)
Academic
Post-academic
Development of ideas
and theories
Intellectual ownership
Search for Truth
(Often not useful..)
Openness, Debate and
Communication
Critical, radical and
antiauthoritarian
Independent intelligentia
Funding of
research in
the US …
Development of products
and patents
Material ownership
Search for practical
Solutions (to predefined
problems) Silence, Secrecy and
Espionage
Accepting, conservative
and complacent
Dependent and loyal
payroll worker
59
60

"Brave new science?"
The changing image of science
Big Science, techno-science
(NASA, CERN, HUGO..)
Over-national and
multinational
Governed by 'external'
forces: economy, politics,
military, industry …
Efficient lobbies for ever
increasing budgets…
'Science: Single-minded pursuit of money' (Greensberg 2002)
The ambitions of Science
(Fascinating for some – frightening for others?)
Biology
Gene manipulation,
babies by design? etc
Physics:
The Theory Of Everything:
The World formulae!
The hunt for
"The God Particle"
61
62

Ambivalence:
The two faces of
science
The Crisis is declared:
"Physics On Stage"
(CERN, ESA, ESO, supported by the EU)
"… recent surveys show a frightening decline of
interest in physics and technology among
Europe's citizens, especially schoolchildren.."
(POS Press release)
"… a progressively deteriorating state of physics
literacy among the European population at all
levels."
(POS, Project document)
63
64

The Crisis? Conclusion
Recruitment to S&T is the main challenge
to be explained and addressed
In the long run: The lack of qualified
science teachers is more serious that the
lack of recruitment to research and
industry!
Avoidance of S&T subjects and
Lack of recruitment
The perceived "Culture of science" turns people
on or off
"The body language of science": Ideologies and
images conveyed by science texts -- and by
scientists
Perceptions of scientists as persons -- their values,
their 'world-view' etc. Some are attracted -- some
are not!
The issue is not (mainly) cognitive, but affective,
personal and social.
This is not just a matter of better understanding of
the concepts and more efficient teaching methods
65
66

Solutions: The contents and framing of
the science curriculum
Not a 'given' -- open for negotiations and
change -- different stakeholders
Key concern for a radical reworking:
Re-establish relevance, meaning,
significance
Based on Changes in
1. Science, technology and their role in society
2. The social and personal life-worlds of the young
(changing values, concerns, interests, priorities,
hopes and aspirations ..)
Scientific and technological literacy
(Bildung, dannelse, bildning, formation…)
Key idea:
To combine respect and admiration
for S&T with critical distance
1. Appreciate S&T as cultural and human products,
and their key place in our human heritage
2. Be familiar with key ideas in a scientific worldview
and some elements in their historical
development
3. Appreciate the possibilities of S&T -- and to
realise the limitations and potential side effects
4. Be able to balance scientific arguments against
social, political and moral perspectives in
contemporary socio-scientific issues
67
68

Trends in science curriculum reforms (1)
Widening the perspective: Key slogans:
"Science for all", "Science for Citizenship"
etc.) ('dannelse', 'Bildung etc')
Towards subject integration, problem- and
issue-orientation
More weight on technology and applications
Concern for the Environment
STS: Science, Technology and Society
Inclusion of ethics
Inclusion of Controversies and Socio-scientific
dilemmas
Balancing authoritarian and established 'textbook
science' with contemporary, contested
research frontier
Trends in science curriculum reforms (2)
More weight on The Nature Of Science
Scientific knowledge as culture and a human
construction
Interplay between observations and theory
Science as public argumentation
Scientific knowledge as fallible (but the best we
have..)
Putting Science in Contexts (personal, social)
"Less is more": Abandoning the encyclopaedic
and overcrowded curriculum)
Implications of Uncertainties -- living in a "Risk
society"
"The narrative turn". Great Stories of Science
69
70

Telling stories: The narrative turn
Weight on Great Stories with meaning and relevance.
Meanings to be enjoyed and remembered.
(Also recommended in "Beyond 2000")
Examples of Science in recent literature.
The play "Copenhagen", books like "Galieos
daughter", bestsellers like E = mc 2 are examples
Parallels to Jostein Gaarders "Sophie's World" (A
personal story of philosophy, world-wide best-seller)
"Stories" also as science texts for school science.
Hunt and Millar: Science for Public Understanding
(Nuffield 2000)
The contrast, (the 'normal'?) follows …
Science for all?
The last dose of obligatory science:
Concepts in one of 12 chapters in (typical) Norwegian textbook
age 16.
kromatin, kjernelegeme, kjernemembran, ER,
endoplasmatisk retikulum, endoplasmatisk nettverk,
vakuole, mitokondrium, ribosom, kloroplast, endosom,
golkiapparatet, lysosomer, plasmid, cellevegg, vakuoler,
fosfolipid, fosfsorsyre, semipermeabel membran, osmose,
endocytose, lysosomer, aminosyrer, transportbærer,
eksocytose, signalstoffer, monosakkarider, ploysakkarider,
DNA, deoksyribonukleinsyre, deoksyribose, adenin,
cytocin, guanin, tymin, gener, kromosomer, mitose,
homolog, diploid, kromatider, søsterkromatider, meiose,
haploid, CGA, CTC, TAC, human genom, ribosomer,
cytoplasma, RNA, ribonukleinsyre, uracil, m-RNA,
messenger RNA, t-RNA, pigmenter, klorofyll, glukose,
cellulose, plasmider, enzym, substrater, fenylketonuri,
denarere, ATP, ADP, AMP, edenisintrifosfat, -difosfat og
monofosfat, pyrodruesyre, aerob celleånding, anaerob
celleånding (med formler) …
71
72

Summary and Conclusions
Current problems have an objective basis in changes in
S&T and the life-world of the young
Science curricula (and science teacher education!) are
in need for fundamental debates over meaning and
relevance
Complicated issues require a variety of perspectives and
approaches
The affective dimensions is the key to grasp the
problems of S&T education.
Critiques of S&T (cultural, political, feminist) should be
taken seriously
S&T should be legitimised with concepts like "culture,
empowerment, education for democracy, critical
thinking"
Changes in arguments must be accompanied by
changes in contents and practice!
Scientific and technological literacy
(dannelse, bildning) is to…
5. Understand (and critically judge) contemporary
criticism of S&T
6. Be able to distinguish between scientific and quasiscientific
arguments
7. Be able to use and benefit from scientific methods,
values and attitudes where they are applicable -and
not to use them when they are out of place
8. Be critical and constructive to the role and ambitions
of S&T in present society
9. Be able to express an informed view on how
Scientific research should be prioritised and
governed -- when this is needed…
73
74

Official EU policy statements
"The Lisbon declaration" (2001):
At 2000 the European Summit of Lisbon heads of states
committed themselves to transform Europe into "the
most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based
economic and cultural region in the world by 2010."
"The Barcelona target" (2002):
….an increase of the proportion of European GDP
related to research from 1.9% to 3%.
"Action plan" (2003):
"Young people lack interest in pursuing scientific studies
and careers: classroom courses and studies appear
poorly adapted …, and perceptions of …. science-based
professions appear to be negative.
Europe needs more scientists not less."
EU's Science and Society"
Part of Frame Programme 6, FP6 (launched
Nov 2002) http://www.cordis.lu/rtd2002/
The Science and Society Action Plan
proposes a range of initiatives, along three
directions:
1. promoting education and science culture in
Europe;
2. bringing science policy closer to the citizens;
3. responsible science for policy-making.
http://www.cordis.lu/rtd2002/science-society/
75
76

New initiative:
Increasing the participation..
Science and technology are key factors in national
development
Europe needs 500 000 new scientists in 10 years…
Busquin established “High Level Group” to produce action
Headed by Gago, rapporteur: John Ziman
Now. Letters to Ministers, organizations etc.
Report and analysis undertaken for Report
Workshop on Report in December
Conference in April 2004.
Then implementation of actions…
The current 'crisis' represents a challenge -- as well as
an obvious possibility for Science educators in Europe
Information and studies:
TIMSS (continues, with T for Trends) http://timss.bc.edu/
OECD's PISA (continues for at least 10 years, focus on
science in 2006) http://www.pisa.oecd.org/
Science And Scientists (SAS-study), and the emerging
ROSE: Relevance of Science Education) (ref:
svein.sjoberg@ils.uio.no
Eurobarometer 55.2 "Europeans, Science And
Technology" http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg10/epo/eb.html
and Candidate countries Eurobarometer (CCEB) 2003
http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/
UNESCO: World Education Report and statistics
http://www.unesco.org/
OECD: Education at Glance http://www.oecd.org/
UNDPs Human Development Reports http://www.undp.org/
EU's 6th Frame Programme, now with Science and
Society action plan http://www.cordis.lu/rtd2002/sciencesociety/
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