A History of Research and a Review of Recent Developments

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Below-ground explosions 41 about 10 feet. In type C, explosion depth 20 feet, the whole of the initial chamber of compression is filled with debris, which will not spread much beyond the limits of the crater. Christopherson made the point that most of the delay-fused bombs dropped in Britain during the Second World War penetrated to about 20 feet and produced type C craters. The deeper explosions (30 ft) produced a camouflet and a chimney, which we discussed earlier in relation to nuclear explosions, and deeper still (35 ft) the 250 kg charge in clay produced a spherical camouflet. These crater shapes were originally noted by Walley [2.15] following trials at Brancaster, where the soil was waterlogged blue clay. Later he surveyed earth shock effects in other types of soil, including the general classifications of clay, chalk and sandstone. The results are given in terms of the crater depth parameter h/W 1/3 , the depth of the explosion parameter H/W 1/3 , and also the crater diameter parameter D/W 1/3 , in Figure 2.14. Crater dimensions were also reviewed in Britain by Colonel F.W.Anderson in 1942 [2.16]. He suggested that the results could be predicted in different materials by introducing a soil factor to modify W for a given burial depth H. Taking clay as the basis (factor=1.0), he proposed factors of 2.75, 1.50 and 2.00 for chalk, soft sand and soft sandstone respectively. The British also looked at crater effects in 1945, when J.S.Arthur [2.17] produced a review of comparative performance between different types of high explosive. He also proposed an explosive factor to modify W for a given burial depth H. Taking TNT as the basis (factor=1.0) he suggested factors of 1.0 for Amatol, 1.20 for Figure 2.13 Types of crater for explosions in clay, reported by Christopherson (ref. 1.9) in 1945.
42 The detonation of explosive charges RDX/TNT (60/40) and 1.75 for aluminized explosives such as Torpex and Minol. At about this time an attempt was made by Devonshire and Mott [2.18] to relate camouflet volume and crater dimensions to the energy available in the explosion, and their work was later used to support the analysis of deep underground explosions by Chadwick, Cox and Hopkins that we discussed earlier. Lampson included crater dimensions in his chapter on ‘Explosions in earth’ in reference [2.19], when he reviewed the wartime experiments for the National Research and Development Committee in the USA in 1946. His review included the British results, so it is not surprising that his proposed relationships between scaled crater dimensions and scaled depth of burial were very similar to those Figure 2.14 Crater dimensions related to the depth (H) of the explosion. Second World War tests reported by Walley (ref. 2.15).
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EXPLOSIVE LOADING OF ENGINEERING ST
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Explosive Loading of Engineering St
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Contents Preface vii Acknowledgemen
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Preface A long time ago I walked ov
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Acknowledgements The reports from w
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xii Notation m mass of projectile m
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xiv Notation Q work done during exp
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Introduction Explosions can threate
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Introduction xix Bertram Hopkinson
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Introduction xxi in the seventeenth
Page 24 and 25: Introduction xxiii own versions of
Page 26 and 27: Introduction xxv indoor shelters an
Page 28 and 29: Introduction xxvii explosions/ stru
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Page 32: Introduction xxxi but the feeling i
Page 35 and 36: 2 The nature of explosions propelli
Page 37 and 38: 4 The nature of explosions or rathe
Page 39 and 40: 6 The nature of explosions ogive, a
Page 41 and 42: 8 The nature of explosions mass, an
Page 43 and 44: 10 The nature of explosions Figure
Page 45 and 46: 12 4 lb cylinders, TNT, 3.75 lb sph
Page 47 and 48: 14 The nature of explosions As Figu
Page 49 and 50: 16 The nature of explosions of the
Page 51 and 52: 18 1.4 THE DECAY OF INSTANTANEOUS O
Page 53 and 54: 20 The nature of explosions Figure
Page 55 and 56: 22 The nature of explosions where I
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Page 59 and 60: 26 The nature of explosions 1.20 Ki
Page 61 and 62: 28 The detonation of explosive char
Page 73: 40 The detonation of explosive char
Page 83 and 84: 50 Figure 2.18 Radius/time curve of
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Page 92 and 93: 3 Propellant, dust, gas and vapour
Page 94 and 95: Dust explosions 61 as the period 19
Page 96 and 97: Gas explosions 63 reported by Palme
Page 98 and 99: Gas explosions 65 workings in very
Page 100 and 101: Vapour cloud explosions 67 the leak
Page 102 and 103: References 69 in Los Angeles Harbou
Page 104 and 105: 4 Structural loading from distant e
Page 106 and 107: Uniformly distributed pressures 73
Page 108 and 109: Table 4.1 Loading/time relationship
Page 110 and 111: Loading/time relationships 77 overp
Page 112 and 113: Loading/time relationships 79 side
Page 114 and 115: Loads on underground structures 81
Page 120 and 121: Loads on underwater structures 87 c
Page 122: References 89 4.12 Allgood, J. (197
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92 Structural loading from local ex
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98 The general empirical equation f
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100 Structural loading from local e
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112 Figure 5.16 Relationship betwee
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120 Pressure measurement and blast
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142 Penetration and fragmentation r
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144 Penetration and fragmentation p
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146 Penetration and fragmentation w
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148 Penetration and fragmentation T
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152 Penetration and fragmentation F
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152 Penetration and fragmentation n
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158 Figure 7.16 Penetration simulat
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162 Penetration and fragmentation b
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164 Table 7.1 Penetration and fragm
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168 Penetration and fragmentation I
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170 Penetration and fragmentation l
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174 Penetration and fragmentation p
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176 Penetration and fragmentation o
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178 Penetration and fragmentation o
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180 Penetration and fragmentation 7
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182 Penetration and fragmentation 7
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184 The effects of explosive loadin
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188 Table 8.1 It is worth noting th
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200 Table 8.5 The effects of explos
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216 Response, safety and evolution
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224 In the log-normal distribution
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230 Cole, R.H. 46, 48, 53, 55, 99 C
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232 Petry 143 Philip, E.B. 13, 14,
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Subject index Aircraft damage 207 A
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A History of Research and a Review of Recent Developments

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