A History of Research and a Review of Recent Developments

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References 69 in Los Angeles Harbour, USA, at Christmas 1976, and in the Norwegian tanker King Haakon VII. 3.5 THERMAL FLASH A final characteristic of explosions must be examined before we end this brief survey. Structural damage of a quite different nature can result from the extremely high temperatures created by the fireball of a nuclear explosion. The maximum fireball diameter for a 1 megaton bomb yield is about 1.4 miles, and for a 10 megaton weapon it would be 3.4 miles. The thermal flash from bombs of this magnitude can cause changes to properties of materials, and can weaken the resistance of metal structures that contain material of relatively low melting point. It might well be that an aluminium alloy structure would be robust enough to withstand the shock pressures and blast winds from a large nuclear explosion, but be seriously weakened because of a reduction in proof strength of the material. For a low yield nuclear explosion, heat pulses at a range of 1000ft from ground zero are of the order of 50 to 150 cals/cm 2 . A heat pulse of 1000 cals/ cm 2 is about equivalent to a maximum surface temperature in structural aluminium of 250° C, and for aluminium plating between 0 and 0.5 inches thick, this will lead to a reduction in strength by annealing. If a heat pulse of 100 cal/ cm 2 is applied to the front face of a slab inch thick, the front and back faces will have both reached 250° C after 2 seconds. However, if the slab is inch thick, it has been shown by Parkes [3.20] that the behaviour is different. The front face, after reaching a maximum temperature of 200°C, falls gradually in temperature to reach a final value of 120°C after 2.5 seconds. Meanwhile the back face rises more gradually in temperature to reach the same final value. By analysing structural members as a number of laminations, each with varying strain and properties, Parkes showed that it is possible to estimate the residual stress distribution after a period of uneven cooling. A high residual tensile stress means that a subsequent tensile loading of the member will cause failure at a relatively lower applied stress. Care should therefore be taken to inspect apparently undamaged aluminium alloy structures after a nuclear explosion to check for minor deflection and distortions that signify a noticeable reduction in structural strength. 3.6 REFERENCES 3.1 Fletcher, R.F. (1968) Characteristics of liquid propellant explosions, Prevention and Protection against Accidental Explosion of Munitions, Fuels and Other Hazardous Mixtures, New York Academy of Sciences, 432. 3.2 High, R.W. (1968) The saturn fireball, Prevention and Protection against Accidental Explosion of Munitions, Fuels and Other Hazardous Mixtures, New York Academy of Sciences, 441.
70 Propellant, dust, gas and vapour 3.3 Chiotti, P. (1977) An overview of grain dust explosion problems, Proc. Int. Symp. on Grain Dust Explosions, Minneapolis, US Grain Elevator and Processing Society, 13. 3.4 Matkovic, M. (1977) Dust composition, concentration and its effects, Proc. Int. Symp. on Grain Dust Explosions, Minneapolis, US Grain Elevator and Processing Society, 62. 3.5 Tanaka, T. (1977) Predicting ignition temperature, minimum explosive limit and flame propagation velocity, Proc. Int. Symp. on Grain Dust Explosions, Minneapolis, US Grain Elevator and Processing Society, 79. 3.6 Parker, A.S. and Hottel, H.C. (1936) Ind. Eng. Chem., 28, 1334. 3.7 Cassel, H.M. and Liebman, I. (1959) Combust Flame, 3, 467. 3.8 Kurosawa, M. (no date) Chem A6, 53, 8584. 3.9 Enomoto, H. (1977) Explosion characteristics of agricultural dust clouds, Proc. Int. Symp. on Grain Dust Explosions, Minneapolis, US Grain Elevator and Processing Society. 3.10 Meek, R.L. and Dallavalle, J.M. (1954) Ind. Eng. Chem., 46, 763. 3.11 Palmer, K.N. (1973) Dust Explosions and Fires, Chapman & Hall, London. 3.12 Kjäldman, L. (1987) Numerical Simulation of Peak Dust Explosions, Technical Research Centre, Finland, Nuclear Engineering Laboratory, Research report 469. 3.13 Essenhigh, R.H. (1977) Problems of ignition and propagation of dust clouds, Proc. Int. Symp. on Grain Dust Explosions, Minneapolis, US Grain Elevator and Processing Society. 3.14 Schofield, C. (1984) Guide to Dust Explosion Prevention, Part 1—Venting, Institution of Chemical Engineers, Rugby, England. 3.15 Bartknecht, W. (1982) Explosions: Cause, Prevention and Protection, Springer Verlag, Berlin. 3.16 Report of the Inquiry into Serious Gas Explosions (Chairman: P.J.King) (1977) HMSO, London. 3.17 Report of the Inquiry into the Safety of Natural Gas as a Fuel (Chairman: F. Morton) (1970) HMSO, London. 3.18 Investigation of Transporting Dangerous Materials through Tunnels (1982) Rijkswaterstaat, Directie Suizen en Stuwen, Utrecht, The Netherlands. 3.19 Anderson, R.P. and Armstrong, D.R. (no date) Comparison between Vapor Explosion Models and Recent Experimental Results, AIChE Symposium Series 138, Vol. 70, Heat Transfer Research and Design, 31. 3.20 Parkes, E.W. (1968) The inelastic behaviour of aluminium alloy tension members when subjected to heating on one face. In Heyman and Leckie (eds), Engineering Plasticity, Cambridge University Press.
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EXPLOSIVE LOADING OF ENGINEERING ST
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Explosive Loading of Engineering St
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Contents Preface vii Acknowledgemen
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Preface A long time ago I walked ov
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Acknowledgements The reports from w
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xii Notation m mass of projectile m
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xiv Notation Q work done during exp
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Introduction Explosions can threate
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Introduction xix Bertram Hopkinson
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Introduction xxi in the seventeenth
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Introduction xxiii own versions of
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Introduction xxv indoor shelters an
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Introduction xxvii explosions/ stru
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Introduction xxix particularly dama
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Introduction xxxi but the feeling i
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2 The nature of explosions propelli
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4 The nature of explosions or rathe
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6 The nature of explosions ogive, a
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8 The nature of explosions mass, an
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10 The nature of explosions Figure
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12 4 lb cylinders, TNT, 3.75 lb sph
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14 The nature of explosions As Figu
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16 The nature of explosions of the
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Page 61 and 62: 28 The detonation of explosive char
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Page 120 and 121: Loads on underwater structures 87 c
Page 122: References 89 4.12 Allgood, J. (197
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Page 133 and 134: 100 Structural loading from local e
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120 Pressure measurement and blast
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158 Figure 7.16 Penetration simulat
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162 Penetration and fragmentation b
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164 Table 7.1 Penetration and fragm
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168 Penetration and fragmentation I
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180 Penetration and fragmentation 7
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182 Penetration and fragmentation 7
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184 The effects of explosive loadin
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188 Table 8.1 It is worth noting th
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200 Table 8.5 The effects of explos
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216 Response, safety and evolution
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224 In the log-normal distribution
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230 Cole, R.H. 46, 48, 53, 55, 99 C
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232 Petry 143 Philip, E.B. 13, 14,
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Subject index Aircraft damage 207 A
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