A History of Research and a Review of Recent Developments

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Above-ground explosions 33 Figure 2.8 Variation of p r /p 0 with angle of incidence (from Glasstone and Dolan, ref. 2.9). The properties of obliquely reflecting shock waves have been a subject of much theoretical and experimental research over the years. Theories due to von Neumann [2.7] and more recently to Dewey and McMillin [2.8] have used different approaches (pseudo-stationary and non-stationary) to predict more accurately the point at which transition to Mach reflection occurs. It is near this transition that the total pressure exceeds the normal reflection pressure. The theoretical results have been used to predict the peak hydrostatic overpressure at ground level from an air burst explosion, and are often expressed as isobars of overpressure plotted on the axes of height of burst and ground radius. Curves of this type were presented by Glasstone and Dolan [2.9], and an adaptation of their results by Satori [2.10]. In a paper in 1985 by Dewey, Heilig and Reichenbach [2.11] on oblique reflections, experiments performed at the Ernst Mach Institut in Freiburg, Germany were reported for the first time. Small spherical charges of hexogen (0.016 to 1.024 kg) were detonated at heights ranging from 0.15 to 6.5 m over flat concrete reflecting surfaces. Pressure gauges were flush mounted in the surface between 0 and 8 m radius from a point immediately below the charge. The test results were compared with experiments at the Defence Research Establishment, Suffield, where 500 kg charges of TNT and 100 and 500 kg charges of pentolite were detonated at heights ranging between 1.2 and 44 m. The results were also compared with experiments at Suffield with 450 000 kg of TNT at a height of 4 m. By applying the scaling laws to the hexogen and pentolite explosions it was possible to compare the relation between p 0/p a and the primary shock front radius in metres, on a basis of a 1 kg charge mass of TNT. This comparison is shown in Figure 2.9, where a
34 The detonation of explosive charges small adjustment of 2% was made to allow for the energy release of hexogen as 1.02×TNT, although the pentolite results were not adjusted for the energy release ratio of 1.22×TNT. The computed and experimental reflected shock pressure ratios are plotted as a zone in the same figure. 2.3 BELOW-GROUND EXPLOSIONS The pressure in earth from the detonation of a charge below the surface is influenced by the distance of the point under consideration from the centre of the explosion (R), the weight of the explosive (W), the characteristic of the soil (K), and the depth of burial of the charge (H). Experiments, mostly conducted during the Second World War, showed generally that for TNT the expression for the instantaneous peak pressure in the soil at the same depth as the charge takes the form p 0 =fK(R/W 1/3 ) –n , 2
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EXPLOSIVE LOADING OF ENGINEERING ST
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Explosive Loading of Engineering St
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Contents Preface vii Acknowledgemen
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Preface A long time ago I walked ov
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Acknowledgements The reports from w
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xii Notation m mass of projectile m
Page 15 and 16: xiv Notation Q work done during exp
Page 18 and 19: Introduction Explosions can threate
Page 20 and 21: Introduction xix Bertram Hopkinson
Page 22 and 23: Introduction xxi in the seventeenth
Page 24 and 25: Introduction xxiii own versions of
Page 26 and 27: Introduction xxv indoor shelters an
Page 28 and 29: Introduction xxvii explosions/ stru
Page 30 and 31: Introduction xxix particularly dama
Page 32: Introduction xxxi but the feeling i
Page 35 and 36: 2 The nature of explosions propelli
Page 37 and 38: 4 The nature of explosions or rathe
Page 39 and 40: 6 The nature of explosions ogive, a
Page 41 and 42: 8 The nature of explosions mass, an
Page 43 and 44: 10 The nature of explosions Figure
Page 45 and 46: 12 4 lb cylinders, TNT, 3.75 lb sph
Page 47 and 48: 14 The nature of explosions As Figu
Page 49 and 50: 16 The nature of explosions of the
Page 51 and 52: 18 1.4 THE DECAY OF INSTANTANEOUS O
Page 53 and 54: 20 The nature of explosions Figure
Page 55 and 56: 22 The nature of explosions where I
Page 57 and 58: 24 sometimes written in psi as The
Page 59 and 60: 26 The nature of explosions 1.20 Ki
Page 61 and 62: 28 The detonation of explosive char
Page 65: 32 The detonation of explosive char
Page 83 and 84: 50 Figure 2.18 Radius/time curve of
Page 87 and 88: 54 and 50%, rather than by a factor
Page 92 and 93: 3 Propellant, dust, gas and vapour
Page 94 and 95: Dust explosions 61 as the period 19
Page 96 and 97: Gas explosions 63 reported by Palme
Page 98 and 99: Gas explosions 65 workings in very
Page 100 and 101: Vapour cloud explosions 67 the leak
Page 102 and 103: References 69 in Los Angeles Harbou
Page 104 and 105: 4 Structural loading from distant e
Page 106 and 107: Uniformly distributed pressures 73
Page 108 and 109: Table 4.1 Loading/time relationship
Page 110 and 111: Loading/time relationships 77 overp
Page 112 and 113: Loading/time relationships 79 side
Page 114 and 115: Loads on underground structures 81
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Loads on underground structures 83
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Loads on underground structures 85
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Loads on underwater structures 87 c
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References 89 4.12 Allgood, J. (197
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92 Structural loading from local ex
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98 The general empirical equation f
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100 Structural loading from local e
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112 Figure 5.16 Relationship betwee
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120 Pressure measurement and blast
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142 Penetration and fragmentation r
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144 Penetration and fragmentation p
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146 Penetration and fragmentation w
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148 Penetration and fragmentation T
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152 Penetration and fragmentation F
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152 Penetration and fragmentation n
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158 Figure 7.16 Penetration simulat
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162 Penetration and fragmentation b
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164 Table 7.1 Penetration and fragm
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168 Penetration and fragmentation I
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170 Penetration and fragmentation l
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174 Penetration and fragmentation p
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176 Penetration and fragmentation o
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178 Penetration and fragmentation o
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180 Penetration and fragmentation 7
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182 Penetration and fragmentation 7
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184 The effects of explosive loadin
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188 Table 8.1 It is worth noting th
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200 Table 8.5 The effects of explos
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216 Response, safety and evolution
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224 In the log-normal distribution
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230 Cole, R.H. 46, 48, 53, 55, 99 C
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232 Petry 143 Philip, E.B. 13, 14,
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Subject index Aircraft damage 207 A
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A History of Research and a Review of Recent Developments

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