Accepted Papers - 3.pdf - UNESCO
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National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
59. Sustainable Watershed Development by Refilled Continuous Contour<br />
Trenching Technology”<br />
* Parag A. Sadgir *G. K. Patil *V. G. Takalkar<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Environment has been considered as the aggregate of all external conditions and<br />
influences affecting the life and development of an organism. Development without regard<br />
to the ecological equilibrium has led to an environmental crisis in the recent past. About<br />
2.7 per cent of the total water available on the earth is fresh water of which about 75.2 per<br />
cent lies frozen in Polar Regions and another 22.6 per cent is present as ground water.<br />
Based on per capita renewable water availability, India—the second most populous country<br />
in the world—has water enough to meet its people’s needs. But despite an estimated 2,464<br />
cubic meters per person per year, many of its nearly 900 million people suffer severe water<br />
shortages, in part as a result of uneven availability of water. Sustainable development of<br />
watershed area is the need of the hour not only for soil conservation, ground water<br />
conservation but it also has impact on national economy and solution for employment<br />
problem. For balancing of the balance of the VASUNDHARA, it is necessary to maintain at<br />
least 33% forest coverage of the available land in each country. In draught prone area,<br />
there are two critical factors: water and soil. So in such areas main objective is to conserve<br />
the soil and conserve water. Once soil and water conserved, vegetative growth sustain<br />
easily. For the same to satisfy this objective economically and efficiently, REFILLED<br />
CONTINUOUS CONTOUR TRENCHING (RCCT) Technology is the solution for sustainable<br />
watershed development.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Based on per capita renewable water<br />
availability, India—the second most populous<br />
country in the world—has water enough to meet its<br />
people’s needs. But despite an estimated 2,464 cubic<br />
meters per person per year, many of its nearly 1<br />
billion people suffer severe water shortages, in part<br />
as a result of uneven availability of water. Most<br />
rainfall comes during the monsoon season, from<br />
June to September, and levels of precipitation vary<br />
from 100 millimeters a year in the western parts of<br />
Rajasthan to over 9,000 millimeters in the<br />
northeastern state of Meghalaya. Floods and<br />
droughts are both common throughout the country.<br />
While the number of people with access to safe<br />
drinking water and adequate sanitation increased<br />
between 1980 and 1990, population growth erased<br />
any substantial gain, especially in urban areas.<br />
Between 1990 and 2000 an additional 900 million<br />
people are projected to be born in regions without<br />
access to safe water and sanitation. India’s<br />
vulnerability to regional water scarcity is well<br />
illustrated by the case of Rajasthan, a state in<br />
northwest India. Situated in one of the most<br />
inhospitable arid zones in the world, Rajasthan’s<br />
northwest corner extends into the vast Thar Desert.<br />
With a wide range of temperatures and an<br />
unpredictable monsoon climate, drought and<br />
desertification are common, and water is a scarce<br />
commodity. Even those who live in areas of high<br />
rainfall in India often face drought because<br />
landscapes have been denuded. Soil is compacted<br />
* Lecturer in Civil Engineering Department, Govt. College of Engineering, Aurangabad<br />
e-mail : gkpl13@rediffmail.com<br />
331
and most rainfall runs off before it can sink into the<br />
ground, increasing flooding. The region of<br />
Cheerapunji in Meghalaya, for example, receives<br />
among the highest levels of mean rainfall recorded<br />
in the world. Yet because of intense seasonal rainfall<br />
and the fact that the area’s forests have been cleared<br />
in the past few decades to meet growing demands<br />
for agricultural land and housing, much of the runoff<br />
cannot be captured. The region now suffers from<br />
excessive flooding for three or four months and<br />
frequent droughts the rest of the year.<br />
NATIONAL WATER RESOURCES AT A GLANCE<br />
Quantity (Cu.Km)<br />
Precipitation Volume<br />
(Including snowfall 4000<br />
Annual Potential flow in Rivers 1869<br />
Water Availability (1997) 1967<br />
Utilizable Water Resources 1122<br />
After decades of work by governments and<br />
organization to bring potable water to poorer people<br />
of the world, the situation is still dire. The reasons<br />
are many and varied. The poor of the world cannot<br />
afford the capital intensive and technically complex<br />
traditional water supply systems which are widely<br />
promoted by government and agencies throughout<br />
the world. Water is the key of life, presence of water<br />
and its absence determine the fertility of the bareness<br />
of the land and the ecosystem that surrounds it. Soil<br />
erosion takes place on steep slope because no<br />
obstruction to flowing water. “Water is explosive;<br />
not to shunt loose”<br />
In degraded watershed, which lacks forests<br />
and cropland conservation measures, water running<br />
downhill too fast erodes soils and washes out crops.<br />
It pollutes streams or fills lakes with sediment. It<br />
causes frequent flash floods and contributes to<br />
bigger floods downstream. In a well managed<br />
watershed, most of the storm water soaks into the<br />
soil, increasing groundwater supplies and providing<br />
crops, pastures and trees with needed moisture.<br />
Floods are controlled. The overall objectives of all<br />
watershed management programmes are:<br />
� To increase infiltration into soil<br />
� To control damaging excess runoff<br />
� To manage and utilize runoff for useful<br />
332<br />
purposes<br />
In India out of about 328 million hectares,<br />
about 175 million hectares of land is classified as<br />
wasteland. Most of this wasteland can be<br />
transformed into a precious and bountiful natural<br />
capital in order to overcome this water crisis. The<br />
denuded forestlands have great potential for<br />
producing fodder, fuel and low quality timber. To<br />
achieve this, it is necessary to adopt the different<br />
soil and water conservation engineering measures,<br />
supplemented with proper afforestation techniques,<br />
grassland development. In the top portion of<br />
catchment area, Contour trenches are excavated all<br />
along a uniform level across of the slope of the land.<br />
Bunds are formed downstream along the trenches<br />
with material taken out of them to create more<br />
favourable moisture conditions and thus accelerate<br />
the growth of vegetation. Contour trenches break<br />
the velocity of runoff. The rainwater percolates<br />
through the soil slowly and travels down and<br />
benefits the better types of land in the middle and<br />
lower sections of the catchments REFILLED<br />
CONTINUOUS CONTOUR TRENCHING<br />
(RCCT ) method is the solution for watershed<br />
management: soil conservation and water<br />
conservation.<br />
WHAT IS REFILLED CONTINUOUS<br />
CONTOUR TRENCHING TECHNOLOGY?<br />
The RCCT work starts from top to the<br />
bottom of the hill, so that total area is covered with<br />
not only retention of soil in it’s own place but also<br />
arrests every drop of water and infiltrate into the<br />
subsoil instead of flowing as surface water with<br />
evaporation losses making soil erosion. It recharges<br />
downstream water sources e.g. nalla, dug wells, tube<br />
wells etc. This particular technique has proved most<br />
effective. Principle behind this technique can be<br />
narrated as<br />
“ONE WHICH IS RUNNING, MAKE IT<br />
TO WALK;<br />
ONE, WHICH IS WALKING, MAKES IT<br />
TO STOP;<br />
ONE WHICH IS STOPPED, LET IT BE<br />
ABSORB IN SUBSOIL”<br />
When rainwater is in excess, allow it to pass<br />
through subsoil to down below drains. This gives<br />
desired effect of zero to minimum soil erosion and
once subsoil water starts draining due to obstruction,<br />
moisture detain for more period which is in term<br />
available for plant growth. This RCCT Technology<br />
reduces soil erosion to minimum level and the plant<br />
growth on such trenches is very promising with 90%<br />
to 95% survival rate with increase in height of plant<br />
from 45 cm basic height to 2m within only 6 months.<br />
This method can be adopted in low rainfall area to<br />
high rainfall area up to 3200mm and from flat area<br />
to hilly area with 65% steep slope. This method is<br />
suitable for plantation of all species and easy, simple<br />
for laborers and comparatively less record keeping.<br />
The most advantage of this method is easy and detail<br />
checking is possible at a glance.<br />
RCCT has proven that the wasteland can<br />
be transformed into natural capital at very low cost,<br />
within a short span of time and with guaranteed and<br />
instantaneous results. RCCT is proven to be<br />
applicable to diverse agro-climatic zones for<br />
watershed development, soil conservation and<br />
forestation. RCCT isbased on knowkedge input as<br />
against costly material and capital inputs used in<br />
other conventional techniques of watershed<br />
development.<br />
In Maharashtra state (INDIA), within last<br />
eight years 30,000 hectares forest area is covered<br />
with this RCCT Technology. The average length of<br />
RCCT is 1200m per hectare. The number of plants<br />
actually planted in the above mentioned area is 540<br />
lakhs with average survival rate 94.25%. The rainfall<br />
ranges from 200 mm to 3200 mm. The approximate<br />
quantity of water conservation is 89.155 million<br />
cubic meters. Considering 50% evaporation and<br />
other losses, 44.58 million cubic meter is infiltrated<br />
into the soil strata.<br />
METHODOLOGY<br />
Assumption :<br />
For the watershed area with soil cover more<br />
than 30 cm to be treated, average length of CCT per<br />
hectare is 1200 meter gives good result. Similarly<br />
for soil cover in between 10 cm to 30 cm, average<br />
length of CCT per hectare is 1060 meter and for the<br />
area with soil covers less than 10 cm, average length<br />
of CCT is 200 meter assumed.<br />
Collection Of Data :<br />
After selection of area where afforestation<br />
activity to be carried out, first of all detail inspection<br />
333<br />
of the total area is necessary for collection of data<br />
about<br />
1. Available depth of soil cover<br />
2. Width and length of the streams in selected area<br />
3. Area and definate boundary marking<br />
4. Ground levels at bottom and top of the hills,<br />
5. Horizontal distance between bottom and top<br />
of the hill<br />
Theory :<br />
1. From the collected data and map of the area,<br />
total work to be carried out can be worked out.<br />
Similarly possible minimum and maximum<br />
length of CCT can be worked out.<br />
2. From that data, average length of the trench can<br />
be calculated.<br />
3. umber of CCT line is calculated by using the<br />
relation,<br />
No. of CCT line == Total work to be done /<br />
average length of CCT<br />
4. Hight difference between top and bottom of the<br />
hill is calculated by using the collected data.<br />
5. Contour interval can be calculated by using the<br />
relation,<br />
Contour interval == Total height difference /<br />
no. of CCT line.<br />
Instruments : Following equipment are used<br />
1. CONTOUR MARKER: Contour marker<br />
consists of two staff members of 1meter to 1.50<br />
meter height with piezometric transparent tube<br />
of 12 meter length to show the level difference<br />
between two points. Every staff member<br />
consists of scale of 1meter or 1.50 meter. Each<br />
centimeter of scale is divided into four parts<br />
with accuracy of 0.25 cm. This instrument is<br />
used for finding out contour interval as well as<br />
to lay out the contour.<br />
2. CENTRELINE MARKER: Centerline marker<br />
is simple instrument having two edges about<br />
35 cm apart with handle at center. Centerline<br />
of CCT is marked with the help of centerline<br />
marker.<br />
3. SPACEMENT MARKER is the instrument<br />
used for marking position of plantation at<br />
specified spacing. The instrument consists of<br />
three pegs at equidistant at specified spacing of<br />
plantation with handle at center. The spacement<br />
marker is operated across the centerline starting
from one end with reference to the last point as<br />
first point for the next position. The point where<br />
cross line matches to the centerline, point is for<br />
plantation.<br />
Process of Laying Out Contour :<br />
The process starts from top of the hill.<br />
Contour marker is the instrument for laying of<br />
contour and marking of contour lines at calculated<br />
contour interval. One staff member at one point and<br />
another staff member at fullest length which is<br />
roughly 12 meter. Once reading is same at both<br />
points, two points are marked. First person with staff<br />
or follower has not to move till the contouring<br />
between two points is completed. Once farthest two<br />
points marked, person “LEADER” again come back<br />
close to follower & goes on selecting & fixing points<br />
of equal height till he reaches to the original farthest<br />
point. This method of measurement is called “<br />
Whole to Part”. In this method, error is minimized<br />
or avoided completely and check is obtained. Once<br />
LEADER reaches his original point, then follower<br />
becomes LEADER. The process continues till<br />
completion of that particular CCT line. For change<br />
in CCT line, contour interval is taken into<br />
consideration. Similarly the total CCT lines are<br />
marked.<br />
Simultaneously, number of CCT lines can<br />
be operated for speedy completion of work. All spots<br />
are marked with lime or by putting a small stone to<br />
avoid confusion. Once lines are marked, digging of<br />
trench operation is started. To maintain accuracy in<br />
digging original marking is kept untouched & about<br />
5cm apart . Size of trenches is 60 cm * 30 cm. Upper<br />
fertile layer of soil is deposited on uphill side of the<br />
trench & remaining material like murum, boulder<br />
of size more than 20 cm on downhill side. Wherever<br />
plenty of stones are available, contour bunds are<br />
constructed on downhill side in advance and then<br />
digging of trench is started on up hillside of bund.<br />
Trenches are kept expose to weather for about two<br />
months. After this operation, refilling operation<br />
starts. In this operation, for refilling good quality<br />
comparatively fertile soil, which is stored on uphill<br />
with topsoil layer upto 1meter width of that area, is<br />
utilized. It is necessary to develop the perfect shape<br />
with 55cm to 60cm central depths as shown in figure<br />
no.3.<br />
During transportation of plants from<br />
nursery, it is necessary to provide cushion layer of<br />
grass to avoid damage to the plants due to shocks.<br />
The plants should be arranged in vertical position<br />
in two layers maximum. At the time of unloading,<br />
it is necessary to take utmost care of seedlings so<br />
that minimum damages or injury to the plants. Plants<br />
are to be unloaded at convenient places where from<br />
transport to actual planting site is easy. They should<br />
be arranged in upright position.<br />
Plantation Procedure:<br />
In draught prone area, Nature is very tricky;<br />
it may rain torrential or may not at all for longer<br />
period. And even it rains, there is large dry spell.<br />
This is the most critical point to be thought at the<br />
time of planting. In order to have success, it is<br />
essential to protect the plant at initial stage of<br />
transplantation during dry spells.<br />
The plantation operation is carried out with<br />
optimum management of man power and time. The<br />
plantation team consists of 15 persons with<br />
plantation of 750 plants/day. The plantation<br />
operation is divided in following stages;<br />
Centerline marker 1 To mark the centerline<br />
Spacement marker 1 To mark the cross line<br />
Digger 1 For digging polypot<br />
Excavator 3 For removing the soil from polypot<br />
Fertiliserer 1 For specified dosing of fertilizer<br />
Cutter 1 For taking cut from the top to centerline of bottom of one side of polybag<br />
Planter 3 For plantation of plants by removing the plastic polybag Taking the plant on<br />
forearm and gently put in polypot pit filling the vacuum with adjoining soil<br />
and gentle press is given with hands<br />
Porter 3 For transportation of plants to actual plantation site<br />
Drainer 1 For wetting the plants till it is saturated<br />
334
The plantation process starts with formation of<br />
groups of 15 persons in each group. The plantation<br />
area is distributed in the formed groups. After<br />
draining of seedlings, every person transports the<br />
plants to plantation site while proceeding for on site.<br />
Then three persons are allotted separately for<br />
transportation of plants. In order to have success, it<br />
is essential to protect the plant at initial stage of<br />
transplantation during dry spells. For that the poly<br />
plants is fully drained with water till all air bubbles<br />
from bag are out and the surrounding soil is fully<br />
saturated. The excess water from polybag is<br />
removed.<br />
Centerline of CCT is marked with the help<br />
of CENTERLINE marker. The SPACEMENT<br />
marker is operated across the centerline starting<br />
from one end with reference to the last point as first<br />
point for the next position. The point where cross<br />
line matches to the centerline, that point is for<br />
plantation. Simultaneously drained seedlings are<br />
transported and laid all along ridge of the contour<br />
on the upper side of the cross, which is actual<br />
plantation spot. The digger digs it to the specified<br />
size followed by the excavator. Excavator excavate<br />
the pit to the size required for plantation followed<br />
Human resources per hectare :<br />
Cost structure per hectare :<br />
by cutter, who is taking cut from the top to centerline<br />
of bottom of one side of polybag. Fertiliserer, who<br />
is spreading the specified dose of fertilizer in the<br />
pit, follows cutter. Then planter is planting the plants<br />
by removing the plastic polybag and taking the<br />
plant on forearm and gently put in polypot pit.<br />
Filling the vacuum with adjoining soil and gentle<br />
press is given with hands. This process continues<br />
till completion of plantation.<br />
The economics of this RCCT technology is<br />
very interesting. One milliliter rainfall in one hectare<br />
area in which RCCT works are completed collects<br />
10,000 liter water. If the annual average rainfall in<br />
that area is 500 milliliter and considering 50%<br />
evaporation losses, 2.5 million liters of water is<br />
infiltrated in subsoil to recharge down below water<br />
sources. Now a day in hilly areas, drinking water<br />
problem is so sever that water tanker supply is<br />
compulsory for survival of people. Considering<br />
capacity of tanker 10,000 liter and cost of one trip<br />
from water source to needy area is Rs. 500 per trip<br />
average, RCCT works supply 250 tanker/hectare/<br />
year worth cost Rs. 1,25,000. The expenditure for<br />
one hectare is approximately Rs. 30,000 in four<br />
Sr No Description Man days<br />
1 Laying contours 8-10<br />
2 Digging contours 200<br />
3 Raising seedling in the nursery 30<br />
4 Refilling contours and planting 175<br />
5 Maintaining plantation 60 + 25 + 15 +10<br />
Sr No Description Cost per hectare<br />
1 Development cost per labourers Rs. 31500.00<br />
2 Seeds, jute bags & soil mixture Rs. 600.00<br />
3 contengencies Rs. 948.00<br />
4 Labour amenities Rs.1264.00<br />
5 overheads Rs.5688.00<br />
6 Total cost Rs. 40000.00<br />
335
years. So that benefit cost ratio comes 4.17 from<br />
indirect benefits for one year only. The cost of water<br />
conservation for RCCT is Rs.6.00/M3 comparing<br />
with percolation tank, Rs.25/ M3 and major<br />
irrigation project RS.35/ M3.There is no<br />
displacement of tribal, no water logging problem,<br />
no mosquito breeding site created, no pumping<br />
required, less water treatment require. This is<br />
decentralized water conservation technique.<br />
Considering the micro watershed, necessary<br />
treatment is applied. This removes root cause of soil<br />
erosion and depleting ground water levels. The<br />
production of grass in one hectare is approximately<br />
2 to 3 MT/hectare costing Rs. 1000/MT and thinning<br />
operation gives firewood and other products of<br />
worth cost approximately Rs. 6400/hectare.<br />
Appreciation of land due to his woks increases in<br />
three fold because the no irrigated land gets<br />
converted into well irrigated land. Farmers are<br />
taking double season cash crops in place of single<br />
crop.<br />
ADVANTAGES<br />
1. Barren land gets permanent biomass cover<br />
and soil protection<br />
2. Soil loss in cultivable area becomes nil<br />
3. Every drop of rain is held in situ<br />
4. Augmentation of ground water without<br />
grouting<br />
5. Good soil moisture and good ground water<br />
available in the wells, tube wells and tanks<br />
6. Increase in life of dams, prevention of floods<br />
by avoiding silting<br />
7. No displacement of communities or creation<br />
of environmental refugees and hence no<br />
rehabilitation costs<br />
8. No migration of villagers to cities as the local<br />
water availability ensures livelihood<br />
sustainability<br />
9. Decentralized and democratic water<br />
management<br />
10. Evaporation losses are negligible as compared<br />
to tanks and dams<br />
11. No separate nullah bunding, gully plugging<br />
and such other civil structures<br />
12. Accelerates soil formation and natural<br />
succession dramatically<br />
13. Increases fodder resources for feeding cattle<br />
and livestock<br />
336<br />
14. Increased agricultural and biomass production<br />
15. Guaranteed mass employment generation to<br />
rural people at their doorstep<br />
16. Land value increases significantly<br />
17. Increases crop intensity and biodiversity<br />
18. Women free from the drudgery of finding<br />
and fetching water, fuel and fodder from<br />
distant places<br />
19. Clean water for drinking purposes.<br />
DISADVANTAGES :<br />
1. Very tedious and laborious for alignment<br />
2. Time consuming<br />
3. Requirement of accuracy skilled labours and<br />
instruments like contour marker.<br />
4. There is potential danger of water flowing<br />
along the upper edge in case the trench breaks.<br />
CASE STUDY : Dolasane, Tal. Sangamner, Dist.<br />
Ahmednagar (Maharashtra) India<br />
Dolasane village has an forest area of<br />
524.40 ha. Total 145 ha. Area was treated with<br />
RCCT method.<br />
The impact of RCCT work on village has<br />
been clearly indicated;<br />
• Agriculture: yield per acre increased from 50<br />
kg to 500 kg per acre of bajra and wheat.<br />
• Irrigation : 95% agriculture is rainfed has<br />
changed to well irrigated due to increase in<br />
water level of wells.<br />
• Grazing :cattle population is reduced from<br />
6358 to 1115 with increase in milk production.<br />
• Control of soil erosion & flash floods<br />
• Income generation: farmers with four acre<br />
land can make a profit of Rs. One lakh<br />
minimum per year.<br />
No. Description Data<br />
1 Name of village Dolasane<br />
2 Village area 1185 ha<br />
3 Number of households 271<br />
4 Annual rainfall 293 mm<br />
4 Average number of members 05<br />
5 Total population 1356<br />
5a Men 533<br />
5b Women 434<br />
5c Children 389
DOLASANE , SANGAMNER RANGE I, SANGAMNER SUBDIVISION,<br />
AHMEDNAGAR DIVISION<br />
1 Name of the work WGS Scheme<br />
2 Year of plantation 1995-96 (soil treatment work 1994-95)<br />
3 Location FS no.208 Nasik—Pune Highway<br />
4 Area in hectares 40<br />
4A zone I Soil layer
PLANTATION DETAILS :<br />
Sr DESCRIPTION DETAILS<br />
1 Original habitant species/trees/bushes Tarvad (Cassia auriculata),babhul<br />
(Acacia nilotica spp. indica), henkal<br />
(Gymonsporia montana)<br />
2 Presence of natural forest/trees/bushes in past Yes<br />
3 Approximate years of deforestation 25 years<br />
3A Reason for deforestation Heavy grazing & illicit cutting<br />
4 Selected species for plantation GIRTH HIGHT SURVIVAL<br />
4A Neem( Azadirachta indica) —17729 4/5cm 2.50m 100%<br />
4B Sisso(Dalbergia sissoo) —4629 4/5cm 2.00m 100%<br />
4C Siras(Albizia lebbek)—3175 2/3cm 1.00m 50%<br />
4D Bor(Zizyphus mauritiana)—3175 2/3cm 1.00m 50%<br />
4E Subabhul( Leucenia lucocephala)— 17729 6cm 4.00m 100%<br />
4F Sitaphal(Anona squamosa)—1550 3/4cm 0.60m 50%<br />
4G A.Tortolis—4700 4/5cm 2.00m 100%<br />
4H Nilgiri (Eucalyptus)—500 6/7cm 4.00m 100%<br />
5 Spacing for plantation 0.67m<br />
6 Total number of plants 53187<br />
7 Total number of plants/hectare 1715<br />
8 Grass plantation Dinanath 30kg, hemata-25kg,ber-10kg,<br />
shed-15kg<br />
Details of Water Levels in Wells Downstream Of the Area Where RCCT Work Is Carried Out<br />
Name of Village Depth of Water level in m<br />
farmer well in m 01.05.97 01.10.97 01.03.98 01.05.98 01.07.98<br />
S.R.Jadhav Dolasane 6.6 0.9 3.5 4.5 1.4 4.5<br />
R.S.Gadekar Dolasane 10.5 150 9 6 5 8<br />
R.L.Vajhe Dolasane 10.5 1.5 5.3 6 5.1 6.5<br />
S.B.Kadone Chandanapuri 17 — — 5 1.7 7<br />
R.V.Rahane Chandanapuri 18 — — 5 2 9<br />
S.V.Rahane Chandanapuri 20 — — 2.7 1.1 10<br />
V.M.Momin Varude 12 5.5 10 6.5 5.5 5.5<br />
B.S.Bhagwan Varude 12 1.8 11 8.5 8.1 8.15<br />
B.S.Jadhav Karjule 11 3.6 7.1 7 6 7.2<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
The CCT helps to increase the water levels in the surrounding areas/ dug wells and tube wells which<br />
increases the yield of farms due to change in crop pattern from food grains to cash crops. This will also avoid<br />
loss of soil due to erosion , increase the grass coverage which will helpful for soil stabilization. Due to CCT<br />
tree development is better than any other type of trenching.<br />
� � �<br />
338
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
60. Planning and Design of a Rain Water Harvesting System<br />
for a Watershed of Uttaranchal<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
In modern concept of planning and<br />
implementation of programmes for enhancing and<br />
sustaining the land productivity and efficient<br />
rainwater utilization; watershed - a geographical unit<br />
has been accepted as the most rational unit. The<br />
word ‘watershed’, introduced in 1920, was used for<br />
the ‘water parting boundaries’. Watershed is that<br />
land area which drains or contributes runoff to a<br />
common outlet. In physical terms, a watershed refer<br />
to the area lying above a given drainage point.<br />
Watershed management involves management of<br />
land surface and vegetation so as to conserve the<br />
soil and water for immediate and long-term benefits<br />
to the farmers, community and society as a whole.<br />
It is an integration of technologies within the natural<br />
*P. K. Gupta *H.C. Sharma *Vinod Kumar<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The Henwal watershed is located in Tehri Garhwal district of Uttaranchal,<br />
between 30° 15' to 30° 20' N latitude and 78° 25' to 78° 30' E longitude, at an altitude<br />
of about 1500 m above msl. Most of the area is under rainfed agriculture, due to lack<br />
of irrigation facilities. The daily rainfall data of 14 years, of the watershed area, were<br />
analyzed for probability distribution at different levels. The analysis of estimated daily<br />
runoff values for 14 years showed that the annual runoff, more than 500 mm, was<br />
observed in 4 years, between 400 mm and 500 mm in 5 years and less than 400 mm in<br />
4 years. The average annual and seasonal runoffs were found to be 431.7 mm and<br />
292.4 mm, respectively. The average seasonal runoff was found to be 70 per cent of<br />
annual runoff. The expected runoff and seasonal runoff during the first excess period<br />
was 665000 m 3 and for second excess period was 175000 m 3 . On the basis of above the<br />
rainwater-harvesting pond was designed for Henwal watershed having a catchment<br />
area of 351 ha and command area of 315 ha. The bottom width, top length and height<br />
of the designed pond were 2.5, 16.6 and 3 m, respectively. The pond would have a<br />
storage capacity of 5027.4 m 3 . The total cost (excavation cost, LDPE sheet and stone<br />
pitching) of the pond was estimated to be Rs. 146689 and the cost per m 3 of stored<br />
water comes to be Rs. 29/m 3 .<br />
boundaries of drainage area for optimum<br />
development of land, water and plant resources to<br />
meet the basic needs of people in a sustained<br />
manner. The main objective of watershed<br />
management is “Proper use of all the available<br />
resources of a watershed for optimum production<br />
with minimum hazards to natural resources”. How<br />
can we, under such constraints, manage to boost<br />
agricultural production in these areas in order to<br />
satisfy the multiplying food demand of our growing<br />
population, whereas, irrigation would certainly be<br />
the best method, it requires much water, which is<br />
scare in arid and semi-arid countries. Water<br />
harvesting may be one of the solutions to overcome<br />
the problem of scarcity of water for irrigation. Water<br />
harvesting in its broadest sense may be defined as<br />
Department of Irrigation & Drainage Engineering, College of Technology<br />
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar- 263145, District Udham Singh Nagar (<br />
Uttaranchal)<br />
339
“Collection of runoff for its productive use”. Runoff<br />
may be harvested from roofs and ground surfaces<br />
as well as from intermittent watercourses.<br />
Productive use includes provision of domestic and<br />
stock water, concentration of runoff for crops,<br />
fodder and tree production and less frequently water<br />
supply for fish and duck ponds.<br />
MATERIALS AND METHODS<br />
Study Area<br />
The Henwal watershed belongs to the<br />
central part of district Tehri Garhwal and is located<br />
adjacent to Hill Campus, G.B. Pant University of<br />
Agriculture and Technology, Ranichauri, between<br />
30 0 15' to 30 0 20' N latitude and 78 0 25' to 78 0 30' E<br />
longitude, at an altitude of 1500 m above msl (Fig.<br />
1). The climate of the area is monsoonic. Mean<br />
Hill Campus, G.B. Pant University of<br />
Agriculture and Technology, Ranichauri<br />
Fig. 1. Index map of the study area<br />
340<br />
maximum temperature ranged from 10.6 0 C<br />
(January) to 25.5 0 C (May). The mean minimum<br />
temperature varied from 1.9 0 C (January) to 14.9<br />
0 C (August). Humidity, as recorded at 2 P.M., was<br />
minimum (30.4%) during April and maximum<br />
(83%) during August. Mean annual rainfall was<br />
about 1271 mm. The average monthly rainfall<br />
ranged between 12 mm (during November) to 266<br />
mm (during August). Based on temperature, rainfall<br />
and humidity characteristics, the year could be<br />
divided into three different seasons viz. summer,<br />
rainy and winter. Total geographical area of the<br />
watershed is 666 ha. Most of the area is under<br />
rainfed agriculture, due to lack of irrigation<br />
facilities. On the basis of revenue records of the<br />
area, the average land use is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Present land use of watershed.<br />
Area under Area under Area not available<br />
Forest (%) cultivation (%) for agricultural<br />
use (Roads,<br />
habitation and<br />
waste land) (%)<br />
34.7 62.37 2.93<br />
The information on crops being grown in<br />
the watershed was collected by interviewing farmers<br />
of the catchment area and from the revenue records.<br />
Maize, sorghum and black-gram were the commonly<br />
grown crops in kharif season, whereas, in rabi<br />
season, wheat, barley, gram and mustard were the<br />
commonly grown crops.<br />
Probability Analysis of Rainfall<br />
The daily rainfall data of 14 years, of the<br />
watershed area under study, were collected from the<br />
agro-meteorological observatory, Ranichauri. The<br />
collected rainfall data were analyzed for probability<br />
distribution at different levels, using the technique<br />
proposed by Weibull (1939).<br />
Surface Runoff and Irrigation Water<br />
Requirement<br />
The surface runoff from the watershed area<br />
and irrigation water requirement were estimated by<br />
SCS Curve Number Method and CROPWAT<br />
software, respectively. Crop evapo-transpiration and<br />
effective rainfall were also determined by using the<br />
CROPWAT software. The whole year was divided<br />
into four periods i.e. mid-June to mid-September,<br />
mid-September to December, January to March and<br />
April to mid June. The first and third periods are<br />
surplus ones while second (autumn) and fourth<br />
(summer) are the deficit ones. Thus, the irrigation<br />
is required mainly during autumn and summer,<br />
except in abnormal years when irrigation may be<br />
required due to prolonged dry spell during surplus<br />
period.<br />
Water Harvesting System<br />
Due to wide variability in terrain and<br />
topography in hilly region, a single design cannot<br />
serve the purpose and harvesting water efficiently.<br />
Keeping this in view, following two types of<br />
irrigation systems were designed to suit different<br />
341<br />
topographic conditions :<br />
i. irrigation system based on runoff recycling; and<br />
ii. irrigation system based on very low discharge<br />
springs and streams (1 to 10 lpm).<br />
i) Irrigation System Based on Runoff<br />
Recycling<br />
The design criteria of runoff recycling based<br />
irrigation system includes size of tanks and<br />
catchment command area ratio (n). The final size<br />
of tank can be determined as follows :<br />
VT = IA * A + Losses<br />
...(1)<br />
Subjected to<br />
RW * N * A > IS*<br />
A + losses<br />
where<br />
V = capacity of tank (liter);<br />
T<br />
I = gross irrigation requirement during summer<br />
S<br />
crop (April to mid June) (mm);<br />
A = command area (m2 );<br />
R = runoff during winter surplus season;<br />
W<br />
N = catchment command ratio; and<br />
I = gross irrigation requirement during autumn<br />
A<br />
...(2) crop.<br />
It is assumed that the tank will be full after<br />
monsoon, and the water needed during summer will<br />
be met by runoff during winter.<br />
Model development for optimal pond design :<br />
The pond is considered as partially<br />
excavated and partially embankment type. Thus is<br />
mainly to avoid unnecessary disposal of spoil and<br />
transporting extra earth from borrow pits. Therefore,<br />
the volume of excavation is considered to be equal<br />
to the volume of embankment to design<br />
economically. This was considered as one constraint<br />
for the optimization model. The geometrical<br />
formulae used for determination of design<br />
components were derived based on principle of solid<br />
geometry.<br />
The classical optimization model, using<br />
Lagrange multiplier, was used to obtain the optimal<br />
design of pond. The objective function of the model<br />
is to maximize, the storage capacity of pond subject<br />
to the constraints that the volume of earthwork is<br />
equal to volume of embankment. Mathematically,
the model may be represented as :<br />
Maximize<br />
Subject to<br />
where<br />
⎛ D + H ⎞<br />
Vsc<br />
= ⎜ ⎟[ CX<br />
⎝ 3 ⎠<br />
D 2<br />
Vdug<br />
= [ CX<br />
3<br />
To obtain the necessary conditions for<br />
maxima / minima, the augmented Lagrange function<br />
is derived as :<br />
where ë is Lagrange multiplier differentiating<br />
equation (13) with respect to H and λ, and applying<br />
the necessary conditions for optimization the<br />
following equation in terms of H is obtained as:<br />
where,<br />
P = 24Z + 2CXZ + 2XZ + 8DZ<br />
Q = 4CX + 4X + 16DZ + 16<br />
2<br />
(C + 2) + 2Z(D + H) (2CX + X + 2Z(D + H))]<br />
(C + 2) + 2DZ(2CX + X + 2DZ)]<br />
3 2<br />
AH + PH + QH + R = 0<br />
25<br />
A =<br />
3<br />
2<br />
Z<br />
2<br />
...(9)<br />
...( 10)<br />
...( 11)<br />
...(12)<br />
...(3)<br />
…(<br />
4)<br />
...(5)<br />
….(6)<br />
…(7)<br />
1 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 4 3 2<br />
R = - ( C DX + CDX + CD XZ + D XZ + D Z )<br />
3<br />
3 3 3 3<br />
...(13)<br />
X= bottom width (m), Y= bottom length (m), D=<br />
excavated depth (m), H= height of embankment (m),<br />
Z=side slopes (H : V), T = top width of the<br />
embankment (m), V = storage capacity (m SC 3 ), Vdug = dug volume (m3 ), V = volume of embankment<br />
emb<br />
( m3 ), A = wetted surface area, m w 2 and A = s<br />
exposed surface area (m2 ).<br />
The value of the top width of the<br />
embankment (T) is taken as 2 m for all sides of the<br />
embankment. The bed length is transformed into<br />
ratio (C) to facilitate the computation i.e. C = Y/X<br />
where Y and X are bed length and bed width,<br />
respectively.<br />
General design procedure : The general steps<br />
followed in the design of water harvesting<br />
structures are :<br />
a). Hydrologic design, b). Hydraulic design, and<br />
c). Structural design.<br />
Hydrologic design : It involves the estimation of<br />
peak rate of runoff required to be passed safely<br />
through a given structure and runoff volume or water<br />
yield required to be stored in a pond. The choice of<br />
design frequency depends upon the type of structure,<br />
whether temporary, semi-permanent or permanent.<br />
Intensity- duration- frequency relationship is<br />
necessary to calculate risk and design a structure<br />
that will accommodate the largest rain storm<br />
expected during a particular length of time. Rational<br />
method is generally used for the estimation of peak<br />
rate of discharge.<br />
2<br />
2 1 3 2<br />
VL(H.<br />
...( Zemb8 = ) V2[{T<br />
λsc)<br />
+ = ZH} VH]<br />
sc [{X(C - λ (V + 1) + dug 4Z(D−<br />
+ VH)}]<br />
emb + [4T ) H + 4TH Z + H Z ]<br />
3<br />
VHydraulic = Vemb<br />
Design : Hydraulic design includes the<br />
determination of a). storage capacity and storage<br />
dimensions of water harvesting structure; and b).<br />
fixing of spillway dimensions for safe disposal of<br />
design peak flow (water should flow through the<br />
structure safely without overtopping the bank and<br />
when it leaves the structure its energy should be<br />
dissipated).<br />
342<br />
dug …<br />
The selection of site should begin with<br />
preliminary studies of possible sites. The site should<br />
have enough catchments of provide runoff sufficient<br />
to fill the pond. The low point of a natural depression<br />
is considered a good location. From economic point<br />
of view, a pond should be located where a largest<br />
volume can be obtained with least earthwork.<br />
Location should also have a favorable outlet<br />
condition for excess runoff disposal from the pond.<br />
The sub-soil should allow minimum seepage as far<br />
as possible. In case the seepage rate at the site are<br />
excessive, good fill material or lining material<br />
should be available in the vicinity. The design of<br />
dugout pond for supplemental irrigation envisages<br />
...(3)<br />
( 4)<br />
…
the determination of specification for the (a) storage<br />
capacity, (b) shape, (c) dimensions (top bottom,<br />
depth, side slope), (d) inlet, and (e) outlet.<br />
The monthly mean pan evaporation data<br />
obtained from the Ranichauri meteorological<br />
observatory was multiplied with a factor 0.7 to get<br />
pond surface area and evaporation (Duggal and<br />
Soni, 1996). The volume of the water evaporated<br />
from the surface of the pond was determined by<br />
multiplying the corrected evaporation with the<br />
average surface area of the pond. 10% of storage<br />
capacity was kept as provisions for the loss in<br />
storage capacity due to siltation.<br />
ii) Irrigation System Based on Very Low<br />
Discharge Spring / Stream<br />
It has been found that low discharge springs<br />
and streams having discharge between 1 to 10 lpm<br />
are very common in hills and they are either<br />
unutilized or grossly under utilized for irrigation<br />
because of a high proportion of application loss due<br />
to low discharge. If the cost of storage tank is low,<br />
this discharge can be stored in tanks and used when<br />
required at a reasonably low cost.<br />
The first and for most components in design<br />
of any irrigation system is the determination of total<br />
irrigation requirement. Since vegetable cultivation<br />
is the most profitable, in the region under irrigation<br />
conditions, only vegetable rotation was considered<br />
for this system. The analysis showed that irrigation<br />
was required during two seasons: (a). autumn<br />
(October to December), and (b). summer (late March<br />
to early June). Since these two irrigation seasons<br />
are preceded by wet season i.e. rainy and winter,<br />
the discharge during this period is surplus and goes<br />
waste. If the water is carried over to deficit season<br />
by storing, the command area can be increased.<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
Hydrological Analysis<br />
Rainfall : Rainfall data of Ranichauri for the years<br />
1988 to 2002 were analyzed. The maximum annual<br />
rainfall value during the period of study was found<br />
to be 1840 mm in 1998 and the minimum was 719<br />
mm in 2001. The maximum seasonal rainfall during<br />
monsoon season was 1061 mm in 1995 and<br />
minimum 367 in 2001. The highest rainfall was<br />
found in the month of August and lowest rainfall<br />
was in the month of November. The highest value<br />
of weekly rainfall was observed in the 33 th standard<br />
meteorological week and 43 rd had lowest rainfall in<br />
the whole monsoon period. The seasonal rainfall in<br />
terms of percent of annual rainfall is shown in Table<br />
2. From this table, it is evident that the average<br />
seasonal rainfall was about 63 per cent of annual<br />
rainfall. The probabilities and recurrence interval<br />
of annual, seasonal and maximum weekly rainfalls<br />
for the period 1988-2002 are shown in Table 3. The<br />
excepted annual rainfall at different per cent<br />
probability levels are shown in Fig. 2.<br />
Table 2. Seasonal rainfall in terms of percent of annual rainfall at Henwal watershed.<br />
Year Annual Seasonal Seasonal Year Annual Seasonal Seasonal<br />
rainfall rainfall rainfall as rainfall rainfall rainfall<br />
(mm) (mm) % of annual (mm) (mm) as % of<br />
rainfall annual rainfall<br />
1988 1452.34 1000.24 68.87 1994 1175.50 866.30 73.70<br />
1989 1185.00 718.60 60.64 1995 1386.80 1061.40 76.54<br />
1990 1542.20 787.00 51.03 1998 1840.20 1005.50 54.64<br />
1991 1056.70 698.30 66.08 2000 1334.40 902.70 67.65<br />
1992 855.30 541.70 63.33 2001 719.10 367.80 51.15<br />
1993 1452.20 995.40 68.54 2002 1255.40 664.40 52.92<br />
343
Table 3. Probability and recurrence interval of seasonal rainfall during monsoon period at<br />
Henwal watershed.<br />
No. Year Seasonal Rainfall in P = T = 1/P P (%)<br />
rainfall (mm) decreasing order N/(M+1)<br />
1 1988 1000.24 1061.40 0.08 13.00 7.69<br />
2 1989 718.60 1005.50 0.15 6.50 15.38<br />
3 1990 787.00 1000.24 0.23 4.33 23.08<br />
4 1991 698.30 995.40 0.31 3.25 30.77<br />
5 1992 541.70 902.70 0.38 2.60 38.46<br />
6 1993 995.40 866.30 0.46 2.17 46.15<br />
7 1994 866.30 787.00 0.54 1.86 53.85<br />
8 1995 1061.40 718.60 0.62 1.63 61.54<br />
9 1998 1005.50 698.30 0.69 1.44 69.23<br />
10 2000 902.70 664.40 0.77 1.30 76.92<br />
11 2001 367.80 541.70 0.85 1.18 84.62<br />
12 2002 664.40 367.80 0.92 1.08 92.31<br />
The climate balance based on rainfall and<br />
evapo-transpiration data showed that there were two<br />
excess and two deficit periods (Fig 3). The first<br />
excess period was from the 28 th week to 38 th week<br />
and second from the 2 nd week to the 8 th week. It is<br />
evident from Fig. 3 that crops face moisture stress<br />
from 39 th to 1 st standard meteorological week and<br />
from 9 th week to 27 th week. The first spell coincided<br />
with the sowing of rabi crop and its first critical<br />
stage of irrigation. Thus irrigation is required to<br />
mitigate moisture stress in this critical period.<br />
Rainfall, mm<br />
2000<br />
1800<br />
1600<br />
1400<br />
1200<br />
1000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
Estimation and Analysis of Runoff : On the basis<br />
of the daily runoff values for 14 years, estimated by<br />
ANN model, the annual runoff and seasonal runoff<br />
values were computed for each year and are shown<br />
in Table 4. The annual runoff more than 500 mm<br />
was observed in 4 years, between 400 mm and<br />
500 mm in 5 years, and less than 400 mm in 4 years.<br />
The average annual and seasonal runoff was found<br />
to be 431.7 mm and 292.4 mm, respectively. The<br />
average seasonal runoff was found to be 70 per cent<br />
of annual runoff. The expected runoff and seasonal<br />
runoff during the first excess period was 665000<br />
m 3 and for second excess period was 175000 m 3 .<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100<br />
Probability (%)<br />
Fig. 2 : Annual rainfall at different probability levels.<br />
344
Hydrological Parameters (mm)<br />
140<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Open pan evaporation Rainfall Runoff<br />
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51<br />
Standard meteorological week number.<br />
Fig. 3 : Climatic balance of Henwal watershed<br />
Irrigation Water Requirement<br />
The monthly reference evapo-transpiration (ET o ) was estimated by ‘Cropwat’ software. From Table<br />
5, it is evident that the ET o is maximum (4.85 mm/day) in May and minimum (1.37 mm/day) in January.<br />
Total reference evapo-transpiration (ETo) for complete year was found to be is about 1098.02 mm. Total<br />
crop evapo-transpiration (ET c ) for different crops such as maize, sorghum, small vegetables, barley, potato<br />
and pulses was 500 mm, the total irrigation requirement was found to be 189.78 mm. Gross irrigation<br />
requirement in summer season (I S ) (March to mid June) was found to be 12.67 mm and in autumn season in<br />
September to December (I A ) it was 133 mm.<br />
Table 4 : Year-wise annual rainfall, annual runoff and seasonal runoff.<br />
Year Annual Seasonal Seasonal Year Annual Seasonal Seasonal<br />
runoff runoff runoff as runoff runoff runoff as<br />
(mm) (mm) % of annual (mm) (mm) % of annual<br />
runoff runoff<br />
1988 550.57 411.08 74.66 1995 536.24 431.9 80.54<br />
1989 440.33 260.19 59.09 1998 654.24 342.73 52.39<br />
1990 510.3 285.6 55.97 2000 473.71 339.29 71.62<br />
1991 343.46 239.14 69.63 2001 112.77 59.00 52.32<br />
1992 254.3 174.34 68.56 2002 481.84 258.37 53.62<br />
1993 397.02 368.53 92.82<br />
1994 425.48 338.93 79.66 Average 431.69 292.43 67.74<br />
345
Table 5. Monthly reference<br />
evapotranspiration (E T 0 ).<br />
Month ET0 (mm/d)<br />
Month ET0 (mm/d)<br />
January 1.37 July 3.92<br />
February 1.86 August 2.62<br />
March 3.09 September 2.84<br />
April 3.98 October 3.37<br />
May 4.85 November 2.01<br />
June 4.42 December 1.53<br />
Design of Water Harvesting System for Henwal<br />
Watershed<br />
The geometrical relationships and classical<br />
optimization techniques with an objective function<br />
of maximizing the storage capacity of the pond,<br />
satisfying the given constraints that the volume of<br />
excavated earth equals the volume of fill required<br />
for embankment were used for design of pond.<br />
Pond design and regression analysis<br />
The relationships of bed width (X), vs<br />
storage capacity (V SC ), and bed width vs height of<br />
embankment (H), were established for c = 1 (square<br />
pond) and Z = 1 :1.5 for medium soil fitting to<br />
polynomial and Weebull equations, respectively.<br />
The relationship of bed width (X) Vs storage<br />
capacity (V sc ) as as follows:<br />
The relationship of height of embankment<br />
versus bed width may be written as<br />
Pond design and cost estimates based on runoff<br />
recycle<br />
The pond was designed for a catchment<br />
area of 351 ha and command area of 315 ha. The<br />
bottom length, top length and height was 2.5, 16.6<br />
and 3 m, respectively. The pond had a storage<br />
capacity of 5027.4 m 3 , the total cost (excavation<br />
cost, LDPE sheet and stone pitching) of pond was<br />
estimated to be Rs. 146689.125 and the cost per<br />
m 3 of stored water comes to be Rs. 29/m 3 .<br />
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antecedent rainfall probability. Indian Jl. of Soil<br />
Conservation, 23(1): 13-16.<br />
• Kumar, A., 1999. Probability analysis for<br />
prediction of annual maximum daily rainfall for<br />
Pantnagar. Ind. Journal of Soil Conservation,<br />
27(2): 171-173.<br />
• Manirannan, S.; Shanthi, R. and Sundarraman,<br />
S., 1999. Applicability of SCS runoff model for<br />
small tank catchments in Southern Tamil Nadu.<br />
Jl. of Applied Hydrology, 7(4): 29-34.<br />
• Mittal, S.P. and Sharma, J.S., 1998. Watershed<br />
Management : Experiences of Shivalik Foot Hill<br />
Region of Northern India. Proceedings of<br />
International Conference on Watershed<br />
� � �<br />
347<br />
Management and Conservation, 8-10 Dec., New<br />
Delhi , pp: 287-295.<br />
• Oswal, M.C., 1994. Water Conservation and dry<br />
land crop production in arid and semi-arid<br />
regions. Annals of Arid Zone, 33: 95-104.<br />
• Sharda, V.N. and Shrimali, S.S., 1994. Water<br />
harvesting and recycling in northern hilly<br />
region. Indian J. of Soil Cons., 22(1-2): 84-93.<br />
• Shrivastava, R.C., 2001. Methodology for<br />
design of water harvesting system for high<br />
rainfall areas. Agril. Water Management, 47: 37-<br />
53.<br />
• Shrivastava, S.K.; Upadhyay, A.P.; Sahu, A.K.<br />
and Dubey, A.K., 2000. Rainfall characteristics<br />
and rainfall based cropping strategy for Jabalpur<br />
region. Jl. of Soil Cons., 28 (3): 204-211.
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
61. Pressurized Irrigation System : An Advanced Irrigation Water<br />
Management Technique For Bitter Gourd (Momordica Charentia)<br />
*V. K. Pandey *Jai Prakash Bhart<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Water being a limited resource, optimum utilization by efficient water management<br />
techniques, is the key for food security in coming days. Pressurized irrigation is the only<br />
tool for solving problem of water scarcity for Indian agriculture especially horticultural<br />
crops. In the present investigation water requirement of Bitter Gourd (Momordica charentia)<br />
under pressurized irrigation systems i.e. drip (8 lph and 4 lph) and micro sprinkler was<br />
determined using climatological approach. Evapotranspiration (ET) values for various crop<br />
growth stages like initial, developmental, mid season and late season stages were determined<br />
as 164.4, 296.7, 220.9 and 119.3 mm respectively. Thus total ET for crop period was found<br />
to be 801.3 mm. The seasonal water use of Bitter Gourd under 8 lph drip, 4 lph drip and<br />
micro sprinkler were found to be 755.25 mm, 747.50 mm and 790.00 mm respectively. The<br />
highest water use efficiency was found to be from 8 lph (50.7 kg/ha-mm), followed by 4 lph<br />
drip (46.8 kg/ha-mm) and micro sprinkler (29.7 kg/ha-mm) as compared to conventional<br />
method of irrigation. It was concluded that the drip system with drippers of 8 lph discharge<br />
was found to be the most economical for the cultivation of summer bitter gourd for the<br />
Chhattisgarh plain region.<br />
Key words: Evapotranspiration, Pressurized irrigation, Water management, Water use<br />
efficiency<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Drip and micro sprinkler irrigation systems are<br />
advanced methods of irrigation through which water<br />
is applied directly to root zone around the plant<br />
through a pipe network with the help of emitters<br />
and micro sprinklers, near consumptive use of the<br />
plant. Drip and micro sprinkler irrigation saves<br />
irrigation water to the extent of 30 - 80% (NCPA,<br />
1998) and enhance the crop yield by 30 to 100%<br />
(Sivanappan, 1998). These can reduce the<br />
consumption by 30 to 50% as compared to the<br />
conventional methods of irrigation. (Narayanmoorty,<br />
1992). The overall application efficiency around<br />
90% can be achieved by drip and micro sprinkler<br />
irrigation where as the same was found to be 25 to<br />
30% while using surface irrigation.<br />
In India, the area under drip irrigation is only<br />
about 0.25 Mha, which is very meager. India has<br />
36% of the total irrigated area of the world where<br />
the drip irrigation area is only 0.8%. Development<br />
of irrigation is considered as the principal means of<br />
removing the climatic constraints of water scarcity<br />
for agricultural productions considering economical<br />
status of the farmers. The area under drip irrigation<br />
in the country has increased from a meagre 1500 ha<br />
to about 70,000 ha and it was estimated that the area<br />
under drip irrigation will be about one lack ha in<br />
1998. More than 80% area has been covered by only<br />
three states i.e. Maharastra (46.64%), Andhra<br />
Pradesh (16.4%) and Karnataka (16.17%) in drip<br />
irrigation.<br />
METHODS AND MATERIALS<br />
Field investigations were conducted during<br />
* Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering,<br />
Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Raipur - 492006 (CG)<br />
348
March to July, 2004 in the field size of 21 m x 14 m.<br />
The sub main was laid along the width and the<br />
laterals were laid along the length of the<br />
experimental field. Pressure gauge, gate valve and<br />
the filter unit were installed outside the pump house.<br />
Submain of size 63 mm was connected to the filter<br />
outlet with the help of bends, socket, and elbow.<br />
The laterals were laid along the length of the field.<br />
Micro sprinklers and drippers were connected on<br />
laterals at specify spacing.<br />
Monoblock pump (capacity 7.5 hp), pressure<br />
gauge (range 0.0– 6.0 kg/sq cm) and gate valve (65<br />
mm diameter) were used to control water supply<br />
during the experiments. Water from the tube well<br />
was collected in a tank constructed on the ground<br />
surface. The water supply was bifurcated through<br />
two pipes, one to the point source of application<br />
and another was used as an outlet. A pressure<br />
regulator was provided on this pipe to control the<br />
water supply. Experimental details are presented in<br />
the (Table 1).<br />
Measurement of discharge<br />
Micro sprinklers and drip assemblies were<br />
subjected to five different pressures (0.50, 0.75, 1.00,<br />
1.25 and 1.50 kg/cm 2 ) using 16 mm diameter lateral.<br />
The water supplied for the experiment was a closed<br />
loop. A 63 mm diameter PVC pipe was placed over<br />
stake assembly and drippers to confine the discharge<br />
into the plastic container directly. Irrigation water<br />
was supplied from a well, filtered through an inline,<br />
100 mesh screen. Test times varied with pressure,<br />
drippers, micro sprinkler and laterals length used.<br />
The water collected in the containers was measured<br />
with the help of measuring cylinder. The specified<br />
pressure was maintained during the tests within ±<br />
5% of the base value as specified in ASAE standard.<br />
Design parameters<br />
The manifold and its laterals were designed<br />
and operated as double unified system. The micro<br />
sprinkler and drip irrigation system, which were<br />
controlled by a single valve and inline filter. The<br />
details of various design parameters were worked<br />
out as follows:<br />
Area : 12 m x 14 m = 168 m 2 ,<br />
Water source : Tube well fed water tank,<br />
Crop : Bitter Gourd, Climate: Semi-humid,<br />
Wind : 2.5 kmph (acceptable limit),<br />
349<br />
Rainfall : 278.7 mm (during crop growing period),<br />
Soil type : Sandy clay loam,<br />
Infiltration rate : Average 12 mm/hr, ET crop : 10.23<br />
mm, Ground water contribution: Nil<br />
Effective root zoon depth (D): 0.4 m, Field capacity<br />
of soil (FC) : 32 % (by weight)<br />
Permanent wilting point (PWP) : 18% (by weight),<br />
Critical point for system (CP): 0.85 (allowable<br />
moisture depletion 15%), Available moisture<br />
content: 27% (by weight)<br />
Area for micro sprinkler design: 6 m x 14 m = 84<br />
m 2 , Distribution efficiency (ç d ): 50%<br />
Application efficiency ( ç a ): 85%, Lateral<br />
spacing ( S r ): 1.5 m, Emitter spacing (S p ): 0.5 m<br />
Bulk density (W): 1.38 g/cm 3 , Fraction of wetted<br />
area ( W p ) : 0.4<br />
Length of lateral (L 1 ): 14 m, Width of the field (W):<br />
6 m, Spacing between two<br />
laterals (S l ) : 1.5 m, Micro sprinkler spacing (S m ):<br />
2.0 m<br />
Design of drop and Micro Sprinkler<br />
From the above mentioned parameter and field<br />
data, the various parameters of micro sprinkler and<br />
drip irrigation design were worked out separately.<br />
Net depth (d ) of water to be applied in one<br />
net<br />
irrigation<br />
FC − PWP<br />
dnet = × W × ( 1 − CP)<br />
× D × 1000<br />
100<br />
= 11.59 mm<br />
Gross depth (d ) of water to be applied<br />
gross<br />
dnet<br />
d gross = = 13.63 mm<br />
Ea<br />
Irrigation interval<br />
dgross<br />
=<br />
ET<br />
= 1 day<br />
crop<br />
ETcrop crop<br />
= peak ET + losses = 10.2 + 2.2<br />
= 12.4 mm<br />
System capacity<br />
It was assumed that 168 m 2 area will be<br />
irrigated in two hrs in one day and fraction of the<br />
total area wetted = 0.5<br />
The main line was designed using Williams and
Hazens equations<br />
Sub main: Area = 168 x 0.5 = 84 m 2<br />
d gross = 0.01363 m, = 7200 sec.<br />
Capacity (flow rate)<br />
Q = (0.01363 x 84) / 7200<br />
= 1.59 Õ 10 -4 m 3 /sec or = 572.46 lph<br />
length of lateral - 14 m; Number of lateral - 8<br />
Capacity of each lateral<br />
Q lat = 572.46 / 8 = 71.55 lph<br />
Emitter discharge<br />
=<br />
Gross depth of water × wetted area of<br />
Duration of application<br />
d gross At<br />
q<br />
t<br />
×<br />
= ,<br />
= 2.55 lph<br />
0 . 01363 × 0.<br />
5 × 1.<br />
5 × 0.<br />
4<br />
= ,<br />
2<br />
Daily water requirement :<br />
The daily water requirement of crop grown<br />
under drip irrigation method was estimated by using<br />
the formula.<br />
V = ET × S p × Sr<br />
× Wp , = 10.2 x 0.5 x 1.5 x 0.4<br />
= 3.06 litre per plant<br />
Required discharge for micro sprinkler:<br />
Application depth, Di = 0.50 x Mc x dr, = 0.50 x<br />
0.27 x 0.40, = 5.4 cm<br />
Number of laterals, ln = W/ S = 6/ 1.5, = 4<br />
1,<br />
Discharge of a lateral,<br />
Q<br />
Q × η × η<br />
=<br />
d a<br />
1 ,<br />
S n × ln<br />
= 0.0318 lps<br />
Discharge of a micro sprinkler,<br />
Qs = Q1<br />
× S s / L1<br />
, = (70.318 x 2) / 14<br />
= 0.045 lps<br />
one plant<br />
Estimation of quantity of water<br />
The crop water requirement in drip and micro<br />
sprinkler irrigation treatment was based on the<br />
formula referred by Indian National Committee on<br />
Irrigation and Drainage (INCID) in drip irrigation<br />
in India (Anonymous, 1994) as:<br />
V1 = E p × Kc<br />
× K p × A × N<br />
Net volume of water to be applied,<br />
350<br />
Vn = V1<br />
− Re<br />
× A<br />
Number of operating hours of system (T) during a<br />
week.<br />
T =<br />
Vn × Wp<br />
no.<br />
of dripper/<br />
plant × no.<br />
of plants × dripper discharge<br />
T<br />
Operating hours per application =<br />
N.<br />
m<br />
Where,<br />
V = volume of water applied in (litres), E = mean<br />
1 p<br />
pan evaporation for the week in (mm/day), K = the c<br />
crop factor, K = the pan factor, A = the area to be<br />
p<br />
irrigated in (sq m), N = no. of days in a week, R = e<br />
the effective rainfall in (mm), W = percentage<br />
p<br />
wetting<br />
Nm = No. of application / week , T = No. of operation<br />
hour/week<br />
Water use, Crop yield and Water use efficiency<br />
The seasonal water use of different irrigation<br />
methods was worked out by simple water budgeting<br />
method over the growing season under two modes<br />
of irrigation. This facilitated the comparison of<br />
seasonal water use of all irrigation methods. The<br />
water use efficiency of different irrigation treatments<br />
was worked out in order to evaluate its performances<br />
in terms of per unit of water used. The irrigation<br />
schedule adopted in the surface irrigation was based<br />
on 50% depletion of available soil moisture at the<br />
root zone depth.<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
Crop Water Requirement for Bitter Gourd<br />
The value of ET peak and crop coefficient for<br />
initial stage, development stage, mid season stage<br />
and late season stage were found to be 7.3, 7.8, 6.5,<br />
4.7 and 0.79, 0.94, 1.18, 1.14 respectively. The ET<br />
values for these four stages were determined as<br />
164.4, 296.7, 220.9 and 119.3 mm respectively. Thus<br />
ET for whole crop period was found to be 801.3<br />
mm and presented in the (Table 2).<br />
Seasonal Water Use<br />
The seasonal water use for the crop was<br />
determined with all the irrigation treatments. The<br />
lowest seasonal water use was found to be 747.5
mm in 4 lph drip followed by 755.25 mm in 8 lph drip<br />
irrigation and 790 mm in micro sprinkler. (Table<br />
3).<br />
The percent saving in seasonal water use with<br />
4 lph drip irrigation, 8lph drip irrigation and micro<br />
sprinkler irrigation was calculated as 30.14%,<br />
29.41% and 26.16% respectively, as compared to<br />
the surface method of irrigation. These findings are<br />
also supported by Magar et at. (1985) and<br />
Sivanappan and Padmakumari (1980).<br />
Yield parameter<br />
The crop yield was evaluated with all the<br />
irrigation treatments and compared to surface<br />
irrigation. The highest yields from 8 lph was found<br />
(212.49 q/ha), followed by 4 lph (202.79 q/ha) and<br />
from micro sprinkler irrigation (169.17 q/ha)<br />
presented in (Table 4). The percent increase yield<br />
with 8 lph drip, 4 lph and micro sprinkler irrigation<br />
was recorded as 36.89%, 30.60% and 8.98%<br />
respectively as compared to surface method of<br />
irrigation. These results are supported by<br />
Sivanappan and padmakumari (1980) and Magar et<br />
al. (1985).<br />
Water Use Efficiency<br />
The water use efficiency with 8 lph drip, 4 lph<br />
drip and micro sprinkler was calculated and<br />
compared to the surface irrigation. The highest water<br />
use efficiency (50.7 kg/ha-mm) was found from 8<br />
lph, followed by 4 lph drip (46.8 kg/ha-mm) and<br />
from micro sprinkler (29.7 kg/ha-mm). The results<br />
presented in the (Table 5).<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
The ET values for the initial stage,<br />
development stage, mid season stage and late season<br />
stage of Bitter Gourd were determined as 164.4,<br />
296.7, 220.9 and 119.3 mm respectively. Thus total<br />
ET for crop period was found to be 801.3 mm. The<br />
seasonal water use of bitter gourd under micro<br />
sprinkler, 8 lph drip and 4 lph drip was found to be<br />
790 mm, 755.25 mm and 747.50 mm respectively.<br />
The water use efficiency of Bitter Gourd under micro<br />
sprinkler, 8 lph drip and 4 lph drip was found to be<br />
29.7, 50.7 and 46.8 kg /ha-mm respectively. The<br />
benefit-cost ratio for 8 lph drip, 4 lph drip and micro<br />
sprinkler irrigation were found to be 4.26: 1, 3.69:<br />
1 and 1.15: 1 respectively.<br />
351<br />
REFERENCES<br />
• Anonymous, 1994. Drip irrigation in India. Indian<br />
National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage, July<br />
1994, New Delhi.<br />
• Berthelot, P. B. and Robertson, C. A. 1990. “A<br />
comparative study of the financial and economic<br />
viability of drip and overhead irrigation of sugarcane<br />
in Mauritius.” Agric. Water Manage, 17: 307 - 315.<br />
Battawar, H. B., Shukla, S. P. and Sachidanand, B.<br />
1983. Evaluation of evapotranspiration and crop<br />
coefficient values for vegetable and wheat, mousum.<br />
34 (1): 51-54.<br />
• Chaudhary, J. L. Sastri, A. S. R. A. S. 1992. The<br />
evaporation and water requirement of important crops<br />
in Chhattisgarh region. Bagirath., Vol. 19, No-1: 3-6.<br />
• Darade, R. S. and Shinde U.R. 1993. Field<br />
evaluation of hydraulic performances of static micro<br />
sprinkler irrigation system, unpublished B. Tech.<br />
(Agril. Engg) thesis submitted to Mahatma Phule Krishi<br />
vidyapeeth, Rahuri, (M.S.).<br />
• Goel, A. K., Gupta, R. K. and Rajinder kumar.<br />
1993. Water use efficiency and yield of potato under<br />
drip and furrow irrigation systems. All India seminar<br />
on sprinkler and drip irrigation, Dec. (9 th and 10 th ):<br />
86-88.<br />
• Magar, S. S., Mane, T. A. and Shinde, S. H. 1985.<br />
Development of drip irrigation in vertisol under water<br />
resource constraints. Journal of IWRS, Roorkee, 5(2):<br />
39-44.<br />
• Prabhaker, M. 1997. Drip irrigation in vegetables.<br />
Drip irrigation. Pub. Agronomy club, UAS, Dharward.<br />
• Post, S. C., Peck D. E., Brender R. A., Sakovich<br />
N. J. and Waddle. 1986. Evaluation of low flow<br />
sprinkler irrigation, J. California Agril. University,<br />
California, July-Aug.: 27-29.<br />
• Sharma, H.G., Verma. V.P., Rajput, S.S. and<br />
Pandey, V.K. 1998. Comparative performance of drip<br />
and suface methods of irrigation in banana cv.<br />
Chakrakeli. Proc. of the national seminar on micro<br />
irrigation research in India: status and prospectives<br />
for the 21 st century, Bhubaneswar, July 27- 28: 237-<br />
241.<br />
• Sivanappan, R.K., and Padmakumari, O. 1980.<br />
Drip irrigation. TNAU, Coimbatore, SVNP report 87:<br />
15.<br />
• Westarp, S. V., Cheing, S. and Schreier, H. 2003.<br />
“A comparison between low-cost drip irrigation,<br />
conventional drip irrigation, and hand watering in<br />
Nepal”. Agric. Water Manage. 64: 143-160.
Table 1 : Experimental Details<br />
Table 2: Stage wise crop water requirement for bitter gourd<br />
352
Table 3 : Seasonal water use (mm) in drip (8 lph), drip (4 lph)<br />
and micro sprinkler irrigation for bitter gourd<br />
Table 4: Crop yields in q ha -1 micro sprinkler, drip (8 lph), drip (4 lph) and surface irrigation<br />
353
Table 5: Water use efficiency (kg/ha mm) in drip (8 lph), drip (4 lph)<br />
and micro sprinkler irrigation<br />
� � �<br />
354
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
62. Urban Stormwater Management Through Sustainable Urban Drainage<br />
Systems - A Unified Approach Through Constructed Wetland using<br />
Macrophytes<br />
* M. N. V. Prasad<br />
Abstract<br />
Stormwater is a important water resource. Stormwater treatment and management is<br />
an important topics in tropical countries. In the wake of 2005 Bangalore and Mumbai urban<br />
flash floods all concerned authorities must examine the feasibility of implementing “ Sustainable<br />
Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)” a well established and operationalized in developed counties.<br />
This is a neglected area in Indian scenario. In this paper stormwater treatment and management<br />
using macrophytes is described. A glossary of terms is also attached at the end.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Pollutants that originate mainly from nonpoint<br />
sources, which are difficult to control.<br />
Constructed wetlands are designed to intercept and<br />
remove a wide range of contaminants from waste<br />
water. These wetlands can save time and money by<br />
using natural mechanisms to treat non-point source<br />
pollution before it reaches lakes, rivers, and oceans.<br />
Conventional wastewater treatment plants can<br />
effectively remove non-point source pollution, but<br />
are expensive to build and operate. Therefore, Local<br />
waste water treatment plants are desirable to reuse<br />
water.<br />
SUSTAINABLE URBAN DRAINAGE<br />
SYSTEMS FOR COLLECTION OF<br />
STORMWATER – WATER TREATMENT IN<br />
CONSTRUCTED WETLAND USING<br />
MACROPHYTES :<br />
The use of aquatic plants in water quality<br />
assessment has been common for years as in-situ<br />
biomonitors and for in situ remediatio. The<br />
occurrence of aquatic macrophytes is<br />
unambiguously related to water chemistry and using<br />
these plant species or communities as indicators or<br />
biomonitors has been an objective for surveying<br />
water quality. Aquatic plants have also been used<br />
frequently to remove suspended solids, nutrients,<br />
heavy metals, toxic organics and bacteria from acid<br />
mine drainage, agricultural landfill and urban stormwater<br />
runoff. In addition considerable research has<br />
been focused on determining the usefulness of<br />
macrophytes, as biomonitors of polluted<br />
environments and as bioremediative agents in waste<br />
water treatments. The response of an organism to<br />
deficient or excess levels of metal (i.e. bioassays)<br />
can be used to estimate metal impact. Such studies<br />
done under defined experimental conditions can<br />
provide results that can be extrapolated to natural<br />
environment. There are multifold advantages in<br />
using an aquatic macrophyte as a study material.<br />
Macrophytes are cost-effective universally available<br />
aquatic plants and with their ability to survive<br />
adverse conditions and high colonization rates, are<br />
excellent tools for studies of phytoremediation.<br />
Rooted macrophytes especially play an important<br />
role in metal bioavailability through rhizosphere<br />
secretions and exchange processes. This naturally<br />
facilitates metal uptake by other floating and<br />
emergent forms of macrophytes. Macrophytes<br />
readily take up metals in their reduced form from<br />
sediments, which exist in anaerobic situations due<br />
to lack of oxygen and oxidize them in the plant<br />
tissues making them immobile and bioconcentrate<br />
* Department of Plant Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500 046, India.<br />
Tel: +91-40-23011604, 23134509 Fax: +91-40-23010120, 23010145 E-mail: mnvsl@uohyd.ernet.in<br />
355
them to a great extent. Metals concentrated within<br />
macrophytes are available for grazing by fish. These<br />
may also be available for epiphytic phytoplankton,<br />
herbivorous and detrivorous invertebrates. This may<br />
be a major route for incorporating metals in the<br />
aquatic food chain. It is therefore of interest to assess<br />
the levels of heavy metals in macrophytes due to<br />
their importance in ecological processes. The<br />
immobile nature of macrophytes makes them a<br />
particularly effective bio-indicator of metal<br />
pollution, as they represent real levels present at<br />
that site. Data on phytotoxicity studies are<br />
considered in the development of water quality<br />
criteria to protect aquatic life, the toxicity evaluation<br />
of municipal and industrial effluents (APHA.<br />
American Public Health Association. (1998). In<br />
addition aquatic plants have been used to assess the<br />
toxicity of contaminated sediment elutriates and<br />
hazardous waste leachates.<br />
In the past research with macrophytes has<br />
centered mainly on determinig effective eradication<br />
techniques for nuisance growth of several species<br />
such as Elodea Canadensis, Eichhornia crassipes,<br />
Ceratophyllum demersum etc… Scientific literature<br />
exists for the use of wide diversity of macrophytes<br />
in toxicity tests designed to evaluate the hazard of<br />
potential pollutants, but the test species used is quite<br />
scattered. Similarly literature concerning the<br />
phytotoxicity tests to be used, test methods and the<br />
value of the result data is scattered. Estuarine and<br />
marine plant species are being used considerably<br />
less than freshwater species in toxicity tests<br />
conducted for regulatory reasons. The suitability of<br />
a test species is usually based on the specimen<br />
bioavailability, sensitivity to toxicant, reported data<br />
and the like. Table 1. uptades the variety of test<br />
species used for phytotoxicity studies. The<br />
sensitivity of various plants to metals was found to<br />
be species and chemical specific, differing in the<br />
uptake as well as toxicity of metals. Many<br />
submersed plants have been used as test species,<br />
but there is no widely used single species. In a<br />
literature survey only 7% of 528 reported<br />
phytotoxicity tests used macrophytic species. Their<br />
use in microcosm and mesocosm studies is even<br />
rarer and has been highly recommended. Several<br />
plant species like Lemna, Myriophyllum,<br />
Potamogeton have been exhaustively used in<br />
phytotoxicity assessment, but several others have<br />
356<br />
been given less importance as a bioassay tool.<br />
Duckweeds have recieved the greatest attention for<br />
toxicity tests as they are relevant ot many aquatic<br />
environments, including lakes, streams, effluents.<br />
Duckweeds comprise Spirodela, Wolfiella, Lemna<br />
and Wolffia, of which Lemna has been almost<br />
exhaustively studied.<br />
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS :<br />
The most important role of plants in wetlands<br />
is that they increase the residence time of water,<br />
which means that they reduce the velocity and<br />
thereby increase the sedimentation of particles and<br />
associated pollutants. Thus they are indirect<br />
involved in water cleaning. Plants also add oxygen<br />
providing a physical site of microbial attachment<br />
to the roots generating positive conditions for<br />
microbes and bioremediation. For efficient removal<br />
of pollutants a high biomass per volume of water of<br />
the submerged plants is necessary. Uptake of metals<br />
in emergent plants only accounts for 5% or less of<br />
the total removal capacity in wetlands. Not many<br />
studies have been performed on submerged plants,<br />
however, higher concentration of metals in<br />
submerged than emerged plants has been found and<br />
in microcosm wetland the removal by Elodea<br />
canadensis and Potamogeton natans showed up to<br />
69 % removal of Zn. (Kadlec 1995; Kadlec and<br />
Knight 1996).<br />
Constructed and engineered wetlands for water<br />
treatment (Figures 1-5; Okurut et al 1999).<br />
Natural wetlands<br />
used for wastewater treatment for centuries<br />
uncontrolled discharge irreversible degradation.<br />
Constructed wetlands<br />
effective in treating organic matter, nitrogen,<br />
phosphorus, decrease the concentrations of heavy<br />
metals, organic chemicals, and pathogens.<br />
POTENTIAL ROLE OF AQUATIC PLANTS IN<br />
PHYTOTECHNOLOGY FOR WASTE WATER<br />
TREATMENT :<br />
Phytoremediation is defined as the use of<br />
plants for environmental cleanup. Aquatic<br />
macrophytes have paramount significance in the<br />
monitoring of metals in aquatic ecosystems<br />
(eg: Lemna minor, Eichhornia crassipes, Azolla
pinnata) Aquatic plants are represented by a variety<br />
of macrophytic including algal species that occur<br />
in various habitats. They are important in nutrient<br />
cycling, control of water quality, sediment<br />
stabilization and provision of habitat for aquatic<br />
organisms. The use of aquatic macrophytes in water<br />
quality assessment has been a common practice<br />
employing in-situ biomonitors (Sobolewski 1999)<br />
The submerged aquatic macrophytes have<br />
very thin cuticle and therefore readily take up metals<br />
from water through the entire surface. Hence the<br />
integrated amounts of bioavailable metals in water<br />
and sediment can be indicated to some extent by<br />
using macrophytes. Macrophytes with their ability<br />
to survive adverse conditions and high colonization<br />
rate are excellent tools for phytoremediation.<br />
Further they redistribute metals from sediments to<br />
water and finally take up in the plant tissues and<br />
hence maintain circulation. Benthic rooted<br />
macrophytes (both submerged and emergent) play<br />
an important role in metal bioavailability from<br />
sediments through rhizosphere exchanges and other<br />
carrier chelates. This naturally facilitates metal<br />
uptake by other floating and emergent forms of<br />
macrophytes Macrophytes readily take up metals<br />
in their reduced form from sediments, which exist<br />
in anaerobic situations due to lack of oxygen and<br />
oxidize them in the plant tissues making them<br />
immobile and hence bioconcentrate them to a high<br />
extent Okurut et al 1999)<br />
Constructed wetlands are man-made wetlands<br />
designed to intercept and remove a wide range of<br />
contaminants from water. These wetlands can save<br />
you time and money by using natural mechanisms<br />
to treat non-point source pollution before it reaches<br />
our lakes, rivers, and oceans. oils, nutrients,<br />
suspended solids, and other substances. These<br />
pollutants originate mainly from non-point sources,<br />
which are difficult to control. Conventional<br />
wastewater treatment plants can effectively remove<br />
non-point source pollution, but are expensive to<br />
build and operate.<br />
Treatment mechanisms<br />
Filtration and uptake of contaminants.<br />
Settling of suspended solids due to decreased Water<br />
velocity and trapping action of plants, leaves, and<br />
stems.<br />
Precipitation, adsorption, and sequestration of<br />
357<br />
metals.<br />
Microbial decomposition of petroleum<br />
hydrocarbons and other organics.<br />
Benefits<br />
Cost-effective treatment of non-point source<br />
pollution.<br />
Compliance with water quality goals.<br />
Reduction of operation and maintenance costs<br />
relative to conventional water treatment plants.<br />
Conservation of natural resources.<br />
Reduction of flood hazard and erosion.<br />
Creation of wildlife habitat and aesthetic resource.<br />
Plants may reduce element leakage from<br />
submerged mine tailings by phytostabilisation.<br />
However, high shoot concentrations of elements<br />
might disperse them and could be harmful to grazing<br />
animals. Plants that are tolerant to elements of high<br />
concentrations have been found useful for<br />
reclamation of dry mine tailings containing elevated<br />
levels of metals and other elements. Mine tailings<br />
rich in sulphides, e.g. pyrite, can form acid mine<br />
drainage (AMD) if it reacts with atmospheric<br />
oxygen and water, which may also promote the<br />
release of metals and As. To prevent AMD<br />
formation, mine tailings rich in sulphides may be<br />
saturated with water to reduce the penetration of<br />
atmospheric oxygen. An organic layer with plants<br />
on top of the mine tailings would consume oxygen,<br />
as would plant roots through respiration.<br />
Thus, phytostabilisation on water-covered<br />
mine tailings may further reduce the oxygen<br />
penetration into the mine tailings and prevent the<br />
release of elevated levels of elements into the<br />
surroundings. Metal tolerance can be evolutionarily<br />
developed while some plant species seem to have<br />
an inherent tolerance to heavy metals. . Since, some<br />
wetland plant species have been found with the latter<br />
property, for example Thypha latifolia, Glyceria<br />
fluitans and Phragmites australis, wetland<br />
communities may easily establish on submerged<br />
mine tailings, without prior development of metal<br />
tolerance. The relationships between element<br />
concentrations in plants and concentrations in the<br />
substrate differ between plant species. Some plant<br />
species have mechanisms that make it possible to<br />
cope with high external levels of elements. Lowaccumulators<br />
are plants that can reduce the uptake
when the substrate has high element concentrations,<br />
or have a high net efflux of the element in question,<br />
thus the plant tissue concentration of the element is<br />
low even though the concentration in the substrate<br />
is high (Williams 2002., Wood and Mcatamney<br />
1994, Woulds and Ngwenya 2004, and Ye et al 2001)<br />
CONCLUSIONS :<br />
Surface flow constructed wetlands are being<br />
designed for the treatment of municipal waste waters<br />
in developed nations. Use of constructed wetlands<br />
is spreading rapidly in developed nations how ever,<br />
in tropical nations due to water scarcity and high<br />
surface evapotranspitration the constructed<br />
wetlands for treatment of waste waters is not gaining<br />
significance. Further due to water scarcity wetland<br />
technology is not supported. However, in tropical<br />
contries the mine drainage, agricultural waste waters<br />
and flood water regulation there is considerable<br />
scope due to rich plant diversity.<br />
GLOSSARY FOR SELECTED TERMS<br />
Attenuation<br />
Reduction of peak flow and increased duration of a<br />
flow event.<br />
Balancing pond<br />
A pond designed to attenuate flows by storing runoff<br />
during the peak flow and releasing it at a controlled<br />
rate during and after the peak flow has passed. The<br />
pond always contains water. Also known as wet<br />
detention pond.<br />
Basin<br />
Flow control or water treatment structure that is<br />
normally dry.<br />
Biodegradation<br />
Decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms<br />
and other living things.<br />
Bioretention area<br />
A depressed landscaping area that is allowed to<br />
collect runoff so it percolates through the soil below<br />
the area into an underdrain, thereby promoting<br />
pollutant removal.<br />
Catchment<br />
The area contributing surface water flow to a point<br />
on a drainage or river system. Can be divided into<br />
sub-catchments.<br />
Combined sewer<br />
A sewer designed to carry foul sewage and surface<br />
runoff in the same pipe.<br />
358<br />
Controlled waters<br />
Waters defined and protected under the Water<br />
Resources Act 1991. Any relevant territorial waters<br />
that extend seaward for 3 miles from the baselines,<br />
any coastal waters that extend inland from those<br />
baselines to the limit of the highest tide or the<br />
freshwater limit of any river or watercourse, any<br />
enclosed dock that adjoins coastal waters, inland<br />
freshwaters, including rivers, watercourses, and<br />
ponds and lakes with discharges and groundwaters<br />
(waters contained in underground strata).For the full<br />
definition refer to the Water Resources Act 1991.<br />
Detention basin<br />
A vegetated depression, normally is dry except after<br />
storm events constructed to store water temporarily<br />
to attenuate flows. May allow infiltration of water<br />
to the ground.<br />
Diffuse pollution<br />
Pollution arising from land-use activities (urban and<br />
rural) that are dispersed across a catchment, or subcatchment,<br />
and do not arise as a process effluent,<br />
municipal sewage effluent, or an effluent discharge<br />
from farm buildings.<br />
Environmental management<br />
A management agreement for an area or project set<br />
up to plan and make sure the declared management<br />
objectives for the area or project are met.<br />
Environmental Management Plans are often<br />
undertaken as part of an environmental impact<br />
assessment and are set out in several stages with<br />
responsibilities clearly defined and environmental<br />
monitoring procedures in place to show compliance<br />
with the plan.<br />
Evapotranspiration<br />
The process by which the Earth’s surface or soil<br />
loses moisture by evaporation of water and by<br />
uptake and then transpiration from plants.<br />
Extended detention basin<br />
A detention basin in which the runoff is stored<br />
beyond the time normally required for attenuation.<br />
This provides extra time for natural processes to<br />
remove some of the pollutants in the water.<br />
FEH<br />
Flood estimation handbook, produced by Centre for<br />
Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford (formerly the<br />
Institute of Hydrology)<br />
Filter drain<br />
A linear drain consisting of a trench filled with a<br />
permeable material, often with a perforated pipe in
the base of the trench to assist drainage, to store<br />
and conduct water, but may also be designed to<br />
permit infiltration.<br />
Filter strip<br />
A vegetated area of gently sloping ground designed<br />
to drain water evenly off impermeable areas and<br />
filter out silt and other particulates.<br />
Filtration<br />
The act of removing sediment or other particles from<br />
a fluid by passing it through a filter.<br />
Flood frequency<br />
The probability of a flowrate being equalled or<br />
exceeded in any year.<br />
Greenfield runoff<br />
This is the surface water runoff regime from a site<br />
before development, or the existing site conditions<br />
for brownfield redevelopment sites.<br />
Green roof<br />
A roof with plants growing on its surface, which<br />
contributes to local biodiversity. The vegetated<br />
surface provides a degree of retention, attenuation<br />
and treatment of rainwater, and promotes<br />
evapotranspiration. (Sometimes referred to as an<br />
alternative roof).<br />
Greywater<br />
Wastewater from sinks, baths, showers and domestic<br />
appliances this water before it reaches the sewer<br />
(or septic tank system).<br />
Groundwater<br />
Water that is below the surface of ground in the<br />
saturation zone.<br />
Highway drain<br />
A conduit draining the highway. On a highways<br />
maintainable at the public expense it is vested in<br />
the highway authority.<br />
HOST (Hydrology of Soil Types)<br />
A classification used to indicate the permeability<br />
of the soil and the percentage runoff from a<br />
particular area<br />
Impermeable<br />
Will not allow water to pass through it.<br />
Impermeable surface<br />
An artificial non- porous surface that generates a<br />
surface water runoff after rainfall.<br />
Infiltration - to the ground<br />
The passage of surface water though the surface of<br />
the ground.<br />
Infiltration - to a sewer<br />
The entry of groundwater to a sewer.<br />
359<br />
Infiltration basin<br />
A dry basin designed to promote infiltration of<br />
surface water to the ground.<br />
Infiltration device<br />
A device specifically designed to aid infiltration of<br />
surface water into the ground.<br />
Infiltration potential<br />
The rate at which water flows through a soil (mm/h).<br />
Infiltration trench<br />
A trench, usually filled with stone, designed to<br />
promote infiltration of surface water to the ground.<br />
Interflow<br />
Shallow infiltration to the soil, from where it may<br />
infiltrate vertically to an aquifer, move horizontally<br />
to a watercourse or be stored and subsequently<br />
evaporated.<br />
Interim Code of Practice<br />
An agreed provisional document within the existing<br />
legislative framework that establishes good practice.<br />
Lagoon<br />
A pond designed for the settlement of suspended<br />
solids.<br />
Lateral drain<br />
(a) That part of a drain which runs from the curtilage<br />
of a building (or buildings or yards within the same<br />
curtilage) to the sewer with which the drain<br />
communicates or is to communicate; or<br />
(b) (if different and the context so requires) the part<br />
of a drain identified in a declaration of vesting made<br />
under section 102 or in an agreement made under<br />
section 104.<br />
Offstream<br />
Dry weather flow bypasses the storage area<br />
Onstream<br />
Dry weather flow passes through the storage area.<br />
Permeability<br />
A measure of the ease with which a fluid can flow<br />
through a porous medium. It depends on the physical<br />
properties of the medium, for example grain size,<br />
porosity and pore shape.<br />
Permeable pavement<br />
A paved surface that allows the passage of water<br />
through voids between the paving blocks/slabs. 10<br />
Permeable surface<br />
A surface formed of material that is itself impervious<br />
to water but, by virtue of voids formed through the<br />
surface, allows infiltration of water to the sub-base<br />
through the pattern of voids, eg concrete block<br />
paving.
Pervious surface<br />
A surface that allows inflow of rainwater into the<br />
underlying construction or soil.<br />
Piped system<br />
Conduits generally located below ground to conduct<br />
water to a suitable location for treatment and/or<br />
disposal.<br />
Pollution<br />
A change in the physical, chemical, radiological or<br />
biological quality of a resource (air, water or land)<br />
caused by man or man’s activities that is injurious<br />
to existing, intended or potential uses of the<br />
resource.<br />
Pond<br />
Permanently wet basin designed to retain<br />
stormwater and permit settlement of suspended<br />
solids and biological removal of pollutants.<br />
Porous paving<br />
A permeable surface allowing the passage of water<br />
through voids within, rather than between, the<br />
paving blocks/slabs.<br />
Porous surface<br />
A surface that infiltrates water to the sub-base across<br />
the entire surface of the material forming the<br />
surface, for example grass and gravel surfaces,<br />
porous concrete and porous asphalt.<br />
Prevention<br />
Site design and management to stop or reduce the<br />
occurrence of pollution and to reduce the volume<br />
of runoff by reducing impermeable areas.<br />
Public sewer<br />
A sewer that is vested in and maintained by a<br />
sewerage undertaker.<br />
Rainwater harvesting or rainwater use system<br />
A system that collects rainwater from where it falls<br />
rather than allowing it to drain away. It includes<br />
water that is collected within the boundaries of a<br />
property, from roofs and surrounding surfaces.<br />
Recurrence interval<br />
The average time between runoff events that have<br />
a certain flow rate, e.g. a flow of 2 m/s might have<br />
a recurrence interval of two years in a particular<br />
catchment.<br />
Retention pond<br />
A pond where runoff is detained (e.g. for several<br />
days) to allow settlement and biological treatment<br />
of some pollutants.<br />
Runoff<br />
Water flow over the ground surface to the drainage<br />
360<br />
system. This occurs if the ground is impermeable, is<br />
saturated or if rainfall is particularly intense.<br />
Separate sewer<br />
A sewer for surface water or foul sewage, but not a<br />
combination of both.<br />
Sewer<br />
A pipe or channel taking domestic foul and/or<br />
surface water from buildings and associated paths<br />
and hardstandings from two or more curtilages and<br />
having a proper outfall.<br />
Sewerage undertaker<br />
This is a collective term relating to the statutory<br />
undertaking of water companies that are responsible<br />
for sewerage and sewage disposal including surface<br />
water from roofs and yards of premises.<br />
Sewers for Adoption<br />
A guide agreed between sewerage undertakers and<br />
developers (through the House Builders Federation)<br />
specifying the standards to which private sewers<br />
need to be constructed to facilitate adoption.<br />
Site and regional controls<br />
Manage runoff drained fro several sub-catchments.<br />
The controls deal with runoff on a catchment scale<br />
rather than at source.<br />
Soil<br />
Soil Index Value obtained from the WRAP soil<br />
classification, used in the Wallingford Procedure<br />
to calculate the treatment volume.<br />
Source control<br />
The control of runoff or pollution at or near its<br />
source.<br />
STORM<br />
A computer model based on equations used in the<br />
California Stormwater Best Management Practice<br />
Handbook. Used to assess detention basin<br />
performance.<br />
Sub-base<br />
A layer of material on the sub-grade that provides a<br />
foundation for a pavement surface.<br />
Sub-catchment<br />
A division of a catchment, allowing runoff<br />
management as near to the source as is reasonable.<br />
Sub-grade<br />
The surface of an excavation prepared to support a<br />
pavement.<br />
Subsidiarity<br />
The principle that an issue should be managed as<br />
close as is reasonable to its source.
SUDS (Sustainable Drainage Systems)<br />
Sustainable drainage systems or sustainable (urban)<br />
drainage systems: a sequence of management<br />
practices and control structures designed to drain<br />
surface water in a more sustainable fashion than<br />
some conventional techniques (may also be referred<br />
to as SuDS).<br />
Surface water management<br />
The management of runoff in stages as it drains from<br />
a site.<br />
Suspended solids<br />
Undissolved particles in a liquid.<br />
Swale<br />
A shallow vegetated channel designed to conduct<br />
and retain water, but may also permit infiltration;<br />
the vegetation filters particulate matter.<br />
Treatment<br />
Improving the quality of water by physical, chemical<br />
and/or biological means.<br />
Treatment volume<br />
The volume of surface runoff containing the most<br />
polluted portion of the flow from a rainfall event.<br />
Watercourse<br />
A term including all rivers, streams ditches drains<br />
cuts culverts dykes sluices and passages through<br />
which water flows.<br />
WRAP (Winter Rain Acceptance Potential)<br />
Classification used to calculate the permeability of<br />
soils and the percentage run-off from a particular<br />
area.<br />
Wet<br />
Containing water under dry weather conditions.<br />
Wetland<br />
A pond that has a high proportion of emergent<br />
vegetation in relation to open water.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
APHA. American Public Health Association. (1998).<br />
Standard methods for estimation of water and wastewater.<br />
20 ed. Ed: Eaton, D. D., Clesceri, L. S. and Greenberg,<br />
A. E. Washington D.C.<br />
361<br />
KADLEC, R.H. and KNIGHT, R.L. (Eds.) (1996) Treatment<br />
Wetlands. Lewis Publishers,Boca Raton. 893p.<br />
KADLEC, R.H., 1995. Overview: Surface flow<br />
constructed wetlands. Water Science and Technology 32<br />
(3), 1–12.<br />
KYAMBADDE, J., KANSIIME, F., GUMAELIUS, L.<br />
AND DALHAMMAR, G. (2004). A comparative study<br />
of Cyperus papyrus and Miscanthidium violaceum-based<br />
constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in a<br />
tropical country. Water Research 38: 475-485.<br />
LIENARD, A., DUCHENE, P. and GORINI, D. (1995)<br />
A study of activated sludgedewatering in experimental<br />
reed-planted or unplanted sludge drying beds. Wat. Sci.<br />
Techn. 32, 251-261.<br />
LIN, Y.-F., JING, S.-R., LEE, D.-Y. AND WANG, T.-W.<br />
(2002). Nutrient removal from aquaculture wastewater<br />
using a constructed wetlands system. Aquaculture 209:<br />
169-184.<br />
MUNGUR, A.S., SHUTES, R.B.E., REVITT, D.M. and<br />
HOUSE, M.A. (1995) Anassessment of metal removal<br />
from highway runoff by a natural wetland. Wat. Sci.Tech.,<br />
32, 169-175. 14<br />
OKURUT, T. O., RIJS, G. B. J., AND VAN BRUGGEN,<br />
J. J. A. (1999). Design and performance of experimental<br />
constructed wetlands in Unganda, planted with Cyperus<br />
papyrus and Phragmites mauritianus. Water Science and<br />
Technology 40 (3): 265-271.<br />
SOBOLEWSKI, A., 1999. A review of processes<br />
responsible for metal removal in wetlands treating<br />
contaminated mine drainage. International Journal of<br />
Phytoremediation 1 (1), 19–51.<br />
WILLIAMS, J.B, 2002. Phytoremediation in wetland<br />
ecosystems: progress, problems, and potential. Critical<br />
Reviews in Plant Sciences 21 (6), 607–635.<br />
WOOD, B., MCATAMNEY, C., 1994. The use of<br />
macrophytes in bioremediation. Biotechnology Advances<br />
12, 653–662.<br />
WOULDS, C., NGWENYA, B.T., 2004. Geochemical<br />
processes governing the performance of a constructed<br />
wetland treating acid mine drainage, Central Scotland.<br />
Applied Geochemistry 19 (11), 1773–1783.<br />
YE, Z.H., WHITING, S.N., QIAN, J.H., LYTLE, C.M.,<br />
LIN, Z.Q., TERRY, N., 2001. Wetlands and aquatic<br />
processes, trace elements removal from coal ash leachate<br />
by a 10 year old constructed wetland. Journal of<br />
Environmental Quality 30, 1710–1719.
Figure 1 :<br />
Removal of Arsenic from ground water using macrophytes by phytovolatilization<br />
Figure 2 :<br />
Constructed wetland technology for treatment of municipal waste waters using macrophytes.<br />
362
Figure 3 :<br />
Cascade model of constructed Aquaplant with cmmon reed beds or grasses for the removal<br />
of xenobiotics and treatment of saline waste streams. The commonly used grasses for the<br />
treatment of saline waste strems are Spartina alterniflora = Cord grass, Sporolobus virginicus<br />
= Coastal dropseed; Salicornia virginica = Perennial glasswort; Cladium jamaicense =<br />
Sawgrass; Salicornia alterniflora = Vermillon cordgrass; and Scirpus validus = Great bulrush<br />
Figure 4 :<br />
Constructed wtland for removal waste water treatment<br />
(Vertical flow system with macrophytes)<br />
363
Figure 5 :<br />
Constructed wtland for removal waste water treatment<br />
(Horozontal flow with macrophytes)<br />
� � �<br />
364
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
63. Suggested Design Approach for Planning<br />
and Designing Recharge Wells and Systems<br />
� Introduction<br />
It is needless to mention that it is already a<br />
high time that high priority and importance is<br />
assigned to systematically start planning and<br />
executing recharge projects in all the areas to prevent<br />
the ground water depletion and create a systematic<br />
and scientific battery for ground water storage for<br />
use throughout the year. If systematically planned<br />
and executed on coastal belt the recharge wells can<br />
prove to be a very useful barrier to sea water<br />
intrusion.<br />
Lot of efforts are being made and lot of talks<br />
are being done all around in various bodies<br />
connected with ground water about recharge<br />
structures. In many places even regulations are being<br />
made for making it compulsory to make recharge<br />
wells in societies etc. In some of the states like<br />
Karnataka, Kerala much importance is already being<br />
given to rain water harvesting which requires a<br />
recharge well ultimately to percolate the rain water<br />
into the ground to recharge the aquifers.<br />
Hence the recharge well is the core mechanism<br />
of recharging the ground water for all kinds of water<br />
collection methods – check dams, rain/roof water<br />
harvesting, water logging areas etc.<br />
It is also seen that different types of designs of<br />
recharge well is being adopted by different bodies<br />
and there does not seem to be a commonly accepted<br />
design proven to be the optimum for achieving the<br />
maximum efficiency of recharge.<br />
Hence a need was felt to develop a standard<br />
design approach giving clear guidelines for<br />
designing the recharge well. This article attempts to<br />
initiate the process of defining the design criterion<br />
and a general design approach and further work<br />
needs to be done to make it more and more specific.<br />
*Dharmesh Mashru<br />
What is a recharge well<br />
Even at the cost of some repetition of what we<br />
already know let us define clearly what a recharge<br />
well is supposed to do and how it works in very<br />
simple terms. A recharge well is a natural injection<br />
well to inject the water supplied to it by recharge<br />
mechanism into the desired aquifer to be recharged.<br />
The water collected in recharge catchments<br />
mechanism enters the pipe assembly of well and acts<br />
against the already present hydrostatic pressure of<br />
water already available in the aquifer, overcomes<br />
the friction of the well casing, screen slots, gravel<br />
pack and formation and tries to penetrate thru the<br />
formation to start storing more water in the available<br />
voids in an unsaturated aquifer till the time the<br />
aquifer is saturated. Very simple as it sounds but<br />
equally challenging if one wants to give full justice<br />
to the design.<br />
Important considerations for designing a<br />
recharge mechanism<br />
Following are the important aspects for planning<br />
a recharge mechanism project<br />
� The location of recharge mechanism<br />
This is a very important aspect and much study<br />
is required to be done before selecting a recharge<br />
site. It is seen that presently the only consideration<br />
given while selecting the site is the natural collection<br />
of water – either a lake or a pond or a water logging<br />
spot or building check dams across flowing river<br />
etc.<br />
But, to create an efficient and sustainable site for<br />
recharge following approach is recommended –<br />
� Common recharge site shall be planned for a<br />
*Chief Operating Officer, Johnson Screens (India) Ltd.- Ahmedabad<br />
365
particular command area in which the ground water<br />
is to be recharged.<br />
� Conduct a study of pumping wells under use<br />
in the command area and find out total pumping<br />
quantity per day and main aquifers used.<br />
� Study the types of aquifers from the point of<br />
view of their permeability and hydrostatic pressure<br />
and select the aquifers needed to be recharged.<br />
� It is a known fact that the aquifers form long<br />
linkages to longer distances and may have different<br />
elevations at different points. Map the linkages of<br />
selected aquifers around command area.<br />
� It is well known that the ground water<br />
movements in the aquifer occur from a place where<br />
the ground water has higher energy to the places of<br />
low energy. Theoretically as per the Bernoulli<br />
equation the energy contained in ground water<br />
comprises of – Pressure, Velocity and Elevation. But,<br />
practically the pressure remaining more or less same<br />
at various points and the velocity energy being<br />
negligibly small the significant one is the elevation<br />
energy. As per this concept the ground water<br />
movement will be more from a point of higher<br />
elevation to a lower elevation and velocity of<br />
movement is directly proportional to the difference<br />
in elevations of the two points. According to this<br />
argument select a recharge site location having<br />
maximum possible elevation on the aquifer map as<br />
compared to the average elevation of the same<br />
aquifer at the pumping wells in the command area.<br />
While doing this care must be taken not to increase<br />
the distance to be traveled and care shall also to be<br />
taken to avoid any blockage or drainage in the path.<br />
� Basically a trade is to be achieved between the<br />
elevation, distance and possibility of getting enough<br />
rain water while making a final selection. If any dam<br />
if available in the vicinity it may be a good idea to<br />
make a diversion from dam at certain height to an<br />
artificial recharge structure so that when the water<br />
level rises above certain level in the dam during<br />
monsoon the recharge collection pond is filled at<br />
higher elevation.<br />
� Having selected the site make an artificial<br />
catchment for collecting the rain water. The storage<br />
capacity shall be decided based on the data of water<br />
drawal from the selected aquifers by the pumping<br />
wells in the command area and availability of<br />
recharge water.<br />
� The design of the catchment shall be deeper<br />
366<br />
and narrower. We will study the reason later in the<br />
article.<br />
� Design of recharge well<br />
Having selected the site to give optimum<br />
ground water movement from recharge point to the<br />
pumping point the next crucial step is to design a<br />
recharge well to achieve optimum recharging<br />
efficiency and make use of the natural water energy<br />
to the maximum extent possible. To understand the<br />
phenomena taking place let us first understand the<br />
well hydraulics concept. (Please note that only the<br />
concept is highlighted and not the exact calculations<br />
to simplify the topic for ease of understanding the<br />
basic concept before going into the intricacies of<br />
calculations).<br />
� Well hydraulics<br />
The fundamental principle : Simplifying the whole<br />
process the recharge is basically to inject water into<br />
the aquifers by utilizing the static head of the water<br />
above the aquifer level. It is a sort of Injection well<br />
where no positive pumping is used to inject the<br />
water. This means that the possibility and rate at<br />
which the water will be injected into the aquifer is<br />
basically a function of available static head above<br />
the aquifer being recharged. This can be explained<br />
as a short expression as follows –<br />
The Rate of Recharge Q R á Effective Head H eff<br />
………………(1)<br />
The Effective Head H eff : The effective head is the<br />
useful injection pressure available. In a recharge well<br />
condition there is a head of recharge water collected<br />
above the well which is the distance between the<br />
top of the water level in the recharge structure and<br />
the bottom of the aquifer being recharged<br />
(henceforth termed as H R and there is a hydrostatic<br />
pressure of water already available in the aquifer<br />
acting opposite to each other and there are several<br />
points of frictional head losses (henceforth termed<br />
as H f ) which consume the available head. The<br />
hydrostatic pressure of water inside the aquifer is<br />
the distance between the static water level in the<br />
well in absence of recharge water and the bottom of<br />
the aquifer being recharged (henceforth termed as<br />
H aq ). Fig. 1 clarifies the terminology. Accordingly<br />
the effective head can be expressed as follows –
H eff = H R – H aq – H f …….. ……… ….. (2)<br />
A simple guideline can be inferred from this is<br />
“Higher the recharge head, lower the static head of<br />
aquifer and lesser the frictional head losses higher<br />
is the Effective head and higher is the recharge rate”.<br />
The Frictional Head Losses H f : Following are the<br />
points causing frictional loss of head in a recharge<br />
well –<br />
� Filter pit Media<br />
Every recharge well must have a filter pit to reduce<br />
the turbidity of water entering the well to reduce<br />
the chocking of screens, filter pack (i.e. gravel pack)<br />
and formation. The sand media bed used in the filter<br />
pit will cause frictional head loss (henceforth termed<br />
as H fpm ). This is dependent upon the permeability of<br />
the sand media and its grain size and depth of media<br />
bed.<br />
� Filter pit Underdrain system<br />
At the bottom of the sand media there has to be an<br />
underdrain system for collection of percolated water<br />
and direct it inside the well pipe assembly and to<br />
retain the filter pit media. This causes some frictional<br />
head loss (henceforth termed as H fpu ).<br />
� Well casing<br />
When the water flows down the casing friction with<br />
the casing wall will cause frictional head loss<br />
(henceforth termed as H fc ).<br />
� Screens<br />
When the water passes thru the slots of well casing<br />
frictional head loss takes place which is dependent<br />
on the permeability of the screens used (Henceforth<br />
termed as H fs ). Higher the screen permeability<br />
lesser is the frictional head loss.<br />
� Filter pack (Gravel pack)<br />
The gravel packing around the screen will cause<br />
some frictional head loss depending upon its<br />
permeability and grain size. (Henceforth termed as<br />
H fg ).<br />
� The Aquifer formation<br />
The water has to then travel thru the aquifer<br />
formation and there could be significant head loss<br />
367<br />
due to friction of the formation material. This is<br />
dependent upon the permeability of the aquifer<br />
material, the aquifer thickness and aquifer depth<br />
from the well wall which is variable. This is<br />
henceforth termed as H fformation .<br />
• Hydraulic equilibrium and radius of<br />
influence<br />
When the water enters the aquifer it would have<br />
already suffered all the frictional losses as explained<br />
above and will have residual effective head pressure<br />
H effR =H R - H aq – H fpm -H fpu -H fc -H fs -H fg .<br />
The water then will keep penetrating the<br />
aquifer till the time its residual effective head is<br />
completely decayed by the formation friction. In<br />
other words the penetration will continue till the<br />
residual effective head becomes zero. This will be<br />
state of hydraulic equilibrium and recharging beyond<br />
this point in the aquifer will not take place. Hence<br />
this point will be the extreme point of recharge<br />
influence and hence the distance of this point to the<br />
center of the well can be termed as “The Radius of<br />
Influence”.<br />
It can be inferred from this discussion that “the<br />
radius of influence of recharge is the distance<br />
between a point away from the wall of the well (i.e.<br />
outer surface of the gravel pack) at which the total<br />
frictional head of the aquifer formation of thickness<br />
b equals the residual effective head and the center<br />
of the well casing”.<br />
Cone of Recharge, Draw up and radius of<br />
influence<br />
A cone of depression gets formed in a pumping<br />
well and draw down occurs when the pumping is<br />
started. Similarly in a recharge well an inverted cone<br />
is formed and draw up (henceforth termed as H du<br />
takes place whereby the water level rises up above<br />
the static water level and radius of influence is the<br />
radius of the cone or the distance of the point of no<br />
draw up to the center of the well. The formula for<br />
estimating the rate of recharge based on cone of<br />
recharge is as follows:<br />
Q R = KbH du /(528*log(r o /r w ))<br />
Where,<br />
Q R = Rate of recharge in gpm<br />
K = Hydraulic conductivity in gpd/ft 2
= Aquifer thickness in ft.<br />
H du = Draw up in ft.<br />
r o = Radius of influence in ft.<br />
r w = Radius of well in ft.<br />
Diminishing rate of recharge :<br />
Based on above discussion it can be said that<br />
the recharge will stop when the effective head H eff<br />
becomes zero. This will happen due to several<br />
reasons – (1) Increasing aquifer hydrostatic pressure<br />
H aq (2)Falling recharge water level H R (3) Increasing<br />
frictional losses due to choking of filter pit media,<br />
screens, rusting of casing pipes, chocking of gravel<br />
pack and formation.<br />
Assuming all other factors remaining same an<br />
important phenomena takes place continuously is<br />
that with the recharging of aquifer the hydrostatic<br />
pressure of the aquifer keeps increasing if there is<br />
no pumping from that aquifer or if the rate of<br />
transportation of water from the recharge point to<br />
the pumping point in the command area is lesser<br />
than the recharge rate. This will cause diminishing<br />
rate of recharge whereby the rate of recharge will<br />
gradually keep falling upto a point where it equals<br />
the rate of transportation of water from the recharge<br />
point to the pumping point. At this point an<br />
equilibrium state will occur and recharge will<br />
continue at this rate if all other conditions remain<br />
constant.<br />
Therefore for a sustainable recharge rate our<br />
site selection must ensure the rate of transportation<br />
of water from the recharge point to the point of use<br />
as close as possible to the recharge rate.<br />
Upper limit of Recharge pressure on aquifer :<br />
The maximum pressure of recharge water being<br />
injected into the aquifer shall be such that it does<br />
not cause fracturing of the formation of the aquifer.<br />
If fracturing occurs then there is usually a severe<br />
loss in hydraulic conductivity because the bedding<br />
planes are disturbed. On the other hand while<br />
recharging into massive consolidated rock formation<br />
fracturing may increase the rate of recharge (ref.<br />
Howard and Fast,1970). The pressure that will cause<br />
fracturing varies widely depending upon the nature<br />
of formation and the designer must determine this<br />
prior to designing the recharge system.<br />
Fracturing pressure ranges from as low as 11.3<br />
k Pa/Meter for poorly consolidated coastal plain<br />
368<br />
sediments to 27.1 k Pa/Meter for crystalline rock.<br />
(Warner and Lehr,1981).<br />
As a general guideline the for most recharge<br />
wells in unconsolidated sediments the recharge<br />
pressure shall be controlled so that the positive head<br />
does not exceed a value equal to 0.2 times the depth<br />
from the ground level to the top of the screen or<br />
filter pack. (Olsthoorn, 1982).<br />
� Design considerations : Following are the<br />
major elements of a recharge well –<br />
• The Filter pit or collection pit as it is popularly<br />
known.<br />
• Well casing<br />
• Well screens<br />
• Filter/Gravel pack<br />
Now we will discuss important design<br />
considerations while designing these elements-<br />
The Filter pit<br />
FUNCTION OF THE FILTER PIT<br />
• Main function is to reduce turbidity of raw<br />
water to reduce chocking of gravel pack<br />
• Keep feeding filtered water to Recharge well<br />
IMPORTANCE OF FILTER PIT<br />
• To sustain the Recharge process<br />
• To maintain the Recharge rate<br />
DESIGN CONSIDERATION<br />
• Filter media should not get clogged<br />
• The System to collect percolated water should<br />
have following features –<br />
1. Large % open area for minimal frictional head<br />
loss.<br />
2. Facility for cleaning or backwash<br />
3. It is preferred to be made from non-corrosive<br />
material because during the period of no recharge<br />
this will be exposed to atmosphere.<br />
DIFFERENT DESIGN FOR FILTER PIT<br />
1. Vertical flow filter pit<br />
2. Horizontal flow filter<br />
1. VERTICAL FLOW FILTER<br />
DESIGN
• Layers of gravel/media laid horizontally in filter<br />
pit<br />
• Some collection system is at bottom<br />
• Water percolates vertically downwards thru<br />
filter media and goes into the well assembly.<br />
DISADVANTAGE / LIMITATIONS OF<br />
VERTICAL FLOW FILTER<br />
• Highly susceptible to clogging due to vertically<br />
settling impurities in water and floating matters<br />
which reduces permeability of filter media.<br />
• Difficult to clean or back wash.<br />
• No water holding facility<br />
• Lot of manpower and cost required to clean<br />
the media.<br />
• Recharge tubewell cannot be used as a pumping<br />
well during summer<br />
• Monitoring the recharge process is very<br />
difficult.<br />
• The life and effectiveness of such filter pit is<br />
not very long.<br />
2. HORIZONTAL FLOW FILTER<br />
DESIGN<br />
369<br />
• Two cylindrical V-wire screen are fitted<br />
concentric to each other<br />
• Annular space is filled with graded gravel/<br />
coarse sand<br />
• The central screen is fitted directly to the<br />
assembly of well<br />
• The water by its head pressure –flow thru outer<br />
screen via the gravel pack and pass thru the fine<br />
screen and enter the well assembly<br />
ADVANTAGE OF HORIZONTAL FLOW<br />
FILTER<br />
• The floating matter will float on the water and<br />
will not block the screen.<br />
• The heavy matter and silt will be settled at<br />
bottom of the pit not clogging the filter media and<br />
can be easily cleaned.<br />
• The outer screen will not allow clogging of the<br />
filter media<br />
• Easy to clean by back washing or by removing<br />
the gravels<br />
• The filter media can be changed very fast.<br />
• The filter pit has the facility to hold the water.<br />
• The recharge process can be measured very<br />
easily.<br />
• The recharge tube well can be used as a<br />
pumping well during summer.<br />
• The recharge tube well can be used as a monitor<br />
well for getting the details for underground water<br />
quality/quantity.<br />
Well Casing -<br />
The casing shall have smooth inner surface for<br />
minimum friction. The casing diameter shall be<br />
selected based on the targeted recharge rate so as to<br />
keep the down hole velocity within a maximum limit<br />
of 1.5 Meter/Sec.<br />
Well Screens -<br />
This is another important element, which has<br />
great bearing on the frictional loss and sustenance<br />
of recharge well and its mechanical life.<br />
Following are peculiar phenomena in a<br />
recharge well as compared to a pumping well which<br />
puts more responsibility on the well screens –<br />
� In a pumping well the sediment sand that is<br />
smaller than the screen slot is pumped out of the<br />
aquifer and gravel pack and the well is cleaned after
some pumping. Where as in a recharge well the raw<br />
water impurities smaller than screen slot is fed into<br />
the gravel pack and is never pumped out but it<br />
gradually chokes the gravel pack reducing its<br />
permeability over a period of time.<br />
� The raw water collected from rain or river<br />
generally has higher mineral contents and hence<br />
causes more incrustation which causes the blockage<br />
of screen and gravel pack over a period of time.<br />
Hence, it is recommended that double the<br />
length of screen shall be used in a recharge well<br />
as compared to a pumping well of the same size<br />
to have higher cushion in screen length and to<br />
control the entrance velocity to reduce<br />
incrustation. The maximum entrance velocity<br />
recommended for a recharge well is 0.015 Meters/<br />
Sec.<br />
Now, we cannot use length of the screens<br />
higher than the thickness of available aquifer as there<br />
will be no practical meaning of it. Therefore we must<br />
use screen design that offers sufficiently large %<br />
open area to restrict the entrance velocity within the<br />
maximum limit with the available thickness of the<br />
aquifer.<br />
This makes V-Wire screens the ideal choice<br />
for an efficient and long lasting recharge well.<br />
Moreover to restore the permeability of screen<br />
and gravel pack the recharge well shall be<br />
redeveloped after every monsoon. The most<br />
effective method of removing incrustation is acid<br />
treatment. Hence if the material of construction for<br />
screens is such that it allows acid treatment without<br />
any mechanical failure than it significantly helps to<br />
keep restoring the recharge capacity of the well and<br />
ultimately increases the useful life of the recharge<br />
well significantly.<br />
Hence it is recommended that SS 304<br />
Stainless steel, which allows acid treatment, shall<br />
be used for screens.<br />
� � �<br />
370<br />
Fine Gravel/ coarse sand pack-<br />
Fine Gravel/coarse sand pack design can be<br />
done in the same way as for a pumping well. The<br />
particle size distribution for fine gravel/coarse sand<br />
shall be decided based on the sediment size<br />
distribution and screen slot.<br />
� Conclusions :<br />
� It is of utmost importance and priority to plan<br />
systematic artificial recharge projects for identified<br />
command areas and water drawal rates.<br />
� Selection of recharge structure site shall be<br />
carefully done to achieve optimum transport of<br />
recharge water from the recharge point to the point<br />
of usage on a sustainable basis keeping in view the<br />
phenomena of diminishing recharge as explained in<br />
this article.<br />
� Selection of aquifers to be recharged shall be<br />
carefully done based on the usage (high) ,<br />
permeability (high) and hydrostatic pressure (Low).<br />
� The recharge water collection structure shall be<br />
designed to provide required head to achieve the<br />
desired recharge rate.<br />
� Design of all the elements of recharge well shall<br />
be done so as to have optimum frictional losses and<br />
reduction in raw water turbidity for higher recharge<br />
rate for a longer duration.<br />
� SS 304 Stainless steel V-Wire screen technology<br />
be used in filter pit as well screen for minimal<br />
frictional losses, lesser entrance velocity, reduced<br />
incrustation, acid cleaning and longer corrosion life<br />
for a long lasting efficient recharge well.<br />
� This article is an attempt to provide guidelines<br />
and approach in planning a recharge project which<br />
shall be applied judiciously by the planner<br />
depending upon the actual site conditions from case<br />
to case. Further research work remains to be carried<br />
out on the guidelines given in this article to arrive<br />
at exact hydraulic expressions to estimate the<br />
theoretical recharge rate and conduct laboratory<br />
studies to verify the theory.
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
64. Solar Ponds : An Effective Method of Power (Energy) Generation and<br />
Water Conservation<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Water is a wellspring of our lives. Our Earth<br />
seems to be unique among the other known celestial<br />
bodies. With two thirds of the earth’s surface covered<br />
by water and the human body consisting of 75<br />
percent of it, it is evidently clear that water is one of<br />
the prime elements responsible for life on earth.<br />
Water regenerates and is redistributed through<br />
evaporation, making it seem endlessly renewable.<br />
It is a resource, which communities managed with<br />
*Ishan Purohit *M. L. Dewal *V. N. Kala<br />
Abstract<br />
Energy and Electricity generation from water through hydro electric power plants is<br />
an effective, efficient and environmentally renewable energy technology. But power<br />
generation from water through this method is very expansive due to involvement of huge<br />
economical/capital investment, process of migration, construction and infrastructure, high<br />
transmission and distribution losses, etc. In addition, in the mechanism of power generation<br />
using the effect of tides i.e. tidal energy water is the primary resource. Water is also used for<br />
power generation in steam (coal based) and nuclear power plants which contribute a huge<br />
fraction of emissions (Fly ash, SOx, NOx and GHG) and hence create the serious<br />
environmental problems. A large amount of water is needed as a heat transfer media between<br />
boiler and turbine for electricity generation in steam power plants which contributes more<br />
than 70% of installed power generation capacity of India.<br />
Utilizing the energy of sun; electricity can also be generated from water on small<br />
scale using solar ponds. In the present article the electricity generation and generation of<br />
industrial process heat from solar pond has been introduced. The present scenario of the<br />
world primary energy demand, availability and its projection has ben outlined on the basis<br />
of review of the International Energy Outlook 2006. The other domestic and commercial<br />
applications based on solar pond technology have also been highlighted. The design,<br />
development, modern trends and potential along with their present status in the country<br />
with other applications has been discussed in the present study. Generation of heat and<br />
electricity through solar pond technology may effectively contribute to water conservation,<br />
waste water treatment and hence the protection of environment.<br />
Key Words: Solar radiation, solar pond, industrial process heat, convective and nonconvective<br />
solar ponds.<br />
remarkable skill over many generations. About 97%<br />
is salty sea water, and 2% is frozen in glaciers and<br />
polar ice caps. Thus that 1% of the world’s water<br />
supply is a precious commodity necessary for our<br />
survival. Supply of drinking water can be solved<br />
adopting the technologies based on evaporation like<br />
solar distillation and commercial desalination etc.<br />
India is blessed with good water resource availability<br />
as the primary factor for human survival and growth.<br />
The country has a vast costal area and its northern<br />
*G. B. Pant Engineering College Ghurdauri, Pauri, Uttaranchal 246 001, INDIA<br />
Fax: 01368-2280330, Telephone: +91-9411050117 E-mail: purohit_ishan@yahoo.com<br />
371
Himalayan region is the source of a number of rivers<br />
which are the major of sweet and potable water used<br />
for drinking, domestic, industrial, transportation and<br />
agricultural applications. But due to the expansion<br />
of industries, uncontrolled population, huge infractural<br />
development and exponentially increasing<br />
demand energy and resource parameters for<br />
sustainable living, entire world is suffering from<br />
water crisis.<br />
On the other hand energy is also an essential<br />
requirement for human survival and growth.<br />
Electricity is the most utilizable form of energy and<br />
widely used for domestic and industrial applications.<br />
Water is not only used in domestic and agricultural<br />
sectors but more of available fraction is used by<br />
industrial sector. Due to the unutilisability of salty<br />
water in domestic/agriculture and industrial (due to<br />
the corrosion problem by salts gradients in water)<br />
sectors; the demand of potable of pure water is<br />
rapidly increasing. In industries a large amount of<br />
water is required for the applications based on<br />
evaporative cooling in power plants, thermal<br />
industries and buildings, boiler feed water, process<br />
water, irrigation of surrounds of industries etc.<br />
In the power sector of the country more than<br />
70 % of the electricity is generated through steam<br />
power plants where coal is used as the primary fuel<br />
and water is used as the evaporative medium for<br />
heat transfer. Similarly in nuclear and gas based<br />
power plants; water is needed. Electricity generation<br />
from hydro power plants is in the second position<br />
in the country and is accepted to increase gradually.<br />
Water is also an essential requirement of refineries<br />
and manufacturing industries. The remaining<br />
processed water of the power plants, industries and<br />
other sectors creates serious water and hence<br />
environmental problem. Some developed countries<br />
of the world already shifted towards refining of the<br />
waste water to fulfill the water demand; but refining<br />
technologies are quite expansive especially the<br />
developing countries like India; where around 40%<br />
population is still below the poverty line. Only the<br />
proper planning and implacable policies can provide<br />
the solution of water conservation and utilization<br />
of waste water for other application. Solar pond can<br />
be an effective technology towards the electricity<br />
generation, water & energy conservation and hence<br />
the protection of environment.<br />
372<br />
2. International Energy Outlook: World Energy<br />
Scenario<br />
According to the International Energy Outlook<br />
2005 (IEO2005) world primary energy consumption<br />
is projected to increase by 57% from 2002 to 2025.<br />
In its reference case, world marketed energy<br />
consumption is projected to increase on average by<br />
2.0 percent per year over the 23-year forecast<br />
horizon from 2002 to 2025-slightly lower than the<br />
2.2 percent average annual growth rate from 1970<br />
to 2002. Worldwide, total energy use in projected<br />
to grow from 412 quadrillion British Thermal units<br />
(Btu) in 2002 to 553 quadrillion Btu in 2015 and<br />
645 quadrillion Btu in 2025.<br />
2.1 World Primary Energy Resources<br />
Use of all energy sources increases over the<br />
forecast period. Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and<br />
coal) continue to supply much of the energy used<br />
worldwide, and oil remains the dominant energy<br />
source, given its importance in the transportation<br />
and industrial end-use sectors. World OIL use is<br />
expected to grow from 78 million barrels/day in<br />
2002 to 103 million barrels/day in 2015 and 119<br />
million barrels/day in 2025. The projected increment<br />
in worldwide oil use would require an increment in<br />
world oil production capacity of 42 million barrels/<br />
day over 2002 levels.<br />
Natural GAS is projected to be the fastest<br />
growing component of world primary energy<br />
consumption in IEO2005. Consumption of natural<br />
gas worldwide increases in the forecast by an<br />
average of 2.3 % annually from 2002 to 2025,<br />
compared with projected annual growth rates of 1.9<br />
% for oil consumption and 2.0 % for coal<br />
consumption. From 2002 to 2025, consumption of<br />
natural gas is projected to increase by 69 %, from<br />
92 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) to 156 Tcf, and its share<br />
of total energy consumption is projected to grow<br />
from 23 %to 25%. The electric power sector<br />
accounts for 51 % of the total incremental growth<br />
in worldwide natural gas demand over the forecast<br />
period.<br />
World COAL consumption is projected to<br />
increase from 5,262 million short tons (Mst) in 2002<br />
to 7,245 Mst in 2015, at an average rate of 2.5<br />
percent per year. From 2015 to 2025, the projected<br />
rate of increase in world coal consumption slows to
1.3 % annually, and the total energy consumption in<br />
2025 is projected at 8,226 Mst. Of the coal produced<br />
worldwide in 2002, 65 %was supplied to electric<br />
power producers and 31 % to industrial consumers.<br />
In the industrial sector coal is an important input for<br />
the manufacture of steel and for the production for<br />
the manufacture of steel and for the production of<br />
steam and direct heat for other industrial applications.<br />
Coal is expected to maintain its importance as an<br />
energy source in both the electric power and industrial<br />
sectors, with the two sectors combined accounting<br />
for virtually all the growth in coal use in the midterm<br />
forecast.<br />
World net electricity consumption nearly<br />
doubles in the reference case forecast, 14,275 billion<br />
kilowatt-hours in 2002 to 21,400 billion kilowatthours<br />
in 2015 and 26,018 billion kilowatt-hours in<br />
2025. Coal and natural gas are expected to remain<br />
the most important fuels for electricity generation<br />
throughout the forecast, accounting for 62 percent<br />
of the energy used for electricity production in 2025.<br />
2.2 Environmental Aspects<br />
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is one of the most<br />
relevant greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.<br />
Anthropogenic i.e. human caused emissions of<br />
carbon dioxide result primarily from the combustion<br />
of fossil fuels for energy, and as a result world energy<br />
use has emerged at the center of the climate change<br />
debate. The world carbon dioxide emissions are<br />
projected to rise from 24.4 billion metric tons (Bmt)<br />
in 2002 to 30.2 Bmt in 2010 and 38.8 Bmt in 2025.<br />
According to this projection, world CO 2 emissions<br />
in 2025 would exceed 1990 levels by 72 %. Much<br />
of the projected increase in carbon dioxide emissions<br />
occurs among the emerging nations, accompanying<br />
large increase in fossil fuel use. The economics<br />
account for 68 percent of the projected increment<br />
in carbon dioxide emissions between 2002 and 2025.<br />
Combustion of petroleum products contributes 5,733<br />
(Mmt) to the projected increase from 2001, coal<br />
4,120 MmT and natural gas the remaining 3,374<br />
Mmt. As a result, the absolute increment in CO 2<br />
emissions from coal combustion is larger than the<br />
increment in emissions from natural gas<br />
combustion. CO 2 emissions from energy use in the<br />
industrialized countries are expected to increase by<br />
4,009 Mmt, to 15,643 Mmt in 2025, or by about<br />
1.2% per year. Emissions from the combustion of<br />
373<br />
petroleum products account for about 42% of the<br />
total increment expected for the industrialized world,<br />
gas 33 %, and coal 24%.<br />
3. Energy Consumption in India<br />
Owing to population growth and economic<br />
development, India’s energy consumption has been<br />
increasing at one of the fastest rates in the world.<br />
India, the world’s sixth largest energy consumer,<br />
plans major energy infrastructure investments to<br />
keep up with increasing demand-particularly for<br />
electric power. India is the world’s third-largest<br />
producer of coal, and relies on coal for more than<br />
half of its total energy needs. India’s economic<br />
growth is continuing its recovery from a slowdown<br />
that took place in 2002, which was mainly<br />
attributable to weak demand for manufactured<br />
exports and the effects of a drought on agricultural<br />
output. Real growth in the country’s gross domestic<br />
product (GDP) was 4.0% for 2002, surging to 8.2%<br />
in 2003 and a projected 6.4% for 2004 and 6.2% for<br />
2005. Oil accounts for about 30% of India’s total<br />
energy consumption. India’s average oil production<br />
level (total liquids) for 2003 was 819,000 bbl/d, of<br />
which 6, 60, 000 bbl/d was crude oil. India had net<br />
oil imports of over 1.5 million bbl/d in 2004. Indian<br />
consumption of natural gas has risen faster than any<br />
other fuel in recent years. From only 0.6 Tcf per<br />
year in 1995, natural gas use was nearly 0.9 Tcf in<br />
2002 and is projected to reach 1.2 Tcf in 2010 and<br />
1.6 Tcf in 2015. Coal is the dominant commercial<br />
fuel in India, satisfying more than 70% India’s<br />
energy demand. Power generation accounts for<br />
about 70% of India’s coal consumption, followed<br />
by heavy industry. Coal consumption is projected<br />
in the International Energy Annual 2004 to increase<br />
to 430 million short tons in 2010, up from 359 Mst<br />
in 2000.<br />
India is trying to expand electric power<br />
generation capacity, as current generation is<br />
seriously below peak demand. Although about 80%<br />
of the population has access to electricity, power<br />
outages are common, and the unreliability of<br />
electricity supplies is severe enough to constitute a<br />
constraint on the country’s overall economic<br />
development. As of January 2004, total installed<br />
Indian power generating capacity was 126,000 MW.<br />
The country needs 9% of the annual growth in<br />
electricity. This needs a huge economic investment
in power sector which is very difficult in developing<br />
country like India.<br />
It has been concluded by IEO2005 that the<br />
developing countries mainly China and India will<br />
be the major energy consumer in coming 10-15 years<br />
due to the betterment in economy and rapid<br />
infrastructural development. At present, the<br />
changing phase of world economic policy i.e.<br />
globalization, privatization and liberalization the<br />
infrastructural development is going on in a very<br />
rapid speed hence the energy demand is continuously<br />
increasing. In developing countries like India every<br />
sector is strongly being affected by energy policy of<br />
the country. Therefore the gap between demand and<br />
supply side is increasing. The traditional energy<br />
sources also creating huge environmental pollutions<br />
and causing greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion<br />
etc. India being a CDM (bounded by Kyoto Protocol)<br />
country can not go through only coal based power<br />
generation. Therefore alternating and environmental<br />
friendly energy sources are very necessary for<br />
sustainable development in the country like India.<br />
Non-conventional energy resources can play an<br />
important role in this direction.<br />
3. Solar Energy : The Best Renewable Energy<br />
Option for India<br />
The sun is the largest source of renewable<br />
energy and this energy is abundantly available in<br />
all parts of the earth. It is in fact one of the best<br />
alternatives to the non-renewable sources of energy.<br />
One way to tap solar energy is through the use of<br />
solar ponds. Solar ponds are large-scale energy<br />
collectors with integral heat storage for supplying<br />
thermal energy. It can be use for various applications,<br />
such as process heating, water desalination,<br />
refrigeration, drying and power generation.<br />
Renewable energy is considered a suitable<br />
alternative for variety of applications. Efforts are<br />
continuously being stepped up on global basis to<br />
harness renewable energy sources for the benefit of<br />
peoples and also the society as a whole. In view of<br />
this, solar energy technologies have attracted<br />
significant attention of the researchers all over the<br />
world. The sun is the primary source for most forms<br />
of energy found on Earth. Solar energy is clean,<br />
abundant, widespread, and renewable. These include<br />
solar thermal as well as photovoltaic technologies<br />
while the latter represents direct conversion of solar<br />
374<br />
energy into electricity, the former refers to the<br />
applications where solar energy is used as heat. India<br />
being a tropical country is blessed with good<br />
sunshine over most parts, and the number of clear<br />
sunny days in a year also being quite high. India is<br />
in the sunny belt of the world. The country receives<br />
solar energy equivalent to more than 5,000 trillion<br />
kWh per year, which is far more than its total annual<br />
energy consumption. The daily average global<br />
radiation is around 5.0 k Wh/m 2 in northeastern and<br />
hilly areas to about 7.0 kWh/m 2 in western regions<br />
and cold dessert areas with the sunshine hours<br />
ranging between 2300 and 3200 per year.<br />
4. Solar Ponds<br />
A solar pond refers to a segment (except<br />
charging and discharging operations) large body of<br />
water with black bottom and capable of collecting<br />
and storing solar energy. The solar pond combines<br />
solar energy collection and sensible heat storage.<br />
Temperature inversions have been observed in<br />
natural lakes having high concentration gradients<br />
of dissolved salts (i.e. concentrated solution at<br />
bottom and dilute solution at the top). This<br />
phenomenon suggested the possibility of<br />
constructing large-scale horizontal solar collectors<br />
as ponds. Non-convective solar ponds have been<br />
proposed as a simple relatively inexpensive method<br />
of collecting and storing solar energy on a large<br />
scale. The two most fundamental characteristics of<br />
solar energy, namely its diluteness and intermittent<br />
nature, are also the reasons why it is not being<br />
harnessed on a large scale at present. The solar pond<br />
works on a very simple principle. It is well-known<br />
that water or air is heated they become lighter and<br />
rise upward e.g. a hot air balloon. Similarly, in an<br />
ordinary pond, the sun’s rays heat the water and the<br />
heated water from within the pond rises and reaches<br />
the top but loses the heat into the atmosphere. The<br />
net result is that the pond water remains at the<br />
atmospheric temperature. The solar pond restricts<br />
this tendency by dissolving salt in the bottom layer<br />
of the pond making it too heavy to rise.<br />
A solar pond serves the dual purpose of<br />
collection and storage of solar energy. In the solar<br />
ponds, water is the medium for the storage and direct<br />
absorption of solar radiation and solar pond is<br />
categorized generally convective as well as nonconvective<br />
ponds. Natural ponds convert solar
Figure 1a. Schematic diagram of solar pond<br />
Figure 1b. Energy extraction through solar pond<br />
radiation into heat, but the heat is quickly lost through<br />
convection in the pond and evaporation from the<br />
surface. These are large-scale energy collectors with<br />
integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy.<br />
It can be use for various applications, such as process<br />
heating, water desalination, refrigeration, drying and<br />
Figure 2. Various temperature zones of a solar pond<br />
375<br />
power generation.<br />
A solar pond has three zones. The top zone is<br />
the surface zone, or UCZ (Upper Convective Zone),<br />
which is at atmospheric temperature and has little<br />
salt content. The bottom zone is very hot, 70°– 85°<br />
C, and is very salty. It is this zone that collects and<br />
stores solar energy in the form of heat, and is,<br />
therefore, known as the storage zone or LCZ (Lower<br />
Convective Zone). Separating these two zones is the<br />
important gradient zone or NCZ (Non-Convective<br />
Zone). Here the salt content increases as depth<br />
increases, thereby creating a salinity or density<br />
gradient. If we consider a particular layer in this<br />
zone, water of that layer cannot rise, as the layer of<br />
water above has less salt content and is, therefore,<br />
lighter. Similarly, the water from this layer cannot<br />
fall as the water layer below has a higher salt content<br />
and is, therefore, heavier. This gradient zone acts as<br />
a transparent insulator permitting sunlight to reach<br />
the bottom zone but also entrapping it there. The<br />
trapped (solar) energy is then withdrawn from the<br />
pond in the form of hot brine from the storage zone.<br />
4.1 Convective Solar Pond<br />
The convective solar pond reduces heat loss<br />
by being covered by a transparent membrane or<br />
glazing. One type of solar pond uses a plastic tube<br />
filled with water. Each pond module includes a long<br />
narrow plastic bag measuring container water 5-10<br />
cm deep. The bag has a transparent top to allow<br />
transmission of sunlight and to prevent evaporation<br />
losses. The bottom of bag is black to absorb sunlight.<br />
An insulation layer is provided beneath the plastic<br />
bag to minimize heat losses to the ground. One or<br />
two layers may be arched over the bag of water to<br />
suppress convective and radiative losses. In this type
of solar pond, the hot water is removed late in the<br />
afternoon and stored in insulated reservoirs. Glazing<br />
materials for the solar pond may include Polyvinyl<br />
Chloride (PVC) film and clear acrylic panels. The<br />
panels covering the plastic bags screen out<br />
ultraviolet (UV) radiation and greatly increase the<br />
life of the plastic bags.<br />
Figure 2. Cross section of a shallow solar pond<br />
4.2 Non-convective Solar Ponds<br />
These solar ponds prevent heat losses by<br />
inhibiting the convection to forces caused by thermal<br />
buoyancy. In convective solar ponds, solar radiation<br />
is transmitted through the water to the bottom, where<br />
it is absorbed; in turn, the water adjacent to the<br />
bottom is heated. Natural buoyancy forces cause the<br />
heated water to rise, and the heat is ultimately<br />
released to the atmosphere. The collector of pond<br />
will be much more effective if the convective heat<br />
dissipation is impeded. The non convective solar<br />
pond is similar to the convective one but a layer of<br />
still water is used as an insulator rather than the<br />
normal glazing and air space. The three methods to<br />
accomplish the non-convecting mode of the pond<br />
and to maintain its stability.<br />
Figure 3. Schematic of a solar pond with vertical<br />
concentration gradient<br />
4.2.1 Salt Stabilized Pond<br />
It is a non-convecting body of fluid contained<br />
by an impervious bottom liner. An artificial salt<br />
solution density gradient is achieved by<br />
376<br />
superimposing layers of decreasing salinity. Batches<br />
of brine can be mixed in a small evaporation pond,<br />
and than pumped into the solar pond through a<br />
horizontal diffuser floating on the surface, which is<br />
a non-convective zone. The incident solar radiation<br />
penetrates the water surface and a fraction of it<br />
reaches the bottom after crossing the layers of<br />
varying density. This energy is trapped near the<br />
bottom due to opaqueness of water for far-infrared<br />
gradient. The main advantages of salt-stabilized<br />
ponds are; it serves as an efficient storage,<br />
convective heat dissipation is suppressed without<br />
any additives, membrane etc.<br />
Figure 4a. Cross section of a non-convective salt solar<br />
pond (with tedlar cover)<br />
Figure 4b. Cross section of a prototype economic kind<br />
of non-convective salt solar pond<br />
Figure 4<br />
4.2.2 Partitioned Salt stabilized pond<br />
This pond was proposed for space heating<br />
applications. In these ponds the convecting and nonconvecting<br />
zones are separated by a transparent<br />
membrane or partition. The use of partition allows<br />
a fresh water convecting zone which can reduce the<br />
extraction problems and reduces the salt<br />
requirement. The main advantages of these type of<br />
solar ponds are; they are collection-cum-storage type<br />
ponds, bottom and top insulations are not required,<br />
in-pond heat exchanger may be practical.
Figure 5. Cross-section of partitioned<br />
salt-stabilized solar pond<br />
4.2.3 Viscosity Stabilized Pond<br />
This type of pond is based on a similar concept<br />
to that of the partitioned salt-stabilized pond except<br />
that in this case of non-convecting layer contains<br />
thickeners for stabilization rather than a salt gradient.<br />
Polymers and detergents, oil, water gels are<br />
considered to be the required thickeners. The main<br />
advantages of these type of solar ponds are; separate<br />
storage and bottom insulation is not required, it has<br />
reduces diffusion effect and in pond heat exchanger<br />
is practical and energy extraction is simpler.<br />
Figure 6. Cross sectional view of golled solar pond<br />
5. Applications of Solar Pond<br />
5.1 Electricity Generation<br />
A solar pond can effectively be used to generate<br />
electricity by driving a thermo electric device or an<br />
organic Rankine Cycle engine – a turbine powered<br />
by evaporating an organic fluid with a low boiling<br />
point. The concept of solar pond for power<br />
production holds great promise in those areas where<br />
there is sufficient incident solar radiation and terrain<br />
and soil conditions allow for construction and<br />
377<br />
operation of large area solar pond necessary to<br />
generate meaningful quantities of electrical energy.<br />
Even low temperatures heat that is obtained from<br />
solar pond can be converted into electrical power.<br />
5.1 Space Heating<br />
In space heating, salt gradient pond proves to<br />
be cheaper than the conventional collector and<br />
storage system. A pond can carry the entire heat load,<br />
without depending upon supplementary sources. It<br />
is very useful in crop drying; where a large quantity<br />
of heat is required for a short period; and heating<br />
from buildings. Unusually low temperature heat is<br />
required for many of these applications, thus it is<br />
necessary to ensure simple and reliable operation<br />
of the pond by identifying problems and finding the<br />
practical solutions.<br />
5.2 Green House Solar Pond Heating System<br />
In this process heat is taken from the bottom<br />
of solar pond by circulating pond brine through<br />
plastic pipe to the shell and tube heat exchanger.<br />
Brine piping is preferred to an in-pond heat<br />
exchanger, as large in-pond heat exchanger surfaces<br />
would be necessary at low pond temperatures. The<br />
heating system is so designed that when the pond is<br />
between 40 o C to 80 o C, fresh water in the tube of the<br />
shell and tube heat exchanger is circulated to a waterto-air<br />
discharge heat exchanger in the greenhouse.<br />
When the pond is between 5 o C to 40 o C; fresh water<br />
from the tubes of the shell and the tube heat<br />
exchanger is pumped through the evaporator of a<br />
heat pump to keep the temperature of the water,<br />
being delivered to greenhouse, slightly above 40 o C.<br />
In addition to above applications, a nonconvective<br />
solar pond can also be used for salt and<br />
mineral production, solar absorption refrigeration,<br />
Rankine cycle solar engines, heating an outdoor<br />
swimming pools, drying of agricultural products and<br />
produces, hot water production for industries,<br />
distillation, industrial process heat, biomass<br />
conversion, food processing etc.<br />
5.3 Solar Pond at Bhuj (INDIA)<br />
The Bhuj Solar Pond was a research,<br />
development, and demonstration project. The<br />
construction of the 6000 m 2 pond started in 1987 at<br />
Kutch Dairy, Bhuj as a collaborative effort between<br />
Gujarat Energy Development Agency, Gujarat Dairy
Development Corporation Limited, and Tata Energy<br />
Research Institute (TERI) under the National Solar<br />
Pond programme of the Ministry of Non-<br />
Conventional Energy Sources. TERI carried out<br />
execution, operation, and maintenance of the Bhuj<br />
Solar Pond. The solar pond is 100 m long and 60 m<br />
wide and has a depth of 3.5 m. To prevent seepage<br />
of saline water, a specially developed lining scheme,<br />
comprising locally available material, has been<br />
adopted. The pond was then filled with water and<br />
4000 tonnes of common salt was dissolved in it to<br />
make dense brine. A salinity gradient was established<br />
and wave suppression nets, a sampling platform,<br />
diffuses for suction and discharge of hot brine, etc.<br />
were also installed. This pond has been successfully<br />
supplying processed heat to the dairy since<br />
September 1993, and is, at present, the largest<br />
operating solar pond in the world.<br />
6. Conclusions :<br />
Though solar ponds can be constructed<br />
anywhere, it is economical to construct them at<br />
places where there is low cost salt and bittern, good<br />
supply of sea water or water for filling and flushing,<br />
high solar radiation, and availability of land at low<br />
cost. Coastal areas in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra<br />
Pradesh, and Orissa are ideally suited for such solar<br />
ponds. In India a number of solar ponds have been<br />
installed by MNES for the generation of electricity<br />
� � �<br />
378<br />
as well as industrial process heat. The technology is<br />
in initially phase but have a large potential for power<br />
generation as well as other domestic and industrial<br />
applications.<br />
Bibliography<br />
1. Annual Report, Ministry of Non-Conventional<br />
Energy Sources, New Delhi, 2004.<br />
2. Annual Report, Ministry of Non-Conventional<br />
Energy Sources, New Delhi, 2005.<br />
3. Duffie J. A. and Beckman, Solar Engineering of<br />
thermal processes, John Welly and Sons, New York.<br />
4. Garg H. P. and J., Prakash, Solar Energy:<br />
Fundamentals and Applications, Tata McGraw Hill, New<br />
Delhi.<br />
5. IEO, International Energy Outlook: 2005,<br />
Official Energy Statistics from the U.S. Government,<br />
Washington, 2005.<br />
6. Purohit I., Testing of Solar Thermal Devices and<br />
Systems, Ph. D. Thesis, India.<br />
7. Putting Energy in the Spot Light, BP Statistical<br />
Review of World Energy, June 2005<br />
8. Sukhatme S. P., Solar Energy, Tata McGraw Hill,<br />
New Delhi, 1996.<br />
9. Tiwari G. N., (2002) Solar Energy: Fundamentals,<br />
Design Modeling and Application, Narosa Publishing<br />
House, New Delhi, India.<br />
10. www.mnes.nic.in<br />
11. www.teri.res.in<br />
www.tripod.lycos.com
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
65. An Overview of Electronic Probes for Water-Level Measurements<br />
and Recording for Agricultural and Environmental Studies<br />
Preamble<br />
Hydrologic soil examination, such as<br />
determination of the groundwater level, direction<br />
of the current of groundwater, porosity of soils, for<br />
agricultural and environmental studies needs waterlevel<br />
measurements. While various devices are<br />
available for measuring and recording water-levels<br />
in open waters, water wells, tanks, boreholes, etc.,<br />
recent probes [ 1, 2 ] based on electronically<br />
measuring and registering water-levels with data<br />
logging facility are the state-of-the-art devices. Such<br />
probes are based on pressure measurements. By<br />
attaching additional sensors, these probes also<br />
measure and record temperature and electrical<br />
conductivity of water. An overview of commercially<br />
available water-level probes and some of their<br />
properties are presented.<br />
Water-Level Measurements by Sounding Probes<br />
Sounding probes are provided with a measuring<br />
tape with graduation in centimeters. The probe is<br />
*Prof. ( Mrs.) Vijaya Agarwal<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
State-of-the-art electronic probes for water-level measurements and recording are<br />
presented. By providing additional sensors, the probes can measure temperature and<br />
conductivity of water besides the levels. The readings can be data logged. The probes are<br />
self-contained with built-in battery, sensors and data logger encased in a hermetically<br />
sealed casing. The data logging function is software programmed and the readings are<br />
downloadable to a computer. Very low battery drain gives the battery life of 8 to10 years.<br />
Commercial availability of the probes facilitates their easy adoption for agricultural and<br />
environmental studies.<br />
Key words : Water level measurements and recording, sounding probes, electronic probes,<br />
data logging.<br />
lowered in a well or a borehole. When the probe<br />
touches the water, an audible or light signal is<br />
produced. If the cable it lifted a little, the signal<br />
disappears. At this point the depth can be directly<br />
read from the measuring tape. Accuracy is of the<br />
order of +/- 0.5 cm and depends on the quality of<br />
the tape used.. The probes are available with<br />
measuring tape in several lengths mounted on a reel.<br />
Such probes are manually operated and normally<br />
non-recoding type. A few water-level sounding<br />
probes are depicted in Fig. 1.<br />
Electronic Probes<br />
Developments in microelectronics have lead<br />
to commercial availability of probes with advanced<br />
features. Electronic probes’ working is based on<br />
pressure measurement with the help of a precision<br />
pressure sensor. The pressure sensor is provided with<br />
dynamic compensation for ambient temperature and<br />
barometric pressure changes. Additional features,<br />
measurements of water conductivity and<br />
temperature, and data logging function can be<br />
*Selection Grade Assistant Professor ( Electrical Engineering ), Department of Agricultural Structures and<br />
Environmental Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Agricultural University<br />
Krishi Nagar, Adhartal P.O., Jabalpur 482 004 E-mail : vijaya.agarwal @ gmail.com Ph. : 0761 – 2681820<br />
379
incorporated in a single probe.<br />
The probe is provided with a hermetically<br />
sealed casing for protection against moisture. The<br />
casing also serves as a Faraday cage to make the<br />
probe insensitive to external electrical disturbances.<br />
It is installed in a monitoring well by suspending it<br />
by a steel wire. The probe automatically measures<br />
and registers the level, temperature and conductivity<br />
of water and stores readings in the internal memory<br />
of the data logger. As current drain is very low, the<br />
built-in battery has a lifespan of 8 to 10 years.<br />
Technical specifications of a typical probe [ 2 ] are<br />
given in Table 1. Fig. 2 depicts a typical electronic<br />
probe and Fig. 3 its field installation.<br />
Advantages of Electronic Probes<br />
The electronic probes have the following<br />
advantages:<br />
• Small diameter, the probes can be installed in<br />
small boreholes.<br />
• Hermetically sealed casing for protection<br />
against moisture and<br />
external electrical disturbances.<br />
• Accurate measurements for level, temperature<br />
and conductivity<br />
TABLE 1 : Technical Specifications<br />
380<br />
• Internal battery life 8 - 10 years.<br />
• Dynamic compensation for ambient<br />
temperature and barometric<br />
pressure changes.<br />
• Logging function programmed by a software,<br />
readings downloadable<br />
to a computer.<br />
References<br />
[1] Global Water Instrumentation (2005). WL-16<br />
Water level logger. Global Water Instrumentation<br />
Inc., Gold River, California, USA <<br />
www.globalw.com ><br />
[2] Eijkelkamp (2006). Divers – minidiver,<br />
microdiver, ceradiver and CTD diver, Product<br />
Specification Sheet, Eijkelkamp Agrisearch<br />
Equipment, Giesbeek, Netherlands.<br />
< www.eijelkamp.com ><br />
Note : Photographs of the probes from websites /<br />
product literature. Disclaimer: No preference to any<br />
particular firm by the author.<br />
With Table 1, Fig. 1 (a) – (d), Fig. 2, & Fig. 3.<br />
Physical dimensions & weight :<br />
18 to 22 mm (dia) x 90 to 183 mm (length), 55 to 150 gm (size and weight varies<br />
with model). Pressure sensor, temperature sensor, conductivity sensor, data logger<br />
and battery are encapsulated in a hermetically sealed stainless steel/ceramic housing.<br />
Power supply :<br />
Built-in battery (very low drain), typical life 8 - 10 years.<br />
Measuring ranges & accuracies :<br />
Water-level (depth) : 10 / 30 / 100 meters, +/- 0.1% of full scale.<br />
Temperature : minus 20 to plus 80 deg C, +/- 0.1 deg C.<br />
Conductivity : upto 80 mS/cm, +/- 1% of measured value.<br />
Data logging :<br />
16,000 to 48,000 measurements, at measurement frequency of 0.5 sec to 99 hours<br />
(software programmed).
Fig. 1 (a) – (d) : Water Level Sounding Probes<br />
( a ) (b ) ( c )<br />
( d )<br />
Fig. 2 : A typical Electronic Probe Fig. 3 : Installation of Electronic Probe in<br />
boreholes and in field for automatic measurement and<br />
logging of the readings<br />
� � �<br />
381
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
66. New Drinking Water Resources with Fiber Plastic Bed Rainwater<br />
Harvesting Plants to Solve Water Scarcity Problem<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Not only for human beings but for all living<br />
beings the basic requirements are food, shelter and<br />
clothing. A nation, that satisfies all these basic needs,<br />
is a developed nation. But many countries are not<br />
able to develop due to the scarcity of water and the<br />
problems of flood.<br />
Today, the water received through rain is stored<br />
in dams, ponds, wells, lakes, rivers and also in the<br />
form of underground water table. Water satisfies<br />
all the needs such as agricultural, industrial and<br />
drinking. But because of the red, brown, or milky<br />
color of water in ponds and lakes, it is unfit for<br />
drinking. Even though the ground water is colorless,<br />
it may be tasty, tasteless or salty. Only in very few<br />
places the groundwater is fit for drinking purpose.<br />
Day by day, depletion of water level occurs because<br />
huge quantity of water is sucked forth from<br />
underground water table.<br />
Besides lakes, wells, ponds and underground<br />
water, water from dams are also used by a large<br />
number of people for the purpose of drinking,<br />
*Veerappan. J<br />
Abstract<br />
Today tremendous development has taken place in different disciplines such as<br />
medicine, arts, literature, science, electricity, transport, computers and<br />
telecommunications etc. But one of the major unsolved problems in many countries is<br />
‘the water scarcity and flooding problem’. At this juncture, a Project is developed to<br />
give solution to this water scarcity problem. In this project, each fiber plastic bed<br />
plant can be extended to any extent and any type of land as required. So, through<br />
these plants sufficient drinking water can be derived in small villages, big towns and<br />
cities. This paper reports the constructed model of a Rainwater Collection Plant of<br />
this project and its performance. This paper also reports multipurpose applications of<br />
this project such as drinking, irrigation, as well as for benefit of animals. Finally, this<br />
paper sums up that all living beings essentially require water for sustenance and to a<br />
great extent this project would help in harnessing the enormous amount of rainwater<br />
and thereby ensuring good storage of surface water and ground water perennially.<br />
agricultural and industrial purposes. But these dams<br />
do not have enough water to be supplied to the<br />
regions which are far away from the dams. Also the<br />
population near the dam area has increased rapidly<br />
due to migration of people from water scarce regions.<br />
Hence people belonging to dam region are not able<br />
to meet their annual water requirements. A famous<br />
Tamil Idiom says ‘Give only when you have excess’.<br />
Thus people of dam region cannot supply water to<br />
dry region even though they are very closer to them,<br />
as they themselves do not have enough water. This<br />
may be one of the reasons that the National River<br />
Interlinking Project is delayed.<br />
These water crises are partly solved in villages<br />
of very low population with the help of Government<br />
subsidiary funds through various beneficial projects.<br />
(In India, ‘Swajaladhara’, ‘Rajiv Gandhi Drinking<br />
Water Mission’, ‘Power pump scheme’, etc.) [1].<br />
But the towns and big cities suffer due to severe<br />
water shortage, as they are located far away from<br />
the dams. In these places, water is not available<br />
even for drinking, then how hospitals, agricultural<br />
*Asst.Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering, K.L.N College of Engineering<br />
(Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai), Pottapalayam, Tamil Nadu State- 630611, INDIA.<br />
Phone No. 0452-2698971, Fax: 0452-2698280, E.mail:veerappanna@yahoo.co.in<br />
382
farms and industries hope to get adequate water.<br />
The same situation prevails in many other countries<br />
as well. Even though these towns and cities suffer<br />
from water shortage, they are well-advanced in<br />
various fields such as medicine, art, literature,<br />
electricity, telecommunications, transports, and<br />
computers etc. But these improvements lose their<br />
significance when these places are confronted with<br />
inadequate water availability.<br />
Even though nature provides sufficient water<br />
through rain, People and Governments of many<br />
countries are not able to utilize water efficiently to<br />
solve the water crises. If the same situation continues,<br />
this water crisis all over the world may lead to world<br />
war for the cause of water in future. [2].<br />
Therefore a project is developed and named<br />
as ‘ new drinking water resources with fiber plastic<br />
bed rainwater collection plants to solve water scarcity<br />
problem’. This project envisages through the<br />
construction of many artificial water resources to<br />
collect and store water from rain, considering<br />
people’s water requirements. Each plant of this<br />
project involves collecting rainwater from forests<br />
and lands using Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP)<br />
sheets and saving water in modern lakes, which have<br />
very low water evaporation. Here rainwater is<br />
collected carefully avoiding contact with the soil. So<br />
the collected water is colorless and odorless.<br />
Therefore it is fit for drinking after simple filtrations.<br />
Each plant of this project can be extended over<br />
a large extent of land easily and quickly with low<br />
capital investments. Therefore this project is very<br />
useful in hot/poor countries, deserts, islands,<br />
seashores etc. Through this project, millions and<br />
millions of people can get water for their annual<br />
water requirements.<br />
This plant can withstand heavy solar radiations<br />
and high velocity winds. They can resist the damages<br />
caused by small animals like rodents and rats.<br />
Therefore, lifetime of this plant will be comparatively<br />
longer. This project is cheaper, cost effective and<br />
viable to implement, when compared with other<br />
projects like National River Interlinking Project,<br />
Seawater Desalination Project etc.<br />
This paper reports the constructed model of a new<br />
drinking water resource with land Rainwater<br />
Collection Plant of this project and its performance.<br />
The research paper also reports the future works<br />
and developments of this plant such as a successful<br />
modern lake design, which reduces the rate of water<br />
evaporation, even though it is open. It also reports<br />
on the multipurpose applications of this project such<br />
as drinking, irrigation, as well as for the benefit of<br />
animals.<br />
383<br />
1. RAINWATER COLLECTION PLANT<br />
MODEL<br />
The ‘Rainwater Collection Plant’ helps in<br />
collecting rainwater from forest and land using fiber<br />
plastic sheets and storing water in modern lakes,<br />
which has very low water evaporation rate. The<br />
fig.1(a & b) shows a model of this Plant, which has<br />
been implemented at K.L.N. College of Engineering,<br />
Pottapalayam, Sivagangai (Dist), Tamilnadu, India.<br />
It consists of three sections namely<br />
· Rainwater collection bed<br />
· Water reservoir<br />
· Protection valley.<br />
1. a. Rainwater collection bed<br />
This rainwater collection bed (fig.1) has been<br />
constructed (6.1*6.5m 2 ) using sand, stones, fiber<br />
plastic sheets, plastic gutters etc. For this bed<br />
construction, initially the land with the required slope<br />
was prepared (76.2mm deep) and 50 to 100mm of<br />
sand is filled on that lands. Then fiber plastic sheets<br />
were spread on the sand. The rainwater falling on<br />
this fiber plastic sheets was collected into water<br />
reservoir (lake) through plastic gutters. In order to<br />
protect the fiber plastic sheets from wind, Stones<br />
(38.1mm) were spread evenly on the fiber plastic<br />
sheets. These stones also act as the filtration layer,<br />
i.e., stones, filtering the water from dust, which falls<br />
on the fiber plastic sheets.<br />
1. b. Water Storage Reservoir (lake)<br />
The rainwater collected from the collection bed<br />
is stored in this water reservoir [lake]. Table.1 shows<br />
the Quality of the water stored in this reservoir<br />
(1.5*2.4*1.96m 3 ), and Table.2 shows the period<br />
during which rainwater was collected & stored.<br />
Table.3 shows the Quantity of water collected in<br />
one year.<br />
· To prevent the water from evaporation and<br />
dust, the reservoir is covered by a roof made of fiber<br />
plastic sheets and wooden reapers. The water falling<br />
on reservoir roof is also collected. But this type of<br />
roofing is not possible for lake. The depth of the<br />
reservoir can be maintained between 20ft to 30ft so<br />
as to save 80% of water from evaporation when it<br />
is open.<br />
1. c. Protection valley<br />
To protect the rainwater collection bed and<br />
water reservoir from animals, they should be covered<br />
by protection valley (7.6*9.1m 2 ) (fig1&2).<br />
2. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS<br />
A model of Rainwater Collection Plant (fig 1a<br />
& 1b) of this project is constructed at K.L.N. College
of Engineering, Pottapalayam, Sivagangai (Dist),<br />
Tamilnadu, India. Table.1 shows the Quality of the<br />
water stored in this reservoir, and Table.2 shows<br />
period during which rainwater was saved. Table.3<br />
shows the Quantity of water collected in one year.<br />
The observation reports that in this plant almost all<br />
the rainwater falling on the fiber plastic sheets is<br />
collected. This is one way to collect rainwater<br />
without wastage. So this plant collects huge quantity<br />
of water even during small rain. Here rainwater is<br />
collected without bringing it in contact with the soil.<br />
So the collected water is colorless and odorless<br />
(table1). Therefore it is fit for drinking after simple<br />
filtrations.<br />
The observation reports that in this reservoir<br />
the average depth of evaporation per month is<br />
0.152m (without roof) and 0.108m (with roof).<br />
During the observation period (one year) the<br />
collection bed and reservoir roof plastic fiber sheets<br />
withstand heavy solar radiation, high velocity winds<br />
and are also not damaged by any small animals like<br />
rats and rodents. So this project can withstand all<br />
kinds of natural disasters like lightning, fire and<br />
earthquakes. Therefore, lifetime of this project will<br />
be more. Since the proposed drinking water plant<br />
has longer operational lifetime, it is not only beneficial<br />
now but also for the posterity.<br />
As seen in this water plant model, Table.4&5<br />
shows the quantity of water collected and supplied<br />
from this water plant, constructed from one acre to<br />
one thousand acres. From the observation, more<br />
water could be stored near small villages, big towns<br />
and cities using many plants of this project. Also this<br />
project can be implemented in any type of<br />
demographic region, be it arid, watershed or any other<br />
type. This project is easier to implement when<br />
compared with other projects like National River<br />
Interlink Project, Seawater Desalination Project etc.<br />
3. OTHER APPLICATIONS<br />
• The water plant of this project can be used as<br />
one of the drinking water resources at villages and<br />
towns of dry countries.<br />
• The plastic fiber collection bed of this plant<br />
alone can increase the quantity of water and enhance<br />
the existing water resources.<br />
• This water plant, with some modifications, can<br />
provide copious water for agricultural and animal<br />
husbandry requirements.<br />
• The Water Plant could be constructed near<br />
forest areas for benefits of wild animals too.<br />
• All types of heavy industries can solve their<br />
water requirements with the help of water plants of<br />
this project. Same can be implemented at University,<br />
� � �<br />
384<br />
College, School, Hospital, Hostel and other<br />
Organizations as well.<br />
4. OTHER FEATURES<br />
• While normal rainwater structures are meant<br />
to recharge ground water, this helps to collect water<br />
for immediate use.<br />
• The fiber plastic sheets have longer life as they<br />
are temperature resistant and even rodents could<br />
not damage them.<br />
• The depth of the reservoir can be maintained<br />
between 20ft to 30ft so as to save 80% of water<br />
from evaporation.<br />
• The usual tasteless rainwater is made tasty by<br />
the mixing of saline water in appropriate ratio.<br />
• Further, it could be protected from being polluted<br />
by animals through simple fencing.<br />
• Last but not the least, due to its techno-free<br />
working mechanism it is so called the “layman’s<br />
method”.<br />
CONCLUSIONS<br />
This paper projects that water scarcity related<br />
problems would be minimized with the installation of<br />
new water resources with fiber plastic bed land<br />
rainwater harvesting plants of this project. This<br />
project can be implemented in every country to meet<br />
its own water scarcity problems. It would give long<br />
term solutions too by enhancing both surface and<br />
ground water reserve table. This paper ensures that<br />
this project collects huge quantity of water and also<br />
the lifetime of this project will be more. The<br />
knowledge and the expertise available from the<br />
technical know-how of the project would help<br />
mankind live a life of plenty enjoying copious water<br />
availability.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
The author acknowledges his debt of immense<br />
gratitude to the Principal and the Management of<br />
KLN College of Engineering, Pottapalayam,<br />
Madurai, India, who supported and offered the funds<br />
required for implementation of this project and<br />
offering sustained moral encouragement and<br />
inspiration in making the dream project not only a<br />
reality but as a success as well.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
[1] “Review of 2004-05 “Water Resources<br />
Development” (India), Annual Report.<br />
[2] “Rainwater Roof Catchment Systems”, Information<br />
and Training for low-cost water supply and sanitation,<br />
E.J.Schiller and B.G.Lwatham, editor:D.Trattles, etc.
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
67. Approach to Rainwater Harvesting & Artificial Recharge using<br />
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System<br />
A Case Study of Naini Watershed, Mahasamund District,<br />
Chhattisgarh State<br />
Introduction<br />
The natural resources like land and water are<br />
under tremendous pressure to meet the requirement<br />
of ever increasing population, which results in<br />
degradation of land as well as depletion of water<br />
table. The problem gets further aggravated due to<br />
vagaries of monsoon. Under this situation water<br />
conservation measures assumes great importance to<br />
achieve the objective of sustainable source of<br />
drinking water even in the event of persistent<br />
drought. Realising this situation the Government of<br />
Chhattisgarh, Public Health Engineering<br />
Department, conceptualized a project for statewide<br />
implementation of “Rainwater harvesting and<br />
*Shekhar D. Bhole **Anand P. Pradhan<br />
Abstract<br />
Realising the importance of watershed development for providing the sustainable source<br />
of drinking water, various state governments are implementing this programme on large scale.<br />
However in order to have realistic development plan a systematic study based on resources<br />
database is necessary. The situation calls for integration of database in GIS environment,<br />
which, facilitate identification of priority area as well as appropriate sites for construction of<br />
water conservation structures. The Govt. of Chhattisgarh has also taken up construction of<br />
water recharging structures on a large scale. Under the project ADCC Infocad has carried out<br />
studies in Mahasamund district. A case study of Naini watershed in Mahasamund district is<br />
presented in detail in the following papers.<br />
A sound resources database using remote sensing and GIS technique has been generated<br />
to understand the resources situation which was then followed by critical analysis of ground<br />
water scenario to arrive at identification of appropriate site for construction of water<br />
conservation structure. A detailed Engineering survey was carried out for preparation of cost<br />
estimate of recommended measures. Based on the study water conservation structures for<br />
Naini watershed has been suggested. The paper deals with study carried out for Naini watershed.<br />
385<br />
artificial recharge on watershed basis”. The Public<br />
Heath Engineering Department, Govt. of<br />
Chhattisgarh awarded a project of preparation of<br />
Draft Project Report of construction of water<br />
conservation measures in Mahasamund district. In<br />
accordance with the objectives of the project Naini<br />
watershed of Mahasamund Assembly Constituency<br />
from Mahasamund district has been identified for<br />
preparation of implement able action plan for<br />
rainwater Harvesting and Artificial Recharge.<br />
Study Area<br />
The Naini watershed is located in the east<br />
bank of River Mahanadi and stretched between<br />
*Director (Technical) **Manager<br />
ADCC Infocad Pvt. Ltd., 10/5, IT Park, Opp. VNIT, Nagpur - 440 022<br />
Telefax : 0712-2249605 / 358 / 033 / 930 E-mail : infocad_ngp@sancharnet.in
Latitudes 21º12’39": 21º23’20" North and Longitudes<br />
82º11’22": 82º22’00" East. The district HQ<br />
Mahasamund is situated on S-W boundary of the<br />
watershed. Mahasamund town is located at 65<br />
Kilometers East of the state capital, Raipur. The area<br />
is well connected with National Highway and<br />
Railway with Raipur.<br />
The location and spatial extent of the<br />
Watershed is taken from Toposheet 63K/3 & 63 K/<br />
4. The Naini watershed is a part of National level<br />
Watershed category (as per the Watershed Atlas of<br />
India) 4G2F4. The watershed covers an area of<br />
125.82 sq. km. comprising of 29 villages.<br />
Methodology<br />
The success of the water conservation<br />
measures depends on critical analysis of natural<br />
resources vis-a-vis requirement o water for the<br />
population of the watershed. Therefore a sound<br />
resources database on natural resources such as<br />
Landuse, Hydro-geomorphology, has been prepared<br />
Remote Sensing Data<br />
by using remote sensing technique in which Multi<br />
date satellite imagery of IRS-1C for the years of<br />
2002-2003 on 1:50,000 scale was used for the<br />
preparation of resources maps for watershed area.<br />
False Colour Composite (FCC) of the imagery was<br />
generated and used for better identification of<br />
categories through visual interpretation. Date of<br />
pass, path/row of satellite image data used for the<br />
resources mapping is given in the table.<br />
Landuse Landcover of Study Area<br />
LISS-III standard FCC on 1:50,000 scale for<br />
the identification of different land use / land cover<br />
classes based on image interpretation characteristics.<br />
Using a minimum mappable unit of 3x3 mm and a<br />
broad image interpretation key, which was<br />
developed by Dr. N.C. Gautam, was followed for<br />
mapping. The classification system used for the same<br />
was also a standard one, a 22-fold classification<br />
developed by NRSA. Refer map 1.1<br />
No. Satellite Data Path / Row Date of Pass Toposheet Coverage Mapping Scale<br />
1 IRS-1C. LISS-III 103-57 2 nd Oct 2002 & 64K/3, 64K/4 1:50,000<br />
(20%SAT) 4 th Feb 03<br />
Resources Scenario in Naini Watershed<br />
8%<br />
24%<br />
40%<br />
7%<br />
4%<br />
1%<br />
3%<br />
8%<br />
Kharif<br />
Landwithout scrub<br />
Waterbody<br />
Close forest<br />
1%<br />
4%<br />
Double crop<br />
Landwith scrub<br />
Degrated Forest<br />
Current fellow<br />
Settlement<br />
Open forest<br />
Fig. 1 : Landuse Landcover Details of Naini Watershed<br />
386
Geology of Area<br />
The area is a part of Chhattisgarh Meta<br />
Sediments and thus, is a part of Chhattisgarh Super<br />
Group, which belongs to Proterozoic formation of<br />
Pre-Cambrian age. The area shows presence of<br />
mainly three Geological formations viz, Bundeli<br />
Table-1 : Geology of Study Area<br />
Granitoid the oldest overlaid by Chandarpur<br />
Sandstone and Charmuria Limestone. The major part<br />
of watershed is covered by Bundeli granitoid. The<br />
Central part by Chandarpur Sandstone and NW part<br />
by Charmuria Limestone. Geological succession as<br />
observed is shown in the below given table-1.<br />
No. Age Stage Lithology Locality<br />
1 Pre-Cambrian Charmuria Cream pinkish grey, fine to Covers NW part of<br />
(Chhattisgarh Formation medium grained, bedded hard watershed area.<br />
Super Group) and compact limestone with<br />
Upper Proterozoic intercalation of shale, dolomite,<br />
cherty and phosphatic<br />
Chandarpur Fine Grained quartztic and Exposed in Central<br />
Sandstone ferruginous Sandstone. part of watershed.<br />
Bundeli Fine to medium grained rocks Major SW part of<br />
Granitoid with quartz and feldspar and watershed.<br />
varients like hornblende and<br />
biotite.<br />
Map-1 : Landuse Landcover Map of Naini Watershed<br />
387
Geomorphology of Area<br />
Landform can be described as a geomorphic<br />
unit that is produced on the surface of the earth by<br />
the action of various geological agencies working<br />
on it. The resultant form is also the representative<br />
of geological agencies by which it has been produced<br />
in the geological past. Geomorphological features<br />
influence the occurrence, storage and movement of<br />
groundwater and therefore the study of<br />
geomorphology is eminent in groundwater<br />
prospecting. In view of this a geomorphological map<br />
of the area has been prepared using an IRS 1c, LISS-<br />
III Satellite Image. Since the area is covered with<br />
older geological formations it exhibits mostly<br />
denudational landforms along with depositional<br />
landforms of fluvial origin and residual landforms<br />
of recent age. Refer map 1.2<br />
Groundwater Potential<br />
The aquifer characteristics such as yield,<br />
specific capacity, and transmissivity and storage<br />
coefficient have been assessed through well<br />
Map-2 : Geomorphology Map of Naini<br />
388<br />
inventory and aquifer performance tests. During this<br />
process it has been observed that the yield of the<br />
wells ranges from 18 to 54 kiloliters/day during<br />
winters while the same is as low as 15 to 25 kiloliters/<br />
day during summers. Two major geological<br />
formations of the area, viz., limestone, sandstone is<br />
acting as prominent aquifers. The limestone with<br />
its fractured and jointed nature has rendered it as<br />
prominent aquifer. The sandstone because of its<br />
porosity is acting as a prominent aquifer. Eight<br />
aquifer performance tests were conducted on dug<br />
wells in the watershed and the results of the aquifer<br />
performance tests are given. (Aquifer Performance<br />
of Naini Watershed) which shows that the specific<br />
capacity of the well is from 1.57 to 519.8 liters/<br />
minute/meter of drawdown. The transmmisivity is<br />
3.94 to 94.45 sq meter/meter of aquifer width per<br />
day. The storage coefficient is 0.01 to 0.05<br />
Analytical Study<br />
The resources situation described above has<br />
been critically analysed with factors controlling the
ground water recharge, which includes analysis of<br />
rainfall data for 12 years to assess recurrence and<br />
magnitude of drought then, water requirement for<br />
irrigation and drinking water, surface runoff, surplus<br />
and deficit situation has also been analysed. The<br />
findings are presented below.<br />
Rainfall Details<br />
The area receives rainfall from southwest<br />
monsoon and to some extent eastern depressions<br />
bring rainfall to the district. Average annual rainfall<br />
in the district is 1363mm. However, the rainfall data<br />
of last 12 years (1992-2004) indicates a low average<br />
rainfall of 1063.21 mm. The average rainfall of<br />
Mahasamund Tehsil is lowest i.e., 750.8 mm<br />
followed by Basna 1142.1 mm and Saraipali 1296.65<br />
mm. Twelve years average annual rainfall in<br />
Mahasamund Tehsil of the district is shown in<br />
Table - 2<br />
The rainfall data of last 12 years are already<br />
presented Table-1, which indicates that the average<br />
rainfall in the watershed is 750.8 mm during the last<br />
decade. The analysis of the above data indicates that<br />
the area is drought prone as there are 8 years in the<br />
last decade, wherein, the rainfall was lower than the<br />
decadal average of 750.8 mm, in which the rainfall<br />
in 1999 was 378.3 mm. However, in the 4 years the<br />
rainfall was above average and in the year 2003 the<br />
rainfall was as high as 1841.2 mm. Thus, there are<br />
three distinct situations, i.e., year of very low rainfall,<br />
moderate rainfall and high rainfall.<br />
Ground Water Recharge Assessment<br />
In view of this the ground water recharge in<br />
the study area has been worked out based on aquifer<br />
characters.<br />
[A] Recharge in mcm<br />
(Through Rainfall) = Area of the watershed (in<br />
sq km) x Aquifer thickness (in meters) x<br />
Storage coefficient<br />
= 125.82 x 3 x 0.03<br />
= 11.32 mcm<br />
[B] Recharge in mcm<br />
(Through Water Bodies) = Water spread Area<br />
(in sq km) x Recharge factor (in meters)<br />
= 1.77 x 0.60<br />
= 1.06 mcm<br />
[C] Total Recharge<br />
(in mcm) = A +B<br />
= 12.38 mcm<br />
Table-2<br />
Tehsil Mahasamund Twelve Years Monthly Rainfall<br />
Tehsil Mahasamund Years<br />
Since the recharge is directly related with the<br />
amount of rainfall, there exists 3 distinct recharge<br />
situations also, in which the recharge in drought year<br />
is expected to be very low, in view of this it is<br />
essential to asses the annual recharge for all the three<br />
rainfall situations. In accordance with this annual<br />
recharge for three situations has been worked out as<br />
under. The recharge is calculated by rainfall method<br />
using recharge coefficient factor as 15%. (As per<br />
the recommendation of groundwater estimation<br />
committee of GOI 1997).<br />
Month 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004<br />
Jun 63.9 88 322.4 149.7 20.9 33.7 87.3 129.2 107.7 438.3 117.6 250.2<br />
Jul 217 155.1 341.2 342.4 258.6 211.6 158.2 143.1 217.4 69.1 379.9 371.9<br />
Aug 175 199.7 259.6 201.9 142 290 63.4 92.7 107.8 235.8 680.3 218<br />
Sept 53.9 96.8 82.6 42 29.1 67.6 67.4 108.4 38 159.4 571 124.3<br />
Oct 7 2 51.1 38.7 92.4 38.2<br />
510 539.6 1005.8 736 457.6 602.9 378.3 524.5 470.9 941.3 1841.2 1002.6<br />
389
(1) Recharge in low = Area of the watershed<br />
(in sq Km) x Average Rainfall in meters<br />
Rainfall Year x Recharge Coefficient<br />
= 125.82 X .400 X .15<br />
= 7.54 mcm<br />
(2) Recharge in Normal = Area of the watershed<br />
(in sq Km) x Average Rainfall in Rainfall Year<br />
Mtrs X Recharge Coefficient<br />
= 125.82 X .700 X .15<br />
= 13.21 mcm<br />
(3) Recharge in Good = Area of the watershed<br />
(in sq Km) x Average Rainfall in Rainfall Year<br />
meters X Recharge Coefficient<br />
= 125.82 X 1.0 X .15<br />
= 18.87 mcm<br />
Runoff Estimation<br />
Before recommending water conservation<br />
measures it is necessary to evaluate runoff potential<br />
of the watershed and it is the main input for<br />
recharging the ground water. Therefore micro<br />
watershed based run-off potential of the watershed<br />
corresponding to normal rainfall of the area. The<br />
runoff is assessed for each micro-watershed based<br />
on its geomorphic character. In a process a weighted<br />
average value for runoff coefficient has been<br />
considered, and based on that entire calculation was<br />
done. The total run-off is 8.46 mcm, (calculated for<br />
616mm (10 years Average since 2003-04 rainfall<br />
were exceptionally high) of rainfall using Strangers<br />
Table), which is available for harnessing to meet<br />
the future demand. It is essential to arrest runoff by<br />
constructing suitable recharge structures at<br />
appropriate locations.<br />
Assessment of water availability Situation<br />
Since the project is aimed at preparation of<br />
action plan for rain water harvesting and artificial<br />
recharge it is eminent to assess the water requirement<br />
visa vis water availability to identify the priority<br />
areas for implementation. Considering this the<br />
drinking water requirement for human and cattle<br />
population, based on projected population of 2011<br />
and also water requirement for irrigation has been<br />
assessed and the findings of the same are as under.<br />
390<br />
Water Requirement<br />
A] Drinking Water<br />
The total drinking water requirement of the<br />
watershed as per 2011 population has been worked<br />
out where in it is observed that the water requirement<br />
is 0.713 mcm for a population of 19818 souls and<br />
drinking water demand for cattle is 0.356 mcm<br />
(considering 50% of the human requirement) The<br />
total drinking water requirement is 1.069 mcm<br />
B] Irrigation<br />
The area is predominantly rice growing, which<br />
is a rainfed and grown in Kharif season, however,<br />
with the availability of power supply the farmers<br />
are inclined to raise double crop as a result rice is<br />
also grown in Rabi and summer through irrigation<br />
dug wells and bore wells. The land Use statistics of<br />
the area indicates that the area under Rabi and<br />
summer cultivation is around 136 ha. Considering<br />
the above figures the water requirement for irrigation<br />
would be @ 0.010 mcm per hectare i.e.1.36 mcm.<br />
The demand for irrigation is also expected to go<br />
higher as currently only 1.08% of the cultivable land<br />
is under irrigation. The expected future irrigated area<br />
would be around 10% of the cultivable land.<br />
Considering this the future demand for irrigation<br />
would be 6.22 mcm.<br />
Thus, the total future water demand of the<br />
watershed would be 7.28 mcm.<br />
Result and Discussion<br />
In view of the above situation, the drainage<br />
lines have been thoroughly explored in which, it is<br />
observed that the 1 st and 2 nd order streams are very<br />
shallow and have been explored for paddy<br />
cultivation leaving no scope for construction of any<br />
structure. However, 3 rd and 4 th orders of the streams<br />
were found to be suitable for construction of water<br />
harvesting structures. To this, at favorable locations<br />
Masonry Stop Dams, Boulder Check Dams,<br />
Desiltation tanks, Rooftop Rain water harvesting<br />
structures, Sub-Surface Dykes and Percolation Tank<br />
have been suggested. Refer Map 2.1<br />
Considering the local needs only maintenance<br />
free permanent structures have been suggested. The<br />
detailed engineering design and cost estimates have<br />
been prepared for each site. Based on this following<br />
structures have been suggested at appropriate<br />
locations.
Table - 3 : Salient features of the recommended structures<br />
No Type of Structure/Practice Total Structures Total Cost Estimated Storage<br />
(in Lac. Rupees) (in mcm)<br />
1 Boulder Check Dam cum 04 15.24 0.06<br />
2 Masonry Stop Dam 02 68.13 0.06<br />
3. Sub Surface Dykes 04 12.18 0.048<br />
4. Desiltation of Tanks 04 0.78 0.002<br />
5. Roof Top Structures 01 0.18 —<br />
6. Percolation Tank 01 0.015<br />
7 Silt Traps 02 —<br />
Total 18 104.02 0.185<br />
Thus, in all 07 different types of structures have been suggested and the estimated cost of these structures<br />
in Rs.1.05 Crore The cost will ensure an additional surface storage of 0.185 mcm, over and above recharge<br />
through existing tank (1.06 mcm) will be added. Thus total water availability will be 1.24 mcm.<br />
Map-3 : Final Structure Map of Naini Watershed<br />
391
Publishing House, Mathura.<br />
• NRSA Ground Water Prospect Maps of District<br />
Conclusions<br />
1] It is observed that the resources mapping has<br />
Mahasamund on 1:50,000 scale, prepared by National<br />
Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad.<br />
a great role in preparation of development plan,<br />
which helps in identification of appropriate location<br />
NRSA (1991): Technical Guidelines, Integrated<br />
mission for sustainable development.<br />
of particular structure. The plan so prepared is<br />
therefore cost effective and realistic.<br />
• Schedule of Rates for Works of Water Resources<br />
Department, Government of Chhattisgarh (2003): In force<br />
2] The generation of spatial and non-spatial<br />
database in GIS environment is prerequisite for<br />
from 01-12-2003, Engineer In Chief, Water Resources<br />
Department, and Raipur.<br />
preparation of developmental plans. This approach<br />
facilitates integration of database.<br />
• Singh, A.K. & Rathore P.S. (1995): Space Ship<br />
Earth and Remote Sensing- A catastrophic View, pub.<br />
Paper in the proceeding of the NAGI, Udaipur.<br />
• Rathore, N.S. & Rathore P.S. (1996): Land Use<br />
3] Assessment of water requirement as well as<br />
surface runoff is very essential for achieving the<br />
change in Udaipur Basin, pub. Paper in the proceeding<br />
of the NAGI, Shillong.<br />
objective of sustainable development of watershed.<br />
• Rathore, P S (2002), Application of Remote<br />
Sensing and Geographic Information System for District<br />
References<br />
• Alan, B. & Carlos R. V. (1991): Remote Sensing<br />
Level Planning -A Case Study of Rajsamand District<br />
(Raj.), unpublished PhD Thesis,<br />
and GIS for Resource Management in Developing<br />
Countries, Kluwer Academic Publisher, and London.<br />
• Verma, J R (2003), Management of Water through<br />
Conservation and Artificial Recharge in Gajara Sub<br />
• AIS&LUS, (1971): Soil Survey Manual,<br />
Publication, All India Soil and Land Use Survey,<br />
Watershed of Kharun Watershed, Durg District,<br />
Chhattisgarh – A Case Study, Proceedings of the<br />
I.A.R.I., New Delhi.<br />
• Behera, G., Balakrishnan P., Nageswara Rao, P.P.,<br />
Workshop on Emerging Challenges in Water Resources<br />
before Chhattisgarh state, held on Dec.12th 2003.<br />
Dutt, C.B.S., Ganesh Raj, Brian Goodall and Andrew<br />
Kirby (1979): Resources and Planning, Pergamon<br />
• Soil Information Source: SYS Sea Land<br />
Evaluation, University of Ghent, and Beljium<br />
Press Limited, Headington Hill Hall, Oxford, England.<br />
• Gautam N.C & Narayanan, L.R.A. (1985):<br />
• Soil Source : Land Resource Atlas of Nagpur,<br />
District Publication No –22 Internet Sources; Planning<br />
Comission.nic.in Ecological Feature of Chhattisgarh.<br />
Suggested Land Use/land Cover Classification System<br />
for India Using Remote Sensing Techniques, Pink<br />
� � �<br />
392
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
68. Experimental Hydro-Geochemical Reactions In Shallow Water Table<br />
Brackish ASR Well With Successive Number Of Cycles<br />
*Y. S. Saharawat *R. S. Malik *B. S. Jhorar *N. Chaudhary *T. Streck<br />
Abstract<br />
Better understanding of mixing and geo-chemical reactions would help<br />
in installation, operation and sustaining in aquifer storage recovery ASR system.<br />
Four successive cycles of 2000 m3 recharge and 2000 m3 recovery in each cycle<br />
were conducted in a cavity type brackish ASR well. Simple mixing as represented<br />
by chloride cumulative native water percentage in the recovered water at 100 %<br />
recovery M*(Cl- ) increased with recovery percentage (I) for all the quality<br />
parameters. It decreased linearly with successive number of cycles (SC) [M*(Cl- ) = -1.58 SC + 21.95; r2 = 0.99]. Calcite dissolution also<br />
decreased with successive number of cycles. Groundwater quality of the<br />
recovered water was better than that of native water. Potassium concentration<br />
of the recovered water was more than that of recharged water in all cycles.<br />
Potassium and borate released from Illite and Tourmaline mineral respectively<br />
were 1653 and 231 moles in 2000 m3 of recovered water during first ASR cycle.<br />
The study would find its application in conserving and better utilization of the<br />
scarce water resources in semi arid regions.<br />
Key words : Hydro geochemistry, Cavity ASR well, Interactions, successive ASR<br />
cycles<br />
� � �<br />
* Dr. Yashpal Singh Saharawat, IRRI-India office, 1 st floor CG block, NASC complex DPS Marg Pusa New Delhi<br />
India-110012, Ph: +91 11 25843802 FAX = +91 11 2584180 e-mail: ysaharawat@cgiar.org<br />
* Prof. R.S. Malik, Chief Scientist water Management, deptt of Soil Science, CCS HAU Hisar Haryana India<br />
Ph: +91 1662 227538 e-mail: malikrs1@rediffmail.com<br />
* Prof. B.S. Jhorar, Deptt. of Soil Science, CCS HAU Hisar Haryana India Ph: +91 1662 227538<br />
e-mail: cswm@hau.ernet.in<br />
* Dr. Neelam Chaudhary, Deptt. of Zoology, CCS HAU Hisar Haryana India Ph: +91 9891007818<br />
e-mail: n.chaudhary@rediffmail.com<br />
* Prof. Thilo Streckm, Biogeophysics Section, Universitat Hohenheim, Stuttgart Germany<br />
e-mail: tstreck@uni-hohenheim.de<br />
393
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
69. Design and Development of a Roof-Top Rainwater Harvesting<br />
Structure for Drinking Water Supply<br />
*Lala I. P. Ray **S. Senthilvel<br />
Abstract<br />
In the present era of virtually ‘mining’ of the ‘liquid gold – WATER’ in rural<br />
areas for increased agricultural production and meeting the acute water shortage<br />
in urban areas for drinking and industrial water needs, rainwater harvesting seems<br />
to be a feasible solution. The present study focuses on the role of rooftop rainwater<br />
harvesting (RTWH) to supplement the local water demands of Tamil Nadu<br />
Agricultural University (TNAU) campus, as a representative unit of evaluation.<br />
The micro level experimentation conducted on a 624 m 2 projected area resulted in<br />
encouraging results, indicating a good potential for harvesting rainwater. The<br />
workshop complex, selected as the study plot, could effectively generate 8.6 m 3 of<br />
water per annum from its rooftop during the rainy season and the volume of water<br />
collected was found to cater to the water requirement of the hydraulics laboratory,<br />
drinking water needs, washing water needs and the consumptive water use<br />
requirement of the Theme park. A harvesting structure consisting of a collecting<br />
unit, a filtering unit and a storage tank was designed to store the rain water for<br />
drinking purpose. The designed structure works well to supply the drinking water<br />
demand of the workshop complex.<br />
Key Words: Roof-top rainwater harvesting, Collecting unit, Filtering unit, Storage<br />
structures.<br />
� � �<br />
*Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur - 721302<br />
**Professor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003<br />
Research Scholar, Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur-721 302. West Bengal<br />
Email: lalaipray@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in<br />
394
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
70. Rainwater Harvesting System<br />
– A glance at Operation & Maintenance<br />
*Dr. A. I. Wasif **Mr. M. B. Chougule ***Mr. B. R. Kulkarni<br />
Abstract<br />
The application of an appropriate rainwater harvesting technology can<br />
make possible the utilization of rainwater as a valuable and in many cases,<br />
necessary water resources. Rainwater harvesting is necessary in areas having<br />
significant rainfall but lacking any kind of conventional, centralized government<br />
supply system and also in areas where good quality fresh surface water or ground<br />
water is lacking.<br />
Rainwater harvesting systems require few skills and supervision to operate.<br />
Major concerns are the prevention of contamination of tank during construction<br />
and while it is being replenished during a rainfall. Contamination of water supply<br />
as a result of contact with some material can be avoided by the use of proper<br />
material during construction of system.<br />
The main sources of external contamination are pollution from air, bird<br />
and animal droppings and insects. Bacterial contamination may be minimized by<br />
keeping roof surfaces and drains clean but can not be completely eliminated. If<br />
the water is to be used for drinking purposes, filtration, chlorination or disinfection<br />
by other means is necessary. This paper focuses on various ways of operation<br />
and maintenance of rainwater harvesting system so that water can be stored safely<br />
and can be utilized for drinking purpose.<br />
� � �<br />
*Dr.A.I.Wasif, Dy.Director, T.E.I. Ichalkaranji Email: aiwasif@gmail.com<br />
**Mr. M.B. Chougule, Sr.Lecturer, T.E.I. Ichalkaranji Email: mbcdkte@gmail.com<br />
***Mr.B.R.Kulkarni, Lecturer, T.E.I. Ichalkaranji, Email: bhupesh.kulkarni@gmail.com<br />
395
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
71. A Simulation Model To Quantify The Impacts Of Rainwater Harvesting<br />
In A Catchment<br />
* C. Glendenning W. Vervoort<br />
Abstract :<br />
A framework for examining the hydrological impact of rural community based<br />
rainwater harvesting structures at a catchment scale is proposed. In India investment<br />
in rainwater harvesting for groundwater recharge is increasing. However literature<br />
is extremely limited on the hydrological impacts of rainwater harvesting at a river<br />
basin scale. This is important to know because, although rainwater harvesting is a<br />
small-scale operation, when implemented across a catchment the impact on<br />
downstream flow could be significant. However there is currently no study that has<br />
comprehensively quantified the impact of rainwater harvesting on local groundwater<br />
and at a catchment scale. This paper therefore proposes a conceptual model using<br />
a simple water balance approach to explore groundwater recharge from rainwater<br />
harvesting. This will be expanded into a model of a real catchment in future<br />
research. Modelling provides a quick way to predict catchment hydrology behaviour,<br />
where field studies for the same objective would be data intensive, expensive and<br />
take more time. The model divides a catchment into subcatchments and is based on<br />
the concept of hydrological response units (HRUs). Within each subcatchment,<br />
HRUs are identified on the basis of landuse and soil characteristics. Hydraulic soil<br />
properties are determined using pedotransfer functions based on texture classes;<br />
runoff is calculated using the USDA-SCS curve number method. For each HRU a<br />
lumped water balance is completed on a daily time step for ten years. A daily time<br />
step will more accurately represent the process of recharge which is episodic in<br />
nature. The water balance for rainwater harvesting structures are calculated<br />
assuming no runoff, but with overflow and no irrigation. The recharge and runoff<br />
for each HRU is divided by its area within the subcatchment. The values for each<br />
HRU are then added to give the total recharge, and runoff estimates for the<br />
subcatchment. The final output is streamflow which includes baseflow, runoff<br />
reaching the stream and overflow from rainwater harvesting structures. Different<br />
scenarios of land use and levels of rainwater harvesting are explored to quantify<br />
the hydrological impact on the catchment. Using the conceptual model, a case<br />
study of the sustainability and resilience of rainwater harvesting will be<br />
demonstrated.<br />
� � �<br />
Hydrology Research Laboratory,<br />
Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, The University of Sydney<br />
396
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
72. Physico-Chemical Investigation of Waste Water from Electroplating<br />
Industry at Agra and Technologies for Metal Removal<br />
and Recovery of Water<br />
Introduction<br />
Present era of industrialization and<br />
development also brings some fall backs, which<br />
needs immediate attention to overcome their effects<br />
on living beings and the ecosystems. One of these<br />
is release of toxic metals bearing industrial effluents<br />
which has become a primary challenge for last few<br />
decades(Dahiya et al, 2003).These metals can be<br />
introduced in to aquatic system through effluent<br />
discharges from various industrial operations<br />
including mining, chemical manufacture and<br />
electroplating (Gupta et al., 2001) and their<br />
increased concentration in aqueous environment<br />
is capable of causing phytotoxicity,<br />
*Monika Singh *Susan Verghese<br />
Abstract<br />
Industrialization and urbanization have led to discharge of industrial effluents, which<br />
in turn pollute the ecosystem. The disposal of effluents has become a serious technoeconomic<br />
problem particularly due to rising cost of disposal and growing awareness of<br />
pollution hazards. Out of all waste water discharges, effluents from industries such as<br />
electroplating, textiles, oil paints etc pose a threat as these waste water are usually dumped<br />
into natural water resources like river, lakes and make the same unfit for human, plant and<br />
animal consumption as well as for industrial use.<br />
The present paper focuses on the waste water management of effluents from<br />
electroplating industry which is a great water consumer and as a consequence, one of the<br />
biggest producers of liquid effluent. This industry presents one of the most critical industrial<br />
waste problems. Paper deals with the analysis of waste water quality from electroplating<br />
units of Agra city , by determining parameters such as pH by digital pH meter, BOD by<br />
titration method and COD by dichromate reflux method. Heavy metal analysis was done<br />
on an Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Perkin- Elmer A. Analyst 100). Analysis was done<br />
for a period of one year and highest BOD (118 ppm), COD(424 ppm), certain toxic metals<br />
Ni (27 ppm ) and (24 ppm) concentrations clearly indicate towards the seriousness and<br />
immediate action towards developing methods for reclaiming metals from plating waste<br />
stream. The paper also discusses different membrane technology for recovery of water<br />
and different natural and cheap adsorbents for removal of toxic heavy metals.<br />
bioconcentration and biomagnification by<br />
organisms (Joshi, 2000).<br />
In India there are over 50,000 large, medium<br />
and small electroplating units mostly scattered in<br />
the urban areas (Upadhyay, et al. 1992). Plating<br />
waste water contains heavy metal, oil, grease and<br />
suspended solids at levels that might be considered<br />
hazardous to the environment and could pose risk<br />
to public health. Because of the high toxicity and<br />
corrosiveness of plating waste streams, plating<br />
facilities are required to pretreat waste water prior<br />
to discharge in accordance with national pollutant<br />
discharge elimination system (NPDES) permits as<br />
required by clean water act (CWA).<br />
*School of Chemical Sciences, Department of Chemistry, St John’s College, Agra, India<br />
397
The plating process typically involves, alkaline<br />
cleaning, acid pickling, plating and rinsing. Copious<br />
amounts of waste water are generated through these<br />
steps, especially during rinsing. Additionally, batch<br />
dumping, spent acid and cleaning solutions<br />
contributes to the complexity of waste treatment.<br />
With greater quantities of waste water produced and<br />
discharge standards becoming more stringent, there<br />
is a need for more efficient and cost effective<br />
methods for removing heavy metals.<br />
Membrane processes are capable of removing<br />
many materials from water that are typically treated<br />
using unit processes ranging from sand filtration to<br />
carbon adsorption to ion exchange. Membrane<br />
technology is one option for a nonpolluting process.<br />
In order to increase the removal efficiency and<br />
reduce the operating cost, membrane technology can<br />
also be used together with other treatment processes<br />
(Srisuwan, G. et al., 2002). Studying the heavy<br />
metals removal from water using membrane,<br />
Kosarek found that efficiencies of removal of As,<br />
Cd, Cu, Pb, Hg, Ni, Se and Zn were 75-98%. The<br />
results also showed that for water treatment with<br />
polymer prior to chemical treatment, the percentage<br />
removal increased to 90-99 %( Kosarek, L.J. 1981).<br />
For the fractional separation of heavy metals from<br />
electroplating waste streams, the coupling of two<br />
or more techniques may result in better performance<br />
than using either unit operation individually. By<br />
combining the membrane techniques with other<br />
physical and chemical processes the effectiveness<br />
of the operation can be improved. Precipitation of<br />
sparingly soluble metal compounds and micro-or<br />
ultra filtration is the suitable and economical hybrid<br />
operation for the removal and recovery of heavy<br />
metals from waste streams. For selective removal<br />
and recovery of the metals like Cd, Cu, Fe in<br />
cadmium electroplating bath (containing high<br />
amounts of Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe and small amounts of<br />
Ni, Co, Mn), hybrid precipitation- polymer<br />
enhanced ultra filtration based separation scheme<br />
was developed and effective separation of heavy<br />
metals from industrial wastes was achieved (Sezin<br />
Islamoglu et al., 2001).<br />
The present paper draws attention towards<br />
effective technologies involved and of use in<br />
successfully removing heavy metal in waste water,<br />
recommends natural, cheap adsorbents for removing<br />
each of heavy metal (Cu, Fe, Ni and Zn) analyzed<br />
398<br />
in waste water from four electroplating sites (AB 1 ,<br />
AB 2 , AB 3 and AB 4 ) of Agra city, apart from<br />
determination of pH, BOD, COD and heavy metal<br />
concentration for analyzing the waste water quality<br />
discharged from such units.<br />
Material and Method<br />
Waste water from four electroplating sites AB 1 ,<br />
AB 2 , AB 3 and AB 4 of Agra city were assessed for<br />
heavy metals Cu (II), Fe (II), Ni (II), Zn (II)<br />
concentrations and other physico-chemical<br />
parameters (pH, BOD& COD). One major<br />
electroplating industry was also among the sampling<br />
site, which is believed to contribute largely in<br />
electroplating waste of Agra. Two sites were small<br />
electroplating shops in main city and one<br />
electroplating site was medium scale industry in the<br />
exterior of the city. pH was measured within two<br />
hours from collection on laboratory arrival.<br />
Chemical and physical analysis of sample<br />
water was done following the procedure<br />
recommended by APHA, pH is measured with the<br />
help of pH meter after calibration of the respective<br />
instrument. BOD (biological oxygen demand), COD<br />
(chemical oxygen demand) is determined by<br />
titration method.<br />
The metal analysis was performed on an<br />
Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Perkin-Elmer A.<br />
Analyst 100), following the condition of operation<br />
for the instrument. For the metals analysis Atomic<br />
Absorption Spectrometer uses acetylene and air as<br />
fuel and oxidant respectively. The standard solution<br />
of each metal (Cu, Fe, Ni and Zn) was made using<br />
analytical grade reagents for calibration purpose,<br />
samples were filtered and digested with nitric acid<br />
before determination of the metal concentration.<br />
Wavelengths used for particular metals were as<br />
follows: Copper (324.8 nm), Iron (248.3 nm), Nickel<br />
(232.0 nm) and Zinc (213.9 nm).<br />
Result and Discussion<br />
Physico-chemical characteristics (pH, BOD<br />
and COD) of waste water collected from different<br />
electroplating sites are given in Table 1. pH, varies<br />
differently in all the four sites. Waste water sample<br />
of site AB 1 has the pH value of 12.02, and was the<br />
most alkaline sample water, pH above 7 is due to<br />
presence of sufficient quantity of carbonates. Site<br />
AB 2 waste water was acidic among value of pH
eing 6.08, pH value of AB 3 and AB 4 site were close<br />
to each other values being 5.02 and 4.15<br />
respectively. Thus pH values in decreasing order<br />
were as follows: AB 1 > AB 2 >AB 3 >AB 4 . Digital pH<br />
meter NIG 333 was used for the determination of<br />
pH of sample water. Tolerance limits of pH for<br />
industrial effluents discharge in to inland surface<br />
waters (IS: 2490-1974) is 5.5 - 9.0. AB 1 pH value is<br />
above 9.0 and two site AB 3 and AB 4 pH value is<br />
below 5.5.<br />
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is an index<br />
of organic pollution in water, it is the rate of removal<br />
of oxygen by microorganisms in aerobic degradation<br />
of dissolved or even particulate organic matter in<br />
water. All the four site’s waste water sample, have<br />
different BOD values. Site AB 1 has the highest<br />
BOD, value being 118 mg/l. Site AB 2 BOD value<br />
being 104 mg/l, AB 3 and AB 4 site sample BOD<br />
values were 46 mg/l and 54 mg/l respectively. BOD<br />
values in decreasing order were as follows:<br />
AB 1 >AB 2 >AB 4 > AB 3. Tolerance limit of BOD for<br />
industrial effluents discharged in to inland surface<br />
waters (IS:2490-1974) is 30 mg/l and in all the site<br />
samples BOD value crosses this value of 30 mg/l<br />
prescribed by Indian standard for discharge in to<br />
inland surface waters.<br />
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), the measure<br />
of oxygen required in oxidizing the organic<br />
compounds present in water by means of chemical<br />
reactions involving oxidizing substances such as<br />
potassium dichromate and potassium permanganate<br />
showed different values in all the waste water<br />
samples, site AB 2 COD value was the highest among<br />
the four site its value being 225 mg/l which crossed<br />
the tolerance limit for industrial effluents discharged<br />
in to inland surface waters (IS: 2490-1974) which<br />
is 250 mg/l , site AB 1 COD value(85 mg/l) was<br />
second highest, AB 3 and AB 4 COD values were 92<br />
mg/l and 80 mg/l respectively. All Site average COD<br />
values were below the ISI standards for discharge<br />
of industrial effluents in to inland surface waters.<br />
COD values in decreasing order were as follows:<br />
AB 2 >AB 1 >AB 3 >AB 4. All metals copper, iron, nickel<br />
and zinc analyzed are present at different level of<br />
concentrations in all the sites samples, Table3.<br />
Copper is industrial health hazard, excess of<br />
copper in human body is toxic and causes<br />
hypertension, sporadic fever, uremia, coma and even<br />
death. Copper also produces pathological changes<br />
399<br />
in brain tissue, copper concentration was highest in<br />
site AB 3 value being 12.04 mg/l , least in site AB 1<br />
4.24 mg/l , 7.2 mg/l and 9.4 mg/l in site AB 2 and<br />
AB 4 respectively, copper in decreasing order of<br />
concentration was as follows: AB 3 >AB 4 >AB 2 >AB 1 .<br />
All site samples value exceeded the tolerance limit<br />
for industrial effluents discharged in to inland<br />
surface waters (IS: 2490-1974) which is 3.0 mg/l .<br />
Membrane technology by which copper is removed<br />
efficiently up to 98 % is reverse osmosis and by<br />
nano filtration removal achieved is 90%. Suggested<br />
natural and cheap adsorbent for copper removal are<br />
fly ash, china clay, saw dust, jute, cow dung and<br />
coconut coir dust.<br />
More than 10 mg/kg level of iron causes rapid<br />
increase in pulse rates, congestion of blood vessels,<br />
hyper tension and drowsiness. 3.0 mg/l is the waste<br />
water discharge standard for iron prescribed by IS:<br />
2490-1974 and EPA. Highest concentration of iron<br />
was found in site AB 3 (8.82 mg/l), least in site AB 1<br />
(2.82 mg/l) .Concentration in site AB 2 and AB 4 was<br />
3.6 mg/l and 5.24 mg/l respectively. Concentration<br />
in decreasing order of concentration was as follows:<br />
AB 3 >AB 4 >AB 2 >AB 1 . Application of ultrafiltration<br />
membranes for treating waste water laden with iron<br />
concentration is effective, it does not require pretreatment,<br />
by using a combined treatment process<br />
and also provide a positive barrier to pathogens,<br />
such as cryptosporidium and giardia, and both<br />
organic and inorganic solids. Suggested natural and<br />
cheap adsorbent for iron removal are modified<br />
acacia bark, raw rice husk, and fly ash.<br />
Nickel concentration more than 30 mg causes<br />
change in muscle, lung, liver, brain and kidney and<br />
also can result in cancer. It also causes tremor,<br />
paralysis and even death. Nickel concentration was<br />
highest in site AB 3 (27 mg/l) and concentration in<br />
site AB 1 , AB2 and AB 4 was 5.64 mg/l , 12.2 mg/l<br />
and 18.6 mg/l respectively. Nickel in decreasing<br />
order of concentration was as follows:<br />
AB 3 >AB 4 >AB 2 >AB 1 . The nickel concentration in<br />
all the sites exceeded the tolerance limits for<br />
industrial effluent discharge in to inland surface<br />
waters which is 3.0 mg/l (IS: 2490-1974) and EPA.<br />
Surfactant-added powdered activated carbon/<br />
microfiltration (PAC/MF) hybrid process in the<br />
removal of nickel from water and wastewater is the<br />
latest, efficient, promising technology. Suggested<br />
natural and cheap adsorbent for nickel removal are
granular amorphous peat, fly ash, peanut skin, and<br />
coconut husk hull.<br />
Zinc salts heavy doses (165 mg) in<br />
continuation causes vomiting, renal damage, and<br />
cramps. Discharge standard as per EPA and I:S for<br />
zinc is 5.0 mg/l. Zinc concentration was highest in<br />
site AB 4 (24 mg/l), least in site AB 1 (2.08 mg/l).<br />
Concentration in site AB 2 and AB 3 was 6.52mg/l and<br />
14.2 mg/l respectively. Zinc in decreasing order of<br />
concentration was as follows: AB 4 >AB 3 >AB 2 >AB 1 .<br />
Nano filtration is effective membrane technology<br />
for the removal or separation of zinc in solution or<br />
waste waters. Suggested natural adsorbent for zinc<br />
adsorption are blast furnace slag, china clay waste<br />
tea leaves and cement matrix.<br />
Conclusion<br />
It is thus concluded that AB 1 waste water was<br />
alkaline , highly organically polluted indicated by<br />
high BOD and COD values and low in metal<br />
pollution, AB 2 site waste water was slightly acidic ,<br />
highest in organic pollution, second lowest in metal<br />
pollution, AB 3 waste water sample was acidic , with<br />
highest metal pollution and low organic pollution.<br />
AB 4 site waste water was highly acidic, lowest in<br />
organic pollution, and second highest in metal<br />
pollution. In all these electroplating units, certainly<br />
there is a need to treat the waste water for certain<br />
heavy metals and for chemical and organic pollution<br />
before it discharges in to open drains. As these<br />
effluents from electroplating units are highly<br />
corrosive due to the presence of acids and toxic<br />
metals, there discharge directly in to rivers (Yamuna<br />
river in case of Agra) without neutralization<br />
decreases the pH of river water and results in mass<br />
mortality of aquatic culture. Certainly there is a need<br />
for scientific disposal of effluents, which to certain<br />
extent can be achieved by membrane technologies<br />
and adsorbents referred in the present paper. Beside<br />
* All values except pH are in mg/l<br />
this sincere execution of policies which restrict the<br />
effluent discharge exceeding the tolerance limits<br />
prescribed by IS: Standards, CPCB and EPA for<br />
discharge of industrial effluents is urgently needed<br />
in case of present industry.<br />
References<br />
• APHA, AWWA and WEF. 1992. Standard<br />
Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater.<br />
18th ed. New York: American Public Health<br />
Association.<br />
• Dahiya, Sudhir Mishra D.G, Karpe Rupali and<br />
Gurg R.P 2003 Removal of lead and copper from<br />
aqueous solution using chemically activated<br />
sugarcane bagasse carbon. Proc.xii Natinal<br />
symposium on environment 400-406.<br />
• Gupta, K.V., Gupta , M., and Sharma, S. 2001.<br />
Process development for the removal of lead and<br />
chromiu- m from aqueous solutions using red mud<br />
an aluminium industry waste. Water Res 35, 1125-<br />
1134.<br />
• Joshi, Sandeep. 2000. Ecotechnological<br />
treatment for the industrial waste water containing<br />
heavy metals. J. IAEM 27: 98-102.<br />
• Kosarek, L.J. 1981. Removal of Various Toxic<br />
Heavy Metals and Cyanide from Water by<br />
Membrane Processes. J.Chemistry in Water Reuse<br />
, 261-280.<br />
• Sezin Islamoglu and levent yilmaz 2001.<br />
Removal and recovery of heavy metals from<br />
industrial waste streams by means of a hybrid<br />
precipitation and polymer enhanced ultrafiltration.<br />
Desalination. 105-110.<br />
• Srisuwan, G. and Thongchai, P. 2002. Removal<br />
of heavy metals from electroplating wastewater by<br />
membrane. J. Sci. Technol. 24(Suppl.) 965-976.<br />
• Upadhyay,Y.D., Upadhyay, S.N., Haribabu, E.<br />
1992. Removal of chromium (VI) by fly ash. Chem.<br />
Environ.Res1 (3): 289.<br />
Table 1. Indian Standards and average of readings observed for period from January-December<br />
for pH, BOD and COD *<br />
400
Table 2 : Tolerance limit for metals in industrial effluents discharged in to inland surface waters<br />
[IS: 2490-1974: EPA 1987: EPA 1989]*<br />
Table 3. Average metal concentration of heavy metal in electroplating waste water for a period<br />
from January - December *<br />
* Metal concentration is in mg/l<br />
Graphs 1-4 Representing metal concentration at each site in waste water from electroplating units<br />
� � �<br />
401
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
73. A Case Study on Wastewater Treatment and<br />
Reuse of Waste Water<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Water is the nature’s gift and is available in<br />
various forms. Its use is universal. Pure water is<br />
never found in nature. Water available in the earth<br />
surface contains number of impurities such as<br />
organic, inorganic and various gases which may be<br />
harmful to the health of the public. Therefore it is<br />
very essential to remove such impurities so that<br />
water will be potable.<br />
Waste is anything discarded, rejected,<br />
surplused, abandoned or otherwise released into the<br />
environment that could have an impact on the<br />
environment. Waste affects our world’s<br />
environment, everything that surrounds us including<br />
air, water, land, plants and man made things. The<br />
waste, created has to be carefully controlled so that<br />
it does not harm our environment. Hence the effect<br />
of waste onto the environment can be controlled by<br />
practicing three R’s viz. Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.<br />
REDUCE<br />
Reduce or reduction is to make something<br />
smaller or useless, resulting in a smaller amount of<br />
waste. Source reduction is reducing waste which<br />
indicates conservation of natural resources wisely<br />
and using less than usual in order to avoid waste.<br />
RECYCLE<br />
Recycling denotes the process that would<br />
make waste into resource. Water can be recycled<br />
well. Water recycling is reusing the treated<br />
wastewater for beneficial purpose such as<br />
agriculture, landscape irrigation, industrial<br />
processes, toilet flushing and replenishing a ground<br />
*Mr. V. Karthikeyan **Mr. P. Venugopal<br />
water basin ( ground water recharge )<br />
BENEFITS OF RECYCLING<br />
• Water recycling can decrease diversion of fresh<br />
water from sensitive ecosystems.<br />
• Water recycling decreases discharge to sensitive<br />
water bodies.<br />
• Recycled water may be used to create or<br />
enhance wetlands and riparian habitats.<br />
• Water recycling can reduce and prevent<br />
pollution.<br />
REUSE<br />
Reuse is the process of repairing or giving<br />
it to someone who can repair. Reusing product, when<br />
possible, is even better than recycling because the<br />
item does not need to be reprocessed before it can<br />
be reused.<br />
BENEFITS OF RECYCLED WATER<br />
Recycled water can satisfy most water<br />
demands, as long as it is adequately to ensure water<br />
quality appropriate for use. Recycled water is most<br />
commonly used for the purposes such as agriculture,<br />
landscape, public parks and golf course irrigation.<br />
Also it includes cooling water for power plants and<br />
oil refineries, industrial process water for such<br />
facilities as paper mill and carpet dyers, toilet<br />
flushing, dust control, construction activities,<br />
concrete mixing and artificial lakes. In ground water<br />
recharge projects, recycled water can be spread or<br />
injected into ground water aquifers to augment<br />
ground water supplies, and to prevent water<br />
intrusion in coastal areas.<br />
* Head of Civil Engg. Dept., Thiagarajar Polytechnic College, Salem & Hon. Secretary,<br />
Institutions of Engineers (India), Salem Local Centre<br />
**Lecturer in Civil Engg. Dept., Thiagarajar Polytechnic College, Salem<br />
402
CASE STUDY<br />
The Salem Municipality in Tamilnadu was<br />
upgraded into the Corporation from the year 1994<br />
with an extents over an area of 100 sq.km. The<br />
Salem Corporation is divided into 4 zones with<br />
60 divisions and having the present population of<br />
10 lakhs. The Corporation is supplying drinking<br />
water to the community from Stanley Dam at Mettur<br />
in twice a week. But for domestic, commercial,<br />
industrial and other purpose, public depends upon<br />
subsurface water and thus resulting in fast depletion<br />
of ground water.<br />
Sona group of institutions such as<br />
Thiagarajar Polytechnic College and Sona College<br />
of Technology situated in the heart of city with<br />
sprawling campus of 50 acres. It is well equipped<br />
with all facilities like building, laboratories, sports<br />
complex, swimming pool, hostels, beautiful lawn<br />
and garden. At present, the campus habitated with<br />
about 3000 non-residential students pursuing their<br />
studies. In order to meet their demands of other than<br />
drinking purposes, water is being drawn from open<br />
well and bore wells. Daily a quantum of 75 kld of<br />
water is being drawn from the ground to meet<br />
various demands for kitchen, toilets, maintaining<br />
lawn and gardens. This huge amount of water will<br />
tends to bring down the water table in the ground to<br />
lower the level further and further. Hence our<br />
institution is thought of treating wastewater<br />
discharged from kitchen, bathroom and reuse the<br />
treated water for maintaining lawn and garden.<br />
METHODOLOGY<br />
WASTE WATER TREATMENT<br />
Wastewaters, whether domestic or<br />
industrial have several undesirable components –<br />
organic and inorganic pollutants that are potentially<br />
harmful to the environment and the human health.<br />
The treatment of wastewater and its management<br />
has become a necessity in order to conserve this<br />
vital resource. The main aim of waste water<br />
treatment is removal of contaminants from water<br />
so that the treated water can be reused for beneficial<br />
purposes. The waste water treatment is carried out<br />
in three stages – Primary, Secondary and Tertiary<br />
or Advanced Waste treatment.<br />
(I) PRIMARY TREATMENT<br />
The primary treatment is of general use and<br />
403<br />
is used for removing suspended solids, odour, colour<br />
and to neutralize the high or low P H . This stage<br />
exploits the physical or chemical properties of the<br />
contaminants and removes the suspended and<br />
floating matter by screening, sedimentation,<br />
floatation, filtration, precipitation.<br />
(II) SECONDARY TREATMENT<br />
The secondary treatment or biological<br />
process of sewage involving, stabilizing and<br />
rendering harmless very fine suspended matter and<br />
solids of the waste water that remain after the<br />
primary treatment has been done. In biological<br />
treatment, organic matter is stabilized by bacteria<br />
under controlled conditions so that maximum<br />
amount of BOD is reduced in the treatment plant<br />
rather than in the water course. The biological waster<br />
treatment are commonly carried out by activated<br />
sludge system and biological film system.<br />
(III) TERTIARY OR ADVANCED<br />
WASTEWATER TREATMENT<br />
Usually the primary and the secondary<br />
treatment sufficient is to meet wastewater effluent<br />
standards. However advanced wastewater treatment<br />
is to be carried out when water after produced from<br />
primary and secondary treatment units is required<br />
to be of higher water quality standards ( in case the<br />
water to be put to some direct reuse ). This includes<br />
the further removal of suspended solids, dissolved<br />
solids, toxic substances, BOD, plant nutrients etc,.<br />
GENERATION OF WASTE WATER<br />
In our Institution, 3000 non-residential<br />
students are pursuing their Diploma and Degree<br />
programmes in Engineering. Daily, a huge amount<br />
of water is drawn from sub-surface and is being<br />
utilized for various purposes such as kitchen,<br />
washing, toilets, lawn and gardening etc,. (except<br />
drinking). The total amount of water is being<br />
supplied to the students community is given below.<br />
3000 students x 25 litres/day = 75000 litres/day (or)<br />
75 kld.<br />
Daily a quantum of 75 kld of water is being<br />
drawn from bore well or open well thus depleting<br />
the ground water very fast. The total quantity of<br />
water consumed is discharged as waste water from<br />
various points. Here it is assumed that, the total<br />
quantity of water supplied is taken as total quantity
of waste water generated. Hence the waste water<br />
treatment plant is designed for a capacity of<br />
treating 75 kld per day.<br />
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME<br />
• At the first step, the waste water discharged<br />
from the various points are collected and<br />
transported to the common collecting tank.<br />
• The floating material and foreign particles in<br />
the raw water are removed by means of<br />
installing bar screens before the collecting tank.<br />
• The raw water is collected in the equalization<br />
tank after regular screening is over.<br />
• The homogenous effluents is pumped into the<br />
aeration tank, where surface fixed aerator is<br />
provided for aeration purpose.<br />
• The outlet from the aeration tank is fed into<br />
the settling tank by gravity.<br />
• The settled biomass is again recirculated back<br />
into the aeration tank to maintain the mixed<br />
liquor suspended solids. If the biomass is<br />
excess, it is sent to the sludge drying beds for<br />
dewatering.<br />
• The dewatered effluent is again collected in the<br />
collection cum equalization tank for further<br />
treatment.<br />
• The supernatant clear effluent from settling<br />
tank flows by gravity and collected in the semi<br />
treated effluent collection tank.<br />
• From the semi treated effluent tank, the effluent<br />
is pumped through the Pressure Sand Filter<br />
followed by Activated Carbon Filter for<br />
removal of fine suspended particles and colour<br />
present in the treated effluent.<br />
• The outlet from the activated carbon filter is<br />
found to meet the standard limits and let out<br />
for collecting in the storage tank.<br />
• The collected water is pumped for utilizing<br />
gardening purpose.<br />
The method of treatment of effluent is shown<br />
in flow chart.<br />
404<br />
WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT<br />
FLOW CHART<br />
BAR SCREEN<br />
COLLECTION TANK<br />
AERATION TANK<br />
SETTLING TANK<br />
TREATED EFFLUENT SUMP<br />
PRESSURE SAND FILTER<br />
ACTIVATED CARBON FILTER<br />
TREATED EFFLUENT<br />
GARDENING<br />
Re-cycle<br />
SLUDGE<br />
DRYING<br />
BED<br />
LABORATORY ANALYSIS<br />
The sample of raw water was collected from<br />
the collecting tank to analyze the basic characteristic<br />
of sewage. The sample of water collected was given<br />
to the Tamilnadu Water Supply and Drainage Board<br />
testing laboratory for analysis. The results are given<br />
in the Table 1.<br />
Table 1 : CHARACTERISTIC OF RAW<br />
WATER<br />
No. Parameter<br />
Characteristics<br />
Raw Sewage<br />
1 PH 7.40<br />
2 Total suspended solids 86<br />
3 Total dissolved solids 1722<br />
4 COD 184<br />
5 BOD 75
After analyzing the characteristic of raw<br />
waste water, the treatment system was so designed<br />
and layout of effluent treatment plant is shown<br />
below.<br />
LAYOUT OF EFFLUENT TREATMENT<br />
PLANT<br />
1<br />
6 6<br />
2<br />
1. Inlet Chamber 6. Sludge drying bed<br />
2. Collection cum 7. Pressure sand filter<br />
equalization tank 8. Activated Carbon<br />
3. Aeration tank Filter<br />
4. Settling tank 9. Storage sump<br />
5. Treated effluent sump<br />
The sample of treated effluent was collected<br />
from the outlet of Activated Carbon Filter to analyze<br />
the characteristics of treated effluent. The tests are<br />
carried out and the results are given in Table 2.<br />
Table 2 CHARACTERISTIC OF<br />
TREATED WATER EFFLUENT<br />
No. Parameter Result TNPCB<br />
Standards<br />
1 PH 7.2 6.5-7.5<br />
2 Total suspended solids 26 < 30 mg/l<br />
3 Total dissolved solids 1505 2100 mg/l<br />
4 COD 108 250 mg/l<br />
5 BOD 25 30 mg/l<br />
3<br />
9<br />
4<br />
5<br />
7<br />
8<br />
� � �<br />
405<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
Comparing the actual results of treated<br />
effluent with Tamilnadu Pollution Control Board<br />
Standards, the treated effluent is meeting the<br />
standards of TNPCB and hence it is not harmful to<br />
the environment. The treated water can be used for<br />
gardening purpose and this will save the ground<br />
water from depletion and thus resulting effective<br />
usage of waste water.<br />
As water demands and environmental needs<br />
grow, water recycling play a greater role in our<br />
overall water supply. Water recycling has proven to<br />
be effective and successful in creating a new and<br />
reliable water supply. By working together to<br />
overcome obstacles, water recycling along with<br />
water conservation, can help us to conserve and<br />
sustainably manage our vital water resources<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
The authors are thankful to the Sona group<br />
of Institutions ( Thiagarajar Polytechnic College &<br />
Soan College of Technology ), Salem, Tamilnadu<br />
and Tamilnadu Water Supply and Drainage Board,<br />
water testing lab for their kind support for carrying<br />
out this case study.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1. Suresh.K. Dhameja, Environmental<br />
Engineering and Management, Published by<br />
S.K.Kataria and Sons, New Delhi.-pp110.<br />
2. Ronald L. Droste, Theory and practice of water<br />
and wastewater treatment, John Wiley & sons<br />
publications- pp 219-234<br />
3. Howard S. Peary, Donald R. Rowe, George<br />
Tehobanoglous, Environmental Enginneering,<br />
Mc Graw Hill Book Company- pp 302-314<br />
4. Santhosh Kumar Garg- Sewage disposal and Air<br />
Pollution Engg. – Khanna publisher, New<br />
Delhi-pp 275-287
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
74. Managing Water Resources - Experience at Captive Power Plant<br />
of M/s NALCO<br />
Horse and carriage, love and marriage,<br />
water and energy are as intimately linked in all<br />
phases of their existence as any other couple.<br />
Separately, water and energy have much in<br />
common. Each is an essential input for<br />
productive, comfortable and healthy human<br />
societies. Both are also derived from natural<br />
resources, and their uses by humans create a<br />
series of impacts on the sustainability of<br />
ecosystems. Together, water and energy are also<br />
closely connected, based on two fundamental<br />
truths: Energy is Required to Make Use of Water<br />
& Water is Needed to Make Use of Energy. In<br />
many places, it is clear that vicious cycle of<br />
inefficiency in the management of either water<br />
or energy resources exacerbate shortages, waste<br />
and unsustainable patterns of use in the other.<br />
In the consumption of water to generate electrical<br />
power, power plant inefficiencies or lack of<br />
mitigation measures result in wasted water and<br />
greater degradation of water and other<br />
environmental resources. NALCO, which has<br />
always stood by sustainable development,<br />
envisages water as a precious gift of nature. In<br />
the power stations of NALCO at CPP, systematic<br />
steps have been taken through ISO9000,1400<br />
and OHSAS-18000 to preserve & conserve water<br />
by minimising wastage of water. Depending on<br />
the nature of requirement, water has been graded<br />
i.e. DM water, clarified water, ash slurry makeup<br />
water, service water etc .and the consumption<br />
is benchmarked. Stringent measures were also<br />
taken in each system to avoid leakages and<br />
wastages. The ethos thus has been to manage<br />
and optimize the utility of this precious natural<br />
resource – water.<br />
*P. K. Pattanaik **A. K. Mohapatra<br />
Introduction<br />
National Aluminum Company Limited<br />
(NALCO) is a 3.45 Million Tonne per annum<br />
aluminum producer. To produce such a huge quantity<br />
of aluminum, the power requirement is in the tune of<br />
720 MW. The Captive Power plant, installed at<br />
Angul, Orissa has an installed capacity of 960 MW<br />
to supply uninterrupted power to smelter. For this<br />
purpose, water is taken from river The Brahmani,<br />
which is located at a distance of 11 KM. The water<br />
intake requirements for the power plant is 6900 -<br />
7000 M 3 / Hr with 7 units running. Typical one time<br />
water requirement is as follows:-<br />
3075 - 3100 M 3 /hr………Ash disposal to ash pond<br />
2225- 2250 M 3 /hr………Cooling tower make up<br />
780 - 800 M 3 /hr…………Smelter and township<br />
445 - 450 M 3 /hr………Service water<br />
65 - 70 M 3 /hr…………Drinking water<br />
55 - 60 M 3 /hr…………DM water<br />
60 - 65 M 3 /hr…………Rural Water Supply to<br />
near by village<br />
50 - 55 M 3 / hr…………Coal yard Management<br />
quenching<br />
145 - 150 M 3 /hr…………Transit, production &<br />
other system loss<br />
NALCO, CPP has taken initiative for reduction<br />
of water consumption and to avoid environmental<br />
pollution. For the same, comprehensive water<br />
management strategies were taken to recycle back<br />
the effluents after proper treatment for use in areas<br />
of less importance and thus reducing the<br />
requirement of raw water consumption by 44%.<br />
Total 3090 M 3 /hr water is recycled back. The<br />
*Dy General Manager ( Mech) **Chief Manager ( Mech)<br />
Captive Power plant ,National Aluminum Company limited,Angul<br />
406
1. Ash Pond water recycling System - 80.90 % - 2500cum/hr<br />
2. Industrial drain recycling System - 18.23 % - 560 cum/hr<br />
3. Sewage water recycling system - 0.22 % - 8 cum/hr<br />
4. Sludge water recycling System - 0.22 % - 7 cum/hr<br />
5. Coal Dust Extraction Recycling System - 0.43 % - 13 cum/hr<br />
Recycling<br />
Water<br />
Transit &<br />
Other losses<br />
145-150 cub<br />
M/hr<br />
Smelter &<br />
Township<br />
780-820 cub M/hr<br />
Now - 3900 cub<br />
M/hr<br />
Cooling<br />
Tower<br />
Make-Up<br />
2225-2250 cub<br />
M/hr<br />
RIVER<br />
BRAHMANI<br />
Dm Water<br />
Make-Up<br />
55-60 cub<br />
M/hr<br />
Systems installed for this purposes and the<br />
percentage of water recycled by each system with<br />
respect to total recycled water is given below.<br />
1. Ash Pond water Recycling System<br />
Through experience gained over the years,<br />
various concepts for ash water management have<br />
been evolved and are being applied in NALCO,CPP.<br />
The quality of effluent discharged from ash pond is<br />
controlled by multi-lagooning system, garlanding<br />
of ash pond with ash slurry discharge lines &<br />
effluents cascading before final effluent discharge<br />
etc.<br />
NALCO,CPP is consuming 672 T/hr of coal,<br />
thus generating 270 T/h ash. For transporting this<br />
amount of ash to the ash pond, installed at a distance<br />
of 7 km, 3000-3100 M 3 /hr of water is consumed.<br />
NALCO CPP has now adopted the concept of “Near<br />
Zero Effluent Discharge” wherein around 2500 M 3 /<br />
hr water is recycled back to the ash water pump<br />
house. For this purpose NALCO, CPP have installed<br />
Before - 7000 cub M/hr<br />
407<br />
RWSS<br />
60 - 65 cub M/hr<br />
Drinking<br />
Water In<br />
CPP<br />
65- 70 cub M/hr<br />
Service<br />
Water<br />
445-450 cub<br />
M/hr<br />
Coal Yard Fire<br />
Quenching<br />
50 – 55 cub M/hr<br />
a Pollution Control Unit at the Ash Pond.<br />
The slurry water mixture is pumped from the<br />
plant premises by ash slurry pumps to the Ash pond.<br />
The slurry is allowed to settle in the ash pond which<br />
acts as a sedimentary pond. The ash from the slurry<br />
is settled in the ash pond and the effluent<br />
overflowing from the ash pond carries some amount<br />
of suspended solids are transported by gravity to<br />
the Pollution Control Unit installed near the ash<br />
pond. The water enters the turbo circulators where<br />
alum, soda and polyelectrolyte are added to<br />
coagulate and flocculate the suspended solids, which<br />
ultimately settle in the floculator and scooped from<br />
the bottom part of the clarifloculator. The sludge<br />
generated is drawn periodically and sent back to<br />
the ash pond. Clear water overflows through the<br />
clarifloculator and goes to the treated water tank<br />
from where it is pumped out through vertical turbine<br />
recycling pumps to the ash water sump installed<br />
inside the plant @ 2500 M 3 /hr.
ASH<br />
ALURRY<br />
SLUDGE<br />
PUMP<br />
HOUSE<br />
ASH POND<br />
ASH POND-1 SPILL WAY<br />
ASH POND-2<br />
Salient feature of the PCU are as below :<br />
1. Capacity of P.C.U. = 65 MLD.<br />
2. Inlet water quality<br />
a) pH of water = 6.5 – 7.6.<br />
b) TSS = Up to 320 ppm.<br />
c) Turbidity = Up to 225 NTU.<br />
3. Outlet water quality<br />
a) PH of water = 6.5 – 8.5.<br />
b) TSS = Less than 30 ppm.<br />
c) Turbidity = Less than 50 NTU.<br />
3. Turbo circulator features<br />
a) Diameter of the turbo circulator = 43 m.<br />
b) Depth of the turbo circulator = 5 m.<br />
c) Detention Time = 2.7 hrs.<br />
d) Capacity of turbo circulator = 2708 M 3 / hr.<br />
e) Type of chemical dosing = Alum dosing,<br />
Polyelectrolyte dosing and Lime / Soda dosing.<br />
f) Scrapper / Bridge rotation time = 1.25 Rph.<br />
4. Chemical solution tanks<br />
a) Lime Tank –03 8.12 cub M RCC with tiles.<br />
INLET CHAMBER<br />
COLLECTION<br />
CHAMBER<br />
LIME<br />
DOSING<br />
MIXING TANK<br />
ALUM DOSING<br />
TURBO CIRCULATOR POLYELECTROLYTE<br />
DOSING<br />
SLUDGE PIT CLEAR<br />
WATER PIT<br />
408<br />
ASH<br />
ALURRY<br />
ASH WATER<br />
RECYCLING<br />
PUMP HOUSE<br />
ASH WATER<br />
FOREBAY IN CPP<br />
2500 cub M/hr<br />
b) Alum Tank – 03 32.5 cub M RCC with tiles.<br />
c) Poly Tank – 03 6.5 cub M HDPE.<br />
5. Recycle Pump House Features:<br />
a) Number of Recycle Pumps = 3.<br />
b) Type of Recycle Pump = Vertical Turbine<br />
Type.<br />
c) Rated Capacity = 1350 cub M / hr.<br />
d) Maximum Head = 30 m.<br />
2 Industrial Drain Water recycling System :<br />
The water from various drains of the plant<br />
including surface drains plus the cooling water<br />
overflow and neutralization pit discharge constitute<br />
the industrial drain. NALCO CPP has now installed<br />
Industrial Drain Water Recycling System. The<br />
insoluble solids and oil present in the industrial drain<br />
water is reduced to allowable limit and the treated<br />
water is used for controlling the coal yard fire and<br />
also as a make up for Ash Water. The salient points<br />
of the system are as below:-
Poly<br />
Electrolyte<br />
Dosing<br />
RAIN WATER<br />
DRAIN<br />
FOR ASH WATER<br />
MAKE UP<br />
S.n Description Input Value Output Value<br />
1 Flow (M3 /Hr) 600 560<br />
2 Total Suspended<br />
Solid ( PPM)<br />
1000 Max 30 Max<br />
3 pH 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 -8.5<br />
4 Oil ( PPM ) 50-100 5<br />
The whole plant can be divided into following<br />
Sub sections<br />
1. Pre-treatment Section<br />
2. Settling Basin section<br />
3. Dosing System<br />
The pretreatment section comprises of a coarse<br />
bar screen, fine bar screen, a concrete inlet channel<br />
& settling chamber and diffuser baffle. Effluent after<br />
passing through the coarse & fine bar screens will<br />
be free from larger particles/debris.<br />
Settling basin is a concrete underground water<br />
COLLECTION SUMP<br />
SETTLING<br />
BASIN<br />
INDUSTRIAL<br />
RECYCLED WATER<br />
SUMP<br />
IRW PUMP<br />
HOUSE<br />
409<br />
TO COAL HANDLING<br />
PLANT<br />
FOR QUENCHING<br />
FIRE<br />
INDUSTRIAL<br />
DRAIN<br />
OIL SKIMMER<br />
Oil<br />
Transported<br />
To Barrel<br />
retaining structure. The same has been designed with<br />
twin objective of removal of suspended solids and<br />
oil. The Settling basin is provided with traveling<br />
scrapper mechanism to sweep the floor and push<br />
the settled solids to the end of the compartment from<br />
where it can be drawn by sludge pumps. The<br />
scrapper during the return stroke in raised position<br />
skims the surface of water and pushes the oil/grease<br />
to the other end from where it is removed by a<br />
floating disc oil skimmer. The skimmer collects the<br />
oils and transfers the same to oil drums by an on–<br />
board pump. The treated effluent from the settling<br />
basin flows to the sump by three no of overflow<br />
pipes.<br />
The purpose of the dosing system is to dose<br />
the required polyelectrolyte to the settling basin at<br />
required concentration, which will settle the<br />
insoluble solid particles to the base of the Settling<br />
Basin, herby reducing the suspended solid<br />
concentration from 1000Max PPM to 30 Max PPM
3. Sewage Water Recycling System<br />
The objective of industrial liquid Sewage<br />
treatment plant (STP) is to treat the canteen waste<br />
and sewage from the power plants to meet<br />
environmental regulations and use the treated water<br />
for horticulture, thus reducing the load on the raw<br />
water from the river and the residue for land filling<br />
as a manure.<br />
In NALCO CPP, for an employee strength of<br />
3000 (including Contract worker) and for nearly 100<br />
quarters in the Vidyut Nagar Township around 18<br />
M 3 /hr sewage water is generated. The internal<br />
canteen and kiosks are generating around 3 M 3 /hr<br />
of canteen waste. The sewage Water recycling<br />
system is installed to recycle back 8 M 3 /hr of water<br />
from this area .<br />
After primary treatment at the source of their<br />
generation of the canteen waste by Garbodrain ,<br />
the effluents are sent to the STP for further treatment<br />
along with the sewage. The composite liquid effluent<br />
treatment plant has been designed to treat all liquid<br />
effluents, which originate within the power station<br />
and re-circulation of the treated effluent for various<br />
plant uses mainly for coal yard fire quenching and<br />
Horticulture purpose. The Capacity of the system<br />
is as below -<br />
a) FLOW :<br />
i) Canteen Waste - 3 M3 / hr<br />
ii) Sewage Flow - 18 M3 / hr<br />
Total - 21 M3 / hr<br />
b) RAW EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS :<br />
i) Canteen Waste Water<br />
BOD 500 mg/lit<br />
SS 600 mg/lit<br />
Oil & Grease 50 – 100 mg / lit<br />
ii) Combined Waste Water<br />
BOD 600 mg/lit<br />
SS 1000 - 1500 mg/lit<br />
Oil & Grease 600 mg / lit<br />
410<br />
c)TREATED EFFLENT CHARACTERISTICS:<br />
pH 7 – 7.5<br />
BOD < 30 mg/lit<br />
COD < 250 mg /Lit<br />
SS 100 mg/lit<br />
Oil & Grease < 10 mg / lit<br />
DO 0.20 mg/ Lit<br />
Residual Free Chlorine 1 mg/ Lit<br />
Process Description<br />
The canteen waste is processed through a<br />
GARBODRAIN, where the screened solids, grits<br />
and other kitchen waste are ground and then led to<br />
the BAR SCREEN –I. There, the Canteen<br />
wastewater is screened off and the floating matter<br />
is collected in a channel fitted with fine bar screen.<br />
The bar Screen consists of equispaced parallel bars<br />
inclined to horizontal. The screenings arrested on<br />
Bar Screens are raked manually at intervals. The<br />
raked screenings are collected on perforated<br />
platform to allow effluent to drip in to the channels.<br />
The semi-dried screenings are then carted out for<br />
land filling or incinerated. The canteen waste water<br />
is then conveyed to the GRIT REMOVAL<br />
CHANNEL, designed to remove grit consisting of<br />
sand, gravel or other heavy solids. The GRIT<br />
REMOVAL CHANNEL constructed in RCC is<br />
designed to maintain horizontal velocity close to<br />
0.6 m/sec. so as to settle the grit particles to bottom<br />
of the channel. Settled grits are scooped manually<br />
from bottom and collected in a wheel barrow and<br />
disposed off as land filling. The degrited canteen<br />
waste water is then passed to OIL REMOVAL<br />
UNIT for removal of oil. It consists of baffles and<br />
an Oil skimming pipe to skim off the floating oil<br />
into an oil drum.<br />
The raw sewage along with preliminary treated<br />
canteen waste water is screened Off in the BAR<br />
SCREEN-II .As in BAR SCREEN -1,,the<br />
screenings are arrested on bar screen and raked<br />
manually at interval depending on clogging frequency.<br />
The raked screenings are collected on perforated<br />
platform to allow sewage to drip in to the channels.<br />
The semidried screenings are then carted out for<br />
land filing or incinerated. The waste water is then
Canteen<br />
Waste<br />
Garbo-drain<br />
Bar Screen -1<br />
Grit Removal<br />
Channel-1<br />
Chemical<br />
Dozing (Chlorine)<br />
Oil<br />
Removal<br />
unit<br />
V<br />
NOTCH<br />
Treated<br />
Water<br />
8 cub M/hr<br />
conveyed to the GRIT REMOVAL CHANNEL-<br />
II, where grit consisting of sand, gravel, cinder or<br />
heavy solids are allowed to settle and are scooped<br />
out manually and used for land filling. Waste water<br />
is then led by gravity to the underground equalization<br />
Tank, where the contents are equalized by mixing<br />
action of FLOATING AERATOR and then led to<br />
AERATION TANK. In the Aeration tank, the<br />
microbes, biodegrades, the organic matter collected<br />
thus populating themselves and partly converting it<br />
Sewage<br />
From Toilets<br />
Sewage Collection<br />
Chamber<br />
BAR SCREEN - II<br />
GRIT REMOVAL CHANNEL _II<br />
Equalization Tank<br />
Raw Sewage Pump<br />
Aeration tank<br />
Secondary<br />
Clarifier<br />
411<br />
Sludge Pump<br />
SDB<br />
to end products like CO 2 , H 2 O etc, thus reducing<br />
BOD of the settled waste water. The Floating aerator<br />
spurge the water in air, there by producing droplets,<br />
which absorb the oxygen from atmosphere. The<br />
contents of the aeration tank is lead to the<br />
SECONDARY CLARIFIER for removal of<br />
suspended solids (MLSS).The underflow of the<br />
secondary clarifier is recycled back to aeration tank<br />
by SLUDGE RECYCLE PUMPS
1. Sludge Pond water Management<br />
During the process of clarifloculation &<br />
separation and filtration at the Clarifloculators &<br />
Gravity filters at the Pre treatment plant of CPP<br />
sludge and Backwash waters are generated. During<br />
June-Sept around 300 M 3 /day waste water is<br />
generated. During the lean period this comes to 100<br />
M 3 /day. This water along with the fine silts and<br />
sludge are transported to the Sludge Pond located<br />
at the side of the Raw water reservoir. In the sludge<br />
pond, sludge, grit consisting of sand, gravel, or<br />
heavy solids are allowed to settle and around 270 -<br />
90 M 3 /day of water is recycled to the raw water<br />
reservoir, depending upon the prevailing season.<br />
412<br />
SLUDGES WITH WATER<br />
FROM<br />
CLARIFLOCULATOR<br />
SERVICE ATER<br />
FOR SCOURING<br />
SLUDGE PITS<br />
1. Coal dust extraction water recycling<br />
System :<br />
During the process of grinding of the Coal at<br />
the Coal Crusher ( capacity 750 T/hr ) in the Coal<br />
Handling plant lot of fine dusts are generated. These<br />
dusts are sucked through two no of dust extractor<br />
SLUDGE PUMPS<br />
SLUDGE POND<br />
fans ( Capacity 4700 SETTLING M POND<br />
3 /hr)In the Cyclone separator<br />
13 M3 /hr of water is sprayed on to it and a slurry is<br />
made.<br />
The slurry are then taken to the settling tank<br />
and passed through zigzag path, thus allowing<br />
SLUDGE POND<br />
OVERFLOW<br />
PIT<br />
settling the coal dust. Clean water is then allowed<br />
to pass through open channels and are guided to the<br />
ash slurry sump no-1.<br />
RAW<br />
WATER<br />
RESOIRVOIR<br />
11.2 – 3.75 cub<br />
M/hr<br />
BACK WAS<br />
FRO<br />
GRAVITY
SERVICE<br />
WATER FOR<br />
SPAYING<br />
COAL<br />
CRUSHER<br />
ROOM<br />
DUST SUCKED<br />
BY TWO NO OF<br />
BLOWERS<br />
MIXING TANK<br />
SETTLING TANK<br />
OVERLOW OF<br />
SETTLING TANK<br />
Other Measures taken in Water Conservations<br />
Various measureare already taken and some<br />
are in the pipeline for effective conservation of<br />
Water. NALCO, CPP is continually putting its effort<br />
to bring down the resource consumption by adopting<br />
new technology and retrofitting new system in place<br />
of old one. Some of them are<br />
1. In order to further reduce the water requirement<br />
in ash transportation NALCO, CPP is shifting<br />
towards dry evacuation of ash from the present wet<br />
type and already installed have taken the dry system<br />
in their Unit no-7 & 8. For Unit 1 to 6 dry disposals<br />
road map prepared and will be completed by 2011.<br />
Efforts are being taken to use the ash as cash, by<br />
selling it to cement plants and other end users.<br />
2. In the future project of Unit-9 & 10, NALCO,<br />
CPP is going for high concentration slurry disposal<br />
system (HCSD) to the ash pond where the water<br />
requirement will be substantially reduced.<br />
ASH SLURRY SUMP<br />
OF<br />
ASH SLURRY PH-1<br />
13 cub M/hr<br />
� � �<br />
413<br />
3. MAGALDI bottom ash disposal will be done<br />
for the forthcoming units no-9 & 10.<br />
4. In the present system for transportation of ash<br />
slurry from ESP, hydro sluicing system is provided.<br />
Jet cone measurement and quick action for replacing<br />
the defecting jets are done so as to optimize the water<br />
requirement in that area.<br />
Conclusion :<br />
Well designed measures, therefore have saved<br />
CPP, NALCO to conserve water to the tune of 3100<br />
M 3 /hr thus reducing the intake water flow from 7000<br />
to 3900 M 3 /hr. Apart from conserving this natural<br />
resources it also helps us directly to save energy<br />
which otherwise is required to pump from river<br />
Brahmani. The bountiful gift of nature in this part<br />
of the world notwithstanding, NALCONIANS<br />
understand life without water & therefore take all<br />
possible recourses to optimize the use of this<br />
precious gift of nature- Water.
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
75. Innovative and Conventional Rain Water Harvesting Measures:<br />
A part of ongoing Integrated Water Resources Management Program<br />
by Gujarat Ambuja Cements Limited and Ambuja Cement Foundation<br />
Introduction<br />
A United Nations Environment Program<br />
(UNEP) estimate indicates that by the year 2025<br />
two third of the humanity will face shortage of fresh<br />
water. At present one third of the world population<br />
is already facing water stress. Another UNEP study<br />
states that nearly 40% of world’s population lives<br />
near the coastal regions, mostly within 60 kms. from<br />
the sea coast and it predicts that by the year 2010,<br />
*S. C. Parik **H. R. Mori<br />
Abstract<br />
Availability of fresh water is decreasing in most of the areas of our country on a<br />
perennial basis, despite experiencing fairly good average rainfall. As a result, fresh water<br />
has become a precious resource. Rain is the predominant source of all the fresh water and<br />
as such rain water harvesting measures provide the easiest and cheapest mode of collecting<br />
and conserving the fresh water. A variety of such measures are already known for their<br />
effective implementation, suiting to the requirements of any particular area, depending on<br />
the average rainfall, geographic location, land use pattern etc.<br />
Gujarat Ambuja Cements Limited, Ambujanagar, operating cement plants in coastal<br />
belt of Saurashtra region in Gujarat had realized the importance of fresh water more than<br />
a decade back and started taking initiatives to harvest rain water since then. A visionary<br />
initiative started more than a decade back on a small scale has today assumed the shape of<br />
major “Integrated Water Resource Management Program” in the Kodinar and Sutrapada<br />
Taluka of Junagadh district. It has yielded appreciable positive results in the form of<br />
increased water table, easy availability of quality fresh water, reduction in the salinity,<br />
increase of the crop yield etc.<br />
Through this paper, an effort has been made to provide a brief overview of the various<br />
measures taken by Gujarat Ambuja Cements Limited to innovatively harvest rain water in<br />
the mined out pits of its various mining areas. Also, the activities of Ambuja Cement<br />
Foundation (NGO), working in the areas surround the mines and plants on a very large<br />
scale, pertaining to rain water harvesting for community development and social upliftment<br />
have been included. Together, both the above organizations have made the difference and<br />
have established an example of how the industry can fulfill its Corporate Social<br />
Responsibilities.<br />
almost 80% of the world population will within 100<br />
kms. from the seacoast. The rural population in<br />
general faces water shortage for agriculture and<br />
other allied activities including drinking water. In<br />
the coastal regions, this problem gets further<br />
compounded because of salinity ingress,<br />
characterized by mixing of the fresh water and<br />
vertical saline water aquifers.<br />
*General Manager (Mines), Gujarat Ambuja Cements Limited, Ambujanagar (Gujarat)<br />
**Sr. Programme Manager, Ambuja Cement Foundation, Ambujanagar (Gujarat)<br />
414
In coastal areas of Gujarat, the villages located<br />
within 15-20 kms. from the seacoast are suffering<br />
severely from the problem of salinity ingress. In<br />
Kodinar taluka of Junagadh district (the area under<br />
reference), most of the rivulets like Goma, Somat,<br />
Sangavadi etc. are seasonal in nature and the water<br />
in these rivulets do not last beyond winters. Other<br />
water bodies like ponds that get water from these<br />
rivers also dries up by the month of October-<br />
November. As a result, over the years the problem<br />
of water shortage in the region has worsened.<br />
Participatory Rural Appraisals carried out<br />
confirm that the problem of salinity ingress actually<br />
started in the late seventies, basically due to the<br />
following reasons:<br />
� Over-exploitation of ground water to meet the<br />
increasing needs of the growing population.<br />
� Breaking up of joint family system into nuclear<br />
families has resulted in fragmentation of land, which<br />
lead to rampant increase of wells and extensive use<br />
of diesel and electrical pumps.<br />
� Cultivation of high water intensive crops like<br />
sugarcane, banana, betel nut, coconut etc. has<br />
resulted in lowering of water table and ingress of<br />
saline water into the groundwater.<br />
� Inefficient use and wastage of water by<br />
farmers.<br />
� Mismanagement of ground water due to overirrigation<br />
and water loss through high run-off.<br />
� Recurrent and worst droughts over the last few<br />
years in the region have further worsened situation<br />
in aquifers.<br />
This phenomenon is having long-term<br />
implications for both households and agriculture on<br />
which about 60% people are depended for their<br />
livelihoods. This has also meant an increased<br />
dependence on outside agencies like the state and<br />
other civil society organizations for basic needs such<br />
as drinking water and food. Since 1980s, conflicts<br />
have arisen over access to limited fresh water<br />
resources available in this region.<br />
With the objectives of contributing for the<br />
cause of Rain Water Harvesting in the region and<br />
provide the much needed succor to the society<br />
surround the mines and plants, Gujarat Ambuja<br />
Cements Limited, started formulating and<br />
implementing the Rain Water Harvesting Schemes<br />
through its community development wing Ambuja<br />
415<br />
Cement Foundation (NGO) since the year 1996.<br />
Having realized the success and positive social<br />
impact of the above ongoing measures, the company<br />
simultaneously formulated innovative schemes to<br />
utilize the exhausted mining pits to store rain water<br />
for the large scale benefits to the community and<br />
farmers surround the plant and mining areas.<br />
A. Water Harvesting in mined out pits by Gujarat<br />
Ambuja Cements Ltd :<br />
The company operates captive mechanized<br />
opencast mines to meet the prime raw material<br />
(Limestone and Marl) requirements for cement<br />
making from the areas adjoining the plants.<br />
Subsequent to the mining, wide pits, ranging in<br />
depth from 12-15 meters are created. These pits are<br />
to be put back in some useful land use form i.e.<br />
reclamation. The generally adopted practices are<br />
back filling the mined out area, afforestation,<br />
development of pastureland, creation of water<br />
bodies etc. The company has also implemented these<br />
techniques for various areas in suitable area.<br />
However, considering the location of the mines in<br />
coastal region, the importance of fresh water and<br />
rainwater harvesting, more emphasis has been<br />
accorded to converting the mined out pits into<br />
artificial lakes and reservoirs by diverting the<br />
surface run off. Over the years, these efforts have<br />
translated in successful harvesting of rainwater. As<br />
a matter of fact the quantum of water harvested each<br />
year in the mined out pits has been on the rise on a<br />
perennial basis. These efforts have been briefly<br />
described here, added with suitable schematic/<br />
photographic illustration, wherever possible.<br />
01. Diversion of the plant run off:<br />
Some of the mined out pits were located in<br />
close vicinity of the two plants of GACL. Taking<br />
advantage of the same, it was planned to divert the<br />
plant surface run-off, which was hitherto going<br />
waste, to one of such pit, way back in the year 1995.<br />
To enable the flow of water from plants, a 1000-m.<br />
long trench of 4 m width was excavated and<br />
connected to the pit. Apart from this, to increase to<br />
quantum of water collected, one of the nearby small<br />
nallah and the village run-off drain was also<br />
modified and connected to the pit. The schematic<br />
plan given below indicates the location and the<br />
arrangement of the above.
As a result, during the rainy season, both the<br />
plant and village run off could be diverted and<br />
collected in the selected mined out pit. The results<br />
have been over-whelming and resulted into creation<br />
of an artificial lake on the outskirts of the plant and<br />
nearby village. Over the years, the water collected<br />
in this lake, on a perennial basis, has helped in<br />
recharging the local aquifer, without much of the<br />
recurring expenses. The only care to be taken is premonsoon<br />
cleaning of the diversion channels to the<br />
pit. The pit has got a storage capacity of 0.50 mcm<br />
and except few of the draught years, rain water<br />
measuring 80-90% of the capacity has been<br />
collected in the said pit each year. The immediate<br />
beneficiaries have been the farmers within one km.<br />
radius of the pit, with water level in their wells going<br />
up and the wells yielding water even during the<br />
summer months.<br />
02. Diversion of water from seasonal nallah:<br />
The success of the scheme above motivated<br />
the company to create more such reservoirs/lakes.<br />
By the year 2004, more space was available to store<br />
large quantum of rainwater in the form of mined<br />
416<br />
Surface Flow Direction<br />
out pits at Ambujanagar. However, the only problem<br />
was “how to get rainwater in these pits and from<br />
where”? No such source was available in the close<br />
vicinity and the rains directly falling in the mined<br />
out areas was grossly inadequate to fill up the pits<br />
to desirable levels.<br />
Brainstorming sessions, survey of the nearby<br />
areas and suggestions from the elderly locals<br />
revealed the possibility of diverting water from a<br />
seasonal nallah flowing around 3.25 kms. north of<br />
these mined out pit. Fortunately, the local surface<br />
topography also favored the flow of water from the<br />
nallah to the pit.<br />
Encourage by the feasibility, a scheme was<br />
drawn to construct a diversion channel from the said<br />
nallah to enable the rainwater to flow to the<br />
designated mined out pit. The scheme and the<br />
resulting benefits were explained to the local<br />
villagers to solicit their views, suggestions and<br />
needful assistance. Simultaneously, needful and<br />
relevant permissions were obtained from the various<br />
govt. authorities for the same. The plan given below<br />
explains the schematic diagram of the arrangement.
Water diversion<br />
Channel<br />
The work for constructing the channel started<br />
in the month of January 2005 and with the cooperation<br />
of the local villagers, the 3.25 kms. long<br />
channel (lined canal) was completed before the<br />
onset of monsoon at a total cost of over Rs. 20 Lacs.<br />
Come rains and the results were there to be<br />
seen by every one. The mined out pits witnessed a<br />
continuous flow of surface runoff from the nallah<br />
for more than a week and two of the pits could get<br />
filled up to brim. A total of around 4 million cubic<br />
meters of water, which otherwise would have gone<br />
as waste to sea, could be collected in different pits.<br />
The collection of water had a positive impact of the<br />
surrounding water levels. The surrounding wells,<br />
which used to run dry by the months of March –<br />
April every year, yielded adequate water even during<br />
the peak summer.<br />
Considering the above success, one more pit<br />
417<br />
was inter-linked with the main water-receiving pit<br />
so as to transfer excess water in case of heavy rains.<br />
During this monsoon (2006), the scheme proved<br />
very successful and the excess water could be<br />
transferred to the above pit, which used to get very<br />
little water previously. This year over 5.50 million<br />
cubic meters of water could be collected through<br />
the above diversion canal.<br />
The farmers, having their fields within 2-3 kms.<br />
radius of the said pits are extremely happy. They<br />
are confident of getting water not only this year but<br />
on a perennial basis. Explains one of the farmers “<br />
now even one or two years of poor rain would not<br />
really bother us.”<br />
03. Connecting nearby nallah to the pit through<br />
pipe culvert:<br />
At Rampara mine of the company, one of the
seasonal nallah flows in close proximity of the pits.<br />
When the pit close to the nallah was completely<br />
mined out in the year 2005, it was considered to<br />
divert part of the water from the nallah to the pit to<br />
store surface run off and recharge the local aquifer.<br />
However, a peculiar problem was faced in this plan.<br />
What would happen if the pit gets filled up to the<br />
capacity and water starts overflowing to the adjacent<br />
fields? Any such possibility would have resulted in<br />
large-scale damage to the adjacent fields and<br />
problem for the company. Many options to control<br />
the inflow or implementing any other scheme were<br />
discussed but a foolproof method could not be<br />
arrived at. During the monsoon of 2005, a lot of<br />
water flowed through the nallah and the mining team<br />
at Rampara stood helplessly high and dry and felt<br />
dejected as all the water went to the sea as waste.<br />
However, the dejection led to few more<br />
brainstorming sessions and ultimately an idea of<br />
providing a outflow channel at the extreme end of<br />
the pit to carry away excess water from the pit to<br />
the same nallah down-stream caught the fancy of<br />
the mining team. The option was evaluated several<br />
times on various parameters and was found<br />
foolproof from all the angles.<br />
Excess Water<br />
Outflow Channel<br />
418<br />
Once again a scheme was drawn to provide<br />
inflow as well outflow channel for the pit, with the<br />
outflow channel having the capacity to carry water<br />
to the tune of three to four times that of the inflow<br />
channel. The scheme was explained to the local<br />
villagers and their doubts and apprehensions were<br />
clarified. Once everything was settled, 500 m long<br />
outflow channel was completed first. Subsequently<br />
the inflow channel, in the form of pipe culvert<br />
consisting of two nos. of 1 feet dia RCC pipes was<br />
constructed to divert the part of nallah water to the<br />
designated pit. The entire scheme around Rs. 5 lacs.<br />
The scheme is explained in the plan given below.<br />
During the recent monsoon, the pit could store<br />
around 0.75 million cubic meter of water in just<br />
around 20 days. A lot of percolation of the water<br />
also took place, recharging the local aquifer.<br />
However, the inflow continued and the excess water<br />
started flowing back to the nallah, perfectly as per<br />
the planned scheme. Once again a perennial water<br />
harvesting structure created with practically no<br />
recurring expenditure. Once again happy<br />
community nearby the mine, free of woes of ground<br />
water.<br />
Water inflow<br />
to the pit
04. Natural Water harvesting at Solaj Mine:<br />
The Solaj mine of the company is a very<br />
interesting example of natural water harvesting in<br />
the active mining pits. At Solaj, almost over 30 m.<br />
thick layer of impervious marl underlies the top<br />
capping of limestone (two to six meters thick).<br />
During the rainy season, once the limestone layer<br />
is saturated with water, the marl layer doesn’t allow<br />
percolation of the water below. Consequently, the<br />
water starts oozing out of the limestone, water<br />
logging the fields, damaging the crop and ultimately<br />
flowing away in the natural drains.<br />
Subsequent to the mining activities of the<br />
company at Solaj, the water started flowing from<br />
the opened up limestone mining faces into the active<br />
pits, eliminating water logging of the adjacent fields.<br />
As the pits advanced, both laterally & vertically,<br />
more amount of water started accumulating in the<br />
pits. The company planned the working in such a<br />
fashion that both limestone & marl could be<br />
excavated without resorting to any dewatering of<br />
the pits.<br />
Large amount of water started accumulating<br />
in the various pits at Solaj every year. Lateron, the<br />
villagers approached the company to allow them to<br />
draw water from the pits, using their own diesel<br />
pumps. This resulted in better crop yield to the<br />
adjacent farmers due to availability of water almost<br />
round the year. This year (2006), almost 1.50 million<br />
cubic meter of water could be collected in various<br />
pits at Solaj. Once again a perennial water<br />
harvesting system with no revenue expenditure. The<br />
villagers now consider the Solaj mine as less of a<br />
mine and more of a reservoir, contributing positive<br />
impacts to their lives.<br />
B. Water Resources Management by Ambuja<br />
Cement Foundation :<br />
Ambuja Cement Foundation (ACF), a Non-<br />
Government Foundation and community<br />
development wing of Gujarat Ambuja Cements<br />
Limited, formulates and implements various<br />
community development activities. Its mission is<br />
“to energize, involve and enable the communities<br />
to realize their potential.” It addresses the<br />
community land, water, forest and other issues<br />
through a large number of interventions such as<br />
water resources development including prevention<br />
of salinity ingress, watershed management,<br />
wasteland and pasture land development, farmer<br />
419<br />
friendly agricultural techniques, health and education<br />
needs etc. through various innovative programs<br />
managed by well qualified and trained dedicated and<br />
committed staff. Amongst all the above programs,<br />
water resources development, watershed<br />
management and prevention of salinity ingress are<br />
accorded highest priority.<br />
01. Recharging BARDA BHANDARA from<br />
Singoda river through underground pipe line :<br />
Near the company’s port facilities at<br />
Muldwarka, there exists a large Bhandara (tidal<br />
regulator), meant to store huge quantity of surface<br />
run off (capacity 4.67 MCM). However,<br />
unfortunately there was no large source of surface<br />
run off to this bhandara and the available facility<br />
could not be used fully for the desired gains. In the<br />
year 2001, ACF evaluated the possibility of bringing<br />
in water from the only source available nearby, the<br />
river Singoda. But the river was flowing at a distance<br />
of 1 km. from the bhandara and apparently no way<br />
seemed feasible to connect the river with the<br />
bhandara as the area in between was private<br />
agricultural lands. One of the possibilities that<br />
emerged was to lay an underground pipeline from<br />
the riverbank. However, it required digging up of<br />
the agricultural land and hence, consent and<br />
willingness of the farmers was critical. The detail<br />
scheme was formulated and explained to the nearby<br />
farmers of four villages, & specially to the ones<br />
whose fields would be required to be dug up for<br />
laying the pipeline. The perennial and long-term<br />
advantages of the scheme were also explained. After<br />
deliberating the issue for long, the villagers<br />
ultimately agreed for the implementation of the<br />
scheme.<br />
The 600 meters long underground pipeline of<br />
900 mm dia RCC pipe was laid from the river bank<br />
to the bhandara through the private agricultural<br />
fields and the line was again covered up with soil<br />
to repair the agricultural fields. Simultaneously, a<br />
checkdam was made across the river Singoda to<br />
enable transfer of water from the river to the<br />
bhandara under pressure. The entire work was<br />
completed in less than six month’s time at a cost of<br />
around Rs. 6 lacs. In the rainy season, the river water<br />
filled up the bhandara, like never before. It resulted<br />
in collection of around 4.67 MCM million cubic<br />
meters of rainwater in the bhandara for the first time<br />
in the monsoon of year 2002.
Work Done Storage No. of Area No. of Avg. Avg. Depth<br />
Cap.(MCM) wells benefited Farmers Depth of of water in<br />
benefited (Ha.) benefited water in wells (m)<br />
wells (m)<br />
Before After<br />
Water Diversion by<br />
Underground Pipeline 4.67 180 900 180 14.63 2.44<br />
The above arrangement also does not require<br />
any revenue expenditure on a perennial basis, except<br />
the checking and cleaning of the pipeline for any<br />
blockage. The schematic diagram of the<br />
arrangement and the photograph of the BARDA<br />
BHANDARA are given below. This project created<br />
an example of how the joint efforts of the<br />
community and NGO can make the positive<br />
difference. The adjoining farmers are now<br />
cultivating Rabi crops, which was distant dream for<br />
them previously.<br />
02. Inter-linking of waterbodies through link<br />
water channels :<br />
Taking a cue from the traditional wisdom and<br />
the much hyped “inter-linking of rivers” project,<br />
ACF initiated an innovative project called “interlinking<br />
of local rivers through open canals.” The<br />
basic concept behind the scheme is diverting water<br />
from surplus area to water deficit/scarce area.<br />
In Kodinar taluka, a lot of water from the rivers<br />
flows every year into the sea. These rivers drain the<br />
local watershed area and most of the water is lost to<br />
the sea. ACF studied the problem and a plan was<br />
conceptualized and formulated to divert water from<br />
excess zone to deficit zones and thereby minimize<br />
the outflow to the sea. Due care was taken in the<br />
scheme to include the network of existing water<br />
harvesting structures and water bodies like tidal<br />
regulators, ponds etc. At the same time, it was<br />
planned to help the water to remain within the area<br />
for a much longer period than the past for facilitating<br />
maximum recharge of the local aquifers.<br />
Studying the watershed dynamics and excess<br />
capacity in the existing rivers during monsoons, the<br />
potential sinks (rivulets, ponds, percolation tanks<br />
etc.) and the shortest possible route to these sinks<br />
were identified with the help of villagers by ACF.<br />
The direction and route the overflowing water<br />
420<br />
acquires was taken up for inter-linking with the water<br />
bodies. The local know how was utilized to the<br />
maximum extent to ensure that the local farmers<br />
benefit maximum from the proposed network and<br />
least amount of water is lost through run-off.<br />
The following steps have been undertaken for interlinking:<br />
� Inter-linking of existing tidal regulators<br />
through pipelines.<br />
� Construction of radial canals from existing<br />
tidal regulators.<br />
� Construction of canals from river to village<br />
ponds.<br />
� Deepening of ponds and rivers to increase the<br />
water holding capacity.<br />
� Building of check dams, waste-weirs or<br />
percolation tanks to increase the water recharging<br />
capacity in the watershed.<br />
� Linking up of water bodies like percolation<br />
tanks and ponds by constructing link water<br />
channels.<br />
Case of village Mitiaz, Devli, Kadodara, Damli and<br />
Pipli<br />
The above inter-linking project was started in<br />
1999-2000 involving above five adjacent villages<br />
to benefit from the excess water of river Goma. The<br />
village ponds in all these five villages were first<br />
deepened to increase the water holding capacity. An<br />
inter-linking canal was simultaneously constructed<br />
to connect these ponds.<br />
During monsoon, the Goma stream over flew<br />
and the water got collected in the Mitiaz pond. After<br />
the water level in this pond crossed the stipulated<br />
level, it automatically got diverted to the<br />
downstream village ponds one by one. The table<br />
below gives the details of the work done and their<br />
impacts:
Work Done Storage No. of Area No. of Avg. Depth Avg. Depth<br />
Cap. wells benefited Farmers of water in of water in<br />
(MCM)# benefited (Ha.) $ benefited wells (m) wells (m)<br />
Before After<br />
River widening & Pond<br />
deepening Pipli 0.06 40 140 40 12.20 6.70<br />
Percolation Tank Mitiaz 0.07 132 462 121 16.75 2.40<br />
Well Recharging Mitiaz<br />
Percolation Tank &<br />
— 20 64 20 8.80 2.75<br />
Waste-weir Mitiaz 0.06 30 105 25 9.75 3.65<br />
Percolation Tank Kadodara 0.06 18 63 18 11.60 3.35<br />
Percolation Tank Damli 0.11 35 122 28 12.80 1.50<br />
Checkdam Renovation Pipli 0.01 32 93 32 9.75 6.10<br />
Percolation Tank Pipli 0.05 32 112 32 10.35 5.50<br />
TOTAL 0.42 339 1161 316<br />
# The figures represent the area benefited and not the increase of area under irrigation.<br />
$ The figures represent the storage capacity created. However, ground water recharge is more because of multiple<br />
filling of the structures, which further improves the water quality.<br />
During the year 2000-01 and 2002-03, deepening and widening of river Goma was undertaken in village<br />
Pipli. After the completion of the project, the salinity in the area has reduced, the ground water level has come<br />
up and the farmers benefit from three crops a year. Also due to reduction in the salinity, the farmers now<br />
require less quantity of seeds for sowing as compared with salinity-affected scenario.<br />
Panch Piplwa – Jantrakhadi Radial Canal<br />
The Government had constructed a tidal regulator near Panch Pipalwa village to act as a barrier between<br />
the agricultural land and salinity. During the good monsoon, excess water used to flow to the sea. To utilize<br />
this excess water, a 1.50 kms. long link canal was excavated through ACF in the year 2002 from Panch<br />
Pipalwa bhandara to Jantrakhadi village. The ponds at the village Pipalwa were also deepened in the year<br />
2000-01and 2002-03. The benefits of the project are illustrated in table below :<br />
Work Done Storage No. of Area No. of Avg. Depth Avg. Depth<br />
Cap. wells benefited Farmers of water in of water in<br />
(MCM)# benefited (Ha.) $ benefited wells (m) wells (m)<br />
Before After<br />
Reverse Water Channel 0.05 30 105 30 8.84 4.27<br />
Interlinking of Tidal regulators and Bhandaras (Water Bodice)<br />
Government of Gujarat has constructed Tidal Regulators and Bhandaras on fringe of coastline for<br />
preventing salinity ingress as well as create a fresh water buffer and fresh-saline water interface. Considering<br />
the positive impact of the interlinking of ponds described above, ACF planned and implemented a similar<br />
project to interlink three major rivers of Kodinar region by constructing spreading channel, parallel to<br />
seacoast. The details of the project are given below :<br />
421
Project Storage Cap. No. of wells Area No. of Farmers<br />
(MCM) benefited benefited (Ha.) benefited<br />
Spreading Channel<br />
Panch Pipalva Tidal 11.72 40 270 162<br />
Regulator to Sodam<br />
Bhandara<br />
Spreading Channel<br />
Muldwarka Tidal 1.84 126 655 398<br />
Regulator to<br />
Sodam Bhandara<br />
Radial Canals<br />
from Panch 1.32 67 410 244<br />
Pipalva Tidal<br />
Regulator Scheme<br />
Advantages<br />
The above inter-linking has meant that the water bodies contain water for a much longer period than in<br />
the past and also results in less wastage of available rainwater. Percolation of water has contributed to bring<br />
up the hitherto falling ground water levels. As a result the problem of salinity ingress has also been controlled<br />
to a fair extent in the region. Water quality has definitely improved considerably as a result of perennial<br />
recharging of the aquifer. Elderly farmers of the region happily explain that the present water table has<br />
reached the level that was seen three decades back only.<br />
Availability of drinking water has increased considerably, especially during the summers and drudgery<br />
of women and girls has come down significantly. Since women and girls are generally responsible for<br />
taking care of the animals as well, the increased availability of water and fodder has further helped their<br />
cause. In fact, the hygiene standards have also gone up in the area due to availability of the water.<br />
Details of Water Resources Management Activities by ACF, Ambujanagar<br />
Sr. Activities Unit Cumulative till 05-06<br />
1 Construction / Renovation of<br />
Checkdam & Causeway Nos. 128<br />
2 Recharging of Wells Nos. 783<br />
3 Percolation Tanks & Wells Nos. 98<br />
4 Construction of Wasteweirs Nos. 16<br />
5 Construction of Culverts Nos. 6<br />
6 Construction of Farm Ponds Nos. 717<br />
7 Construction of Link Channels Kms 52<br />
8 Construction of Nalaplugs Nos. 25<br />
9 Earthen Bunding Ha. 45<br />
10 Construction of RRWHS Nos. 1172<br />
11 Saline Well Renovation Nos. 26<br />
12 Drinking Water Wells Nos. 21<br />
422
Conclusions<br />
The process of rainwater harvesting through<br />
inter-linking is very cost effective, if implemented<br />
in a systematic and planned manner, as compared<br />
with other projects. It assists in maximizing the<br />
utilization of available structures since these are able<br />
to buffer the excess water flow. No land acquisition<br />
is generally required and hence it helps in people’s<br />
active participation that eliminates unwarranted<br />
conflicts. However, these type of projects could be<br />
possible only in limited geographical context where<br />
the inter-linking distances are small, surface<br />
topography is favorable and the possible impacts<br />
of such projects do not adversely affect large number<br />
of people.<br />
Similarly, the conversion of mined out pits into<br />
water reservoirs is one of the best ways to reclaim<br />
the area. The availability of large quantity of water<br />
not only improves the aesthetics of the area; it has a<br />
positive impact on the earning potential of the<br />
nearby farmers. As such it fits well into the objective<br />
� � �<br />
423<br />
of sustainable mine closure, need of the hour.<br />
These kind of micro-level interventions are<br />
proving viable, feasible and cost effective<br />
alternatives for macro-level replication for larger<br />
benefits. As a matter fact, the Government of Gujarat<br />
has recognized these efforts and ACF is now<br />
considered as nodal agency by the government to<br />
help replicate such models elsewhere in the state<br />
on a large scale.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
The authors express their sincere thanks to the<br />
management of GACL and ACF for kindly allowing<br />
to use the various informations, documents and<br />
references for inclusion this paper. Special thanks<br />
are due to Shri H S Patel, President; Gujarat Ambuja<br />
Cements Limited for his guidance and<br />
encouragement on the subject matter. The views<br />
expressed herein belong to authors and not<br />
necessarily that of their organizations.
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
76. The Public Awareness on Rainwater Harvesting<br />
Voltaire has said, ‘necessity is the mother<br />
of invention’. In the face of fast depleting water<br />
resources re-inventing conservation techniques is<br />
no longer only a likely option but an essential<br />
imperative. Of all the options available for renewing<br />
water resources, rain water harvesting (RWH) is<br />
clearly the most ancient and viable option for India<br />
both in terms of implementation and cost-benefit<br />
analysis. The government, both at the centre and<br />
the state levels, has introduced policies to promote<br />
and even enforce RWH but unless the public is aware<br />
and consciously recognizes the need for RWH,<br />
implementation will pose problems. This paper<br />
explores various measures for creating public<br />
awareness about RWH both at the micro and the<br />
macro level in an attempt to inspire and motivate<br />
various urban citizen groups to undertake the same.<br />
This paper will restrict itself to the need as well as<br />
the benefits and viability of RWH in urban areas<br />
and the role that educational institutions and other<br />
organizations can play in spreading the awareness.<br />
Fr. Agnel Technical Education Complex will<br />
serve as a case study for RWH on the micro level.The<br />
Vashi unit of Agnel Seva Ashram(ASA)which is the<br />
social wing of this organization has already geared<br />
itself up to promote the concept of water<br />
conservation. Its impressive week-long programme,<br />
‘Save Electricity and Water Abhiyan’ (SEWA), which<br />
was launched as a multi-pronged attempt to impress<br />
upon our students the need to use these scarce<br />
resources judiciously, is fast gathering momentum.<br />
A seminar on Rain Water Harvesting and a pilot<br />
RWH project for the staff quarters of the complex<br />
are next on the anvil. The long term goal is to extend<br />
RWH to meet the water requirements of the entire<br />
complex and subsequently to other Fr. Agnel<br />
Complexes in the country. Through net-working<br />
*Bertha Fernandes **Sandip H. Deshmukh<br />
with other organizations(private and government<br />
as well as NGOs) each Fr. Agnel Complex could<br />
serve as a model and a centre of informative<br />
action for other institutions and organizations<br />
in their respective zones. As the old saying goes,<br />
example is always far more effective than precept.<br />
“Unutilized or underutilized plant capacity is<br />
the costliest form of waste in developing countries.<br />
Under developed countries are always under<br />
managed countries”, said a management guru. I<br />
think this statement very apt in the context of water<br />
because under utilized or unutilized water capacity<br />
is the costliest form of waste in any country. Most<br />
of the developed world has taken cognizance of this<br />
and has already got its water management systems<br />
in place but developing countries like ours have a<br />
long way to go in harnessing this waste. Despite<br />
being in a monsoon region, availability of water is<br />
already a serious problem in most Indian states<br />
irrespective of their physical terrain and other<br />
geographical features. Infact, Cherapunji which<br />
receives the highest rainfall in the country (1100mm<br />
annually) has serious drinking water shortages. This<br />
is a clear indication of mismanagement of natural<br />
water resources and this mismanagement is evident<br />
through the length and breadth of the country barring<br />
a few geographical pockets where communities have<br />
worked to put their resources to good use. We have<br />
heard of the recent farmer suicides in Vidharba<br />
because of drought related debt burdens. The<br />
Government finally took note of the situation and<br />
offered monetary assistance. But is this the real<br />
solution to the problem? “Give a man a fish and<br />
you give him a meal , Teach him to fish and you<br />
give him a living” , goes the familiar axiom. The<br />
need for and the techniques of rainwater harvesting<br />
are the ‘lessons’ that will give our farmers a living.<br />
*Sr.Lecturer ** Asst.Professor<br />
Fr.Agnel Technical Education Complex, Sector 9A, Vashi, Navi Mumbai 400703<br />
E-mail: berthaf@gmail.com, sandiphk@rediffmail.com<br />
424
Infact, these are ‘lessons’ that cannot and must not<br />
be confined only to farmers but to all communities<br />
in all parts of the country – rural and urban because<br />
the availability of potable water is becoming<br />
increasingly scarce. In urban areas where people<br />
depend mainly on the municipal supply, residents<br />
of housing complexes shell out up to Rs. 1000/- per<br />
tanker to meet their hygiene and sanitation needs<br />
while educational institutions are often not able to<br />
maintain desirable standards of hygiene because of<br />
the lack of water. These are costly temporary<br />
solutions to permanent problems. Hence the need<br />
for Rain Water Harvesting which is not only much<br />
cheaper but also far more effective . Infact, it is I<br />
think, the only solution to present and future water<br />
problems – a solution that has its roots in our<br />
historical past. And this solution will not catch on<br />
unless a concentrated effort is made to create<br />
awareness of the benefits of the solution. Thus arises<br />
the need for a nation-wide collaborative effort to<br />
spread Public Awareness about Rain Water<br />
Harvesting. “Change”, it is said “is inevitable. The<br />
great question is whether it is by consent or by<br />
coercion”. Through Public Awareness we can<br />
ensure that it is by consent.<br />
Having touched on the general need for Public<br />
Awareness, the paper will focus on the modalities<br />
of Public Awareness campaigning at the macro and<br />
micro level. In an attempt to answer basic questions<br />
like what about rainwater harvesting needs to be<br />
publicized; to whom and how do we publicize, we<br />
have divided this paper into the following segments:<br />
a) The importance of public awareness.<br />
b) A brief historical perspective of rainwater<br />
harvesting from our ancient past to our present.<br />
c) The causes of water depletion.<br />
d) Methods of creating public awareness.<br />
e) Public awareness measures adopted by Agnel<br />
Seva Ashram (ASA) through its Save Electricity<br />
and Water Abhiyan (SEWA) at the Agnel Technical<br />
Education Complex, Vashi.<br />
The importance of public awareness :<br />
The Key component of rainwater harvesting<br />
is storage. In a Monsoon country like India “where<br />
on an average we get 100 hours of rain and then<br />
nothing for the remaining 8660 hours in a year 1 ,<br />
water has to be captured and stored in large<br />
catchments using tanks and ponds or as groundwater<br />
425<br />
by facilitating percolation. The centre for Science<br />
and Engineering (CSE) in its intensive study of<br />
rainwater harvesting has gathered strong scientific<br />
evidence to show “that village scale rainwater<br />
harvesting will yield much water than big or medium<br />
dams” 2. Due to loss through transmission for<br />
instance, Michael Evenari has conclusively proved<br />
that water collected from small watersheds per<br />
hectare of watershed area was much more in<br />
quantity than that collected from large watersheds.<br />
A study conducted by the Central Soil and Water<br />
Conservation Research Institute (CSWSRI) in<br />
Dehradun shows that just increasing the size of the<br />
catchment area from one hectare to two hectares<br />
reduces the water yield per hectare by as much as<br />
20%. Thus it is clear that rainwater harvesting in<br />
small catchments is the effective solution to our<br />
water problems. Such water structures call for a<br />
social process of self-management in village<br />
communities or co-operative housing societies and<br />
individual organizations in urban areas. This<br />
naturally implies social mobilization- creating<br />
awareness and confidence among all sections of<br />
the community that rainwater harvesting works.<br />
Another reason for creating public awareness<br />
is that the concerned community-rural or urban –<br />
must be closely involved at every stage of the<br />
decision making process regarding their rainwater<br />
harvesting system , right from the choice of the site<br />
and the technical and financial parameters of the<br />
construction to the equitable distribution of the<br />
collected water. This could go a long way not only<br />
in ensuring adequate water supply but also in<br />
generating a community spirit (- very essential in<br />
these strife–ridden times) and building up what<br />
economists call “ Social capital”.<br />
Measures to create public awareness must<br />
include Government bodies and political leaders.<br />
Apart from funds which the concerned communities<br />
can, by and large, generate for themselves as, for<br />
example, they did in Jamnagar, Rajkot and Aizawal<br />
in Chennai, Government support is essential in the<br />
form of incentives for implementation of rainwater<br />
harvesting schemes (The Municipal Corporation of<br />
Thane, for instance, gives property tax deductions).<br />
Even more significantly, Government assistance is<br />
required in the form of flexible Government rules<br />
that facilitate social mobilization. The Government<br />
will have to “review and revise old British-time laws
like the Indian Easement act which prevent public<br />
participation in water management” 3 . This means<br />
the Government should be vital link in the process<br />
of social mobilization and public awareness. For<br />
instance, the level of Government commitment to<br />
this cause rose significantly in the wake of the fourth<br />
convention on rainwater harvesting organized by<br />
the CSE. The Government must encourage not only<br />
the construction of new water storage systems but<br />
the revival and reuse of the rich legacy of water<br />
storage systems left to us by our leaders of yore. As<br />
Thomas Munro, British Governor of Madras (1820),<br />
said “to attempt the construction of new tanks is<br />
perhaps a more hopeless experiment than the repair<br />
of those which have been filled up (through<br />
siltation). For there is scarcely any place where a<br />
tank can be made to advantage that has not been<br />
applied to this purpose by the inhabitants 4 .<br />
A brief historical perspective of rainwater<br />
harvesting :<br />
Rainwater harvesting is an ancient tradition<br />
that in India dates back to a period even before the<br />
Harappan Civilization to as far back as 4500 B.C.<br />
in the Thar and Rajasthan deserts. It is an integral<br />
part of Indian identity and cultural history and<br />
helped define India. Wells known as ‘Kirs and Beris’<br />
were first built by caravans traveling when they<br />
traversed the desert. These still stand as testimony<br />
to their creative ways of collecting and storing<br />
rainwater not only for household needs but also for<br />
farm and irrigation purposes. The more developed<br />
versions of these-”Kundis” or “Kunds” are used for<br />
drinking water storage, as in Jaisalmer district, even<br />
today, while “Bundela” and “Chandela” with steps<br />
leading down into them were surrounded by gardens<br />
and orchards to glorify the King. There were systems<br />
for harvesting rain from rooftops and courtyards,<br />
for collecting monsoon run-off from the water of<br />
swollen streams or flooded rivers. Rainwater<br />
harvesting managers called “pallars” who inherited<br />
their knowledge and skills, and added to this body<br />
of experience based on careful day-to-day<br />
observation, introduced innovative solutions to<br />
water problems. In 1987 when the modern town of<br />
Chittor ran out of water, the fort of Chittor, equipped<br />
with our efficient water harvesting system, faced<br />
no problems.<br />
In the Moghul era various “Baolis” and<br />
426<br />
reservoirs were constructed, especially in Delhi.<br />
Most of these “Baolis” have since dried up 5 because<br />
of neglect and depleted ground water levels.<br />
Causes of Rainwater Depletion:<br />
In the wake of the Industrial Revolution and<br />
modern technological advancement, two major<br />
shifts took place in the management of water:<br />
a. The state replaced communities and<br />
households as the primary agents for the provision<br />
and management of water.<br />
b. A growing reliance on the use of surface and<br />
groundwater instead of the abundantly available<br />
rainwater and flood water.<br />
Gradually drinking water became very scarce<br />
and the number of villages with drinking water<br />
problems rose significantly. Though the ministry of<br />
rural development sanctioned money to alleviate the<br />
situation, the number of problem villages rose<br />
obviously because of the lack of sustainable use of<br />
land-water-vegetation resources. The causes range<br />
from the political to the social. Anil Agarwal, of<br />
CSE sums up, “ Corruption, lack of people’s interest<br />
in maintaining the Government schemes, land<br />
degradation leading to heavy runoff, heavy<br />
groundwater exploitation leading to lowering of<br />
groundwater levels, neglect of traditional water<br />
harvesting system and growing pollution 5 . The<br />
construction of large dams has augmented the<br />
problem by contributing to human displacement and<br />
forest degradation. Dependence on the state for<br />
water has resulted in complacency among people<br />
who squander state-subsidized water. Traditional<br />
water harvesting systems necessitated responsible<br />
involvement of people – the communities that<br />
managed the systems. Hence the need to restore<br />
those harvesting structures and revive those<br />
management systems through the sustained, perhaps<br />
even aggressive, publicity campaigns.<br />
Methods of Creating Public Awareness<br />
Seminars such as those conducted by the<br />
Institution of Engineers is testimony to the fact that<br />
a considerable degree of awareness about the need<br />
for Rainwater harvesting does exist. We have heard<br />
apparently pessimistic prophecies of the Third<br />
World war breaking out because of scarcity of water<br />
resources but this dismal scenario can be averted if
we get our act together and make water ever body’s<br />
business. This means redefining the role of the state,<br />
of households and of communities in the provision<br />
of water and the protection of water resources.<br />
Therefore nationwide awareness campaigns that aim<br />
at the entire spectrum of involved parties from the<br />
central and state governments to the rural and urban<br />
communities, is a must.<br />
How then does one conduct effective<br />
awareness campaigns?<br />
In our consideration of the various strategies and<br />
methods we will move from the macro to the micro<br />
levels.<br />
1) Government Participation and support : It<br />
is essential to keep the Government aware of the<br />
activities related to rainwater harvesting so that their<br />
support and assistance, if required , can be solicited<br />
. Government officials like District Collectors, Chief<br />
Ministers and even the President and The Prime<br />
Minister must be invited to seminars and workshops<br />
that aim at changing the political mind-set from a<br />
top-down bureaucratic form of governance to a<br />
participatory form of governance where rural and<br />
urban communities are empowered to manage their<br />
own water resources. The government can push for<br />
community based water management policies and<br />
develop legislation.<br />
2) Government Awards : The Government in<br />
different states could set up awards to encourage<br />
the implementation of rainwater harvesting<br />
schemes. The Delhi Government, for instance, has<br />
already announced two lakh rupees for institutions<br />
and housing societies and one lakh rupees for<br />
individuals who have set up effective rainwater<br />
harvesting systems. (No wonder rainwater<br />
harvesting has taken off in such a big way in<br />
educational institutions and housing societies in<br />
Delhi).<br />
3) Model rainwater harvesting projects :<br />
Efforts must be made with government assistance<br />
to establish rainwater harvesting projects which can<br />
serve as models worthy of emulation. Trips must be<br />
arranged for neighboring communities to these<br />
project sites. This can be a very effective and<br />
convincing way of educating people.<br />
427<br />
4) Rainwater Centers : Every region must set<br />
up rainwater harvesting centers to provide<br />
information to interested individuals and<br />
communities interested in setting up rainwater<br />
harvesting systems. The rainwater harvesting center<br />
at Chennai, in collaboration with Akash Ganga<br />
Trust, sets up exhibitions that seek to spread water<br />
literacy among urban Indians.<br />
5) Networking with other N.G.O.s: Several<br />
N.G.O.s have done a lot of work on rainwater<br />
harvesting. Pooling the efforts and information<br />
resources of these organizations would go a long<br />
way in making rainwater harvesting a nationwide<br />
movement. For example CSE has made some good<br />
film advertisements like, “The Rain catchers” and<br />
“Jal Yodha”, which have been made available to<br />
interested parties. CSE and Manav Adhikar Seva<br />
Samiti (MASS) organized a traveling film festival<br />
from 30 th Nov. – 1 st Dec. in 2005. On our own level,<br />
ASA plans on collaborating with Enviro Vigil to<br />
set up an exhibition on our campus.<br />
6) Print and Television Media: The Media is a<br />
powerful tool for public awareness.<br />
a) Establish web-based discussion groups with<br />
a FAQ section (Frequently Asked Questions) and a<br />
forum for network partners to share their<br />
experiences on local water harvesting practices.<br />
There is already an Orkut RWH group for online<br />
committees.<br />
b) Newsletters can also be an effective platform<br />
for dissemination of information. CSE newsletters<br />
(Jalvibadri in Hindi and Catchwater in English )<br />
are mouthpieces of the National Water Harvesting<br />
Network.<br />
c) Educational Institutions at the school and<br />
college levels can organize awareness campaigns<br />
in the form of poster competitions, elocution<br />
competitions and processions where pamphlets of<br />
RWH are distributed.<br />
d) Street Plays organized by N.G.O.s and<br />
educational institutions can also serve as a powerful<br />
medium.<br />
7) Individual Effort On the individual level we<br />
who are committed to this cause of rainwater<br />
harvesting, can encourage can encourage those<br />
within our sphere of influence to implement such
projects. Shri A.B. Patil, scientific officer in BARC,<br />
encouraged his brother, Shri Muralidhar B. Patil, to<br />
implement rain water harvesting to irrigate his<br />
cotton fields. As a teacher I encouraged a group of<br />
students to write a report on rainwater harvesting.<br />
Public Awareness measures adopted by ASA<br />
Through SEWA<br />
Agnel Seva Ashram, an interfaith association<br />
committed to social and environmental harmony<br />
organized a national seminar on “Responsible<br />
Citizenship for National Regeneration” in<br />
collaboration with the Dharma Bharathi National<br />
Foundation. As an action oriented follow-up to this<br />
seminar, SEWA was established at Vashi. Saving<br />
electricity and Water is one way of exhibiting<br />
responsible citizenship.<br />
SEWA organized a week-long save water<br />
campaign with thoughts for the day that provoked<br />
reflection on the judicious use of the vital resource.<br />
In addition several competitions, which attracted not<br />
only students but also staff, were organized in the<br />
campus at Vashi.<br />
A Jingle composed and performed by a<br />
committed student was sung on several days of the<br />
week.<br />
A Poster Competition was held.<br />
A Caption Competition in which pictures<br />
were displayed and participants were asked to give<br />
stimulating captions was held.<br />
A Problem-Solving Competition was also<br />
held. Here real-life water related problems were<br />
given to participants for viable concrete solutions.<br />
This week long onslaught of messages and activities<br />
had a significant impact on staff and students. There<br />
was a noticeable difference in staff-student approach<br />
to these valuable resources. We hope this translated<br />
into significant savings in the bills and a plan to<br />
actually monitor and measure these savings is<br />
underway.<br />
SEWA also organized a seminar on rain water<br />
harvesting with Mr. Walawalkar from Enviro-Vigil,<br />
giving us very valuable inputs. ASA encourages<br />
participation in seminars organized by others.<br />
A rainwater harvesting project has been<br />
proposed and planned for the Technical Education<br />
� � �<br />
428<br />
Complex at Vashi. We hope this will be the model<br />
for other educational institutions in and around<br />
Vashi as also for other ASA centers in the country.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Mihir Shah of the Samaj Pragati (M.P) said,<br />
“To be the vehicles of a fundamental social<br />
transformation, development programs must be<br />
conceptualized as part of a process of community<br />
Empowerment…. The aim must be to gradually<br />
move towards what has been recently described as<br />
the post-bureaucratic or interactive mode of<br />
implementation in which everyone takes<br />
responsibility for the whole” 6 . But for everyone to<br />
take responsibility all must know what they are<br />
taking responsibility for, why they are taking<br />
responsibility and how they can fulfill their<br />
responsibility. In other words, a high degree of<br />
conscientization is required. As our former President<br />
K.R. Narayanan said, “ For a people’s movement<br />
for good water management we will need a massive<br />
program to promote water literacy” 7 . Rain Water<br />
Harvesting must become a nation-wide movement<br />
through a multi-pronged public awareness campaign<br />
using different systems and methods of reaching the<br />
public.<br />
List of References<br />
• www.google.com.cpreec.org/04-pamphlets<br />
• Anil Agarwal, Sunita Narain and Indira<br />
Khurana Making Water Everybody’s Business;<br />
Practice and Policy of Rainwater Harvesting.<br />
• Making Water Everybody’s Business;<br />
Practice and Policy of Rainwater Harvesting.<br />
• Making Water Everybody’s Business;<br />
Practice and Policy of Rainwater Harvesting.<br />
Pg.5<br />
• Anil Agarwal, “Water Harvesting in a new<br />
age” Making Water Everybody’s Business; Pg.2<br />
• Mihir Shah, “Participatory watershed<br />
Development: An Institutional Framework”<br />
Making Water Everybody’s Business; Pg.219<br />
• Hon. President K R Narayanan in his inaugural<br />
speech at C.S.E.’s National Conference on the<br />
potential of water Harvesting(1998)
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
77. Rain Water Harvesting to Improve Socio-economic conditions<br />
in Hilly Areas of Maharashtra<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The importance of water to the sustainable<br />
habitat is enormous. It can be best emphasized by<br />
acknowledging the fact that it is the prime mover<br />
for the existence of living being on our planet Earth.<br />
Realizing this importance, a large-scale<br />
development of surface water resources through<br />
major and minor projects has been taken up by the<br />
government to ensure water supply for drinking as<br />
well as for irrigation. The government has accorded<br />
highest priority to rural drinking water supply as a<br />
part of policy framework for ensuring universal<br />
access to all and to achieve the goal of reaching the<br />
unreached. For effective implementation of this<br />
policy, a number of hand pumps and water supply<br />
schemes are installed in villages, lacking water<br />
source. Despite of all these initiatives, the water<br />
supply system fails to sustain, thereby, leaving the<br />
inhabitants to reel under acute water shortage. Their<br />
life is full of poverty, deprivation and other miseries.<br />
*Sourabh Gupta<br />
Abstrct<br />
Poverty, disease, low agriculture productivity and poor moral, exacerbated by lack of<br />
water, are the common features of the hilly areas, which lead to hardship, deprivation for the<br />
habitants. A large part of hilly areas<br />
are generally found to be lacking suitable land for cultivation and adequate irrigation facilities,<br />
thus remain denied of high cropping intensity. Although, at places they experience heavy rains<br />
during monsoon but rainwater quickly runs away due to steep gradient & poor infiltration of<br />
the under lying rock. However, the quick replenishment of wells has normally been observed<br />
with the onset of monsoon but they start depleting quickly soon after the monsoon season, as the<br />
significant movement of water occurs from higher level to lower level due to high water table<br />
gradient which is well evident from the ground water monitoring structures such as dug wells<br />
and bore wells. As a result, the acute water shortage becomes imminent during summer.<br />
The diverse hydrogeological and rainfall conditions of these areas necessitate developing<br />
varied measures to tackle the water scarcity situation. Site specific Rainwater harvesting schemes<br />
like Tanks/ponds, Gully plugging, Contour bunding, bench terracing, Sub surface dams meant<br />
for water and soil conservation have quite successfully produced the desired results.<br />
There are many villages, which have remained either<br />
with scarce water supply or without any source of<br />
water. Some of these villages are categorized as<br />
problem villages as the source of potable water is<br />
beyond 1.0 kilometre.. The women have to walk a<br />
distance of about 1.0 kms to reach up to the source<br />
of water. The virtually dry and dead water resources<br />
of hilly areas have led to acute water scarcity,<br />
affecting the socio -economic conditions of these<br />
villages. Such water scarcity conditions leads to<br />
poor agriculture productivity and thereby poor<br />
economic condition, which inevitably compels the<br />
villagers to migrate to cities in search of livelihood.<br />
Area Under Reference<br />
The hilly areas of Maharashtra referred in the<br />
context of above problem are (i) Western margin of<br />
Maharashtra Deccan plateau, which is bordered by<br />
elevated Sahyadri ranges (elevation from 600 to<br />
1600m.amsl), extending from north to south. The<br />
*Scientist “D”, CGWB, MSU, 247/11, Deccan College Road, Yerwada, Pune - 6<br />
E-mail : archsaugupta@yahoo.com<br />
429
high peaks in the Ghat region are in elevation from<br />
1646m.amsl, Kasuli (Nasik) in the north through<br />
1438m.amsl at Mahabaleshwar (Satara) in the<br />
central portion, 1024m amsl Panhala (Kolhapur)<br />
in the south. The elevation of drainage line varies<br />
between 600 to 900m.a.msl. at places. The other<br />
elevated ridges of the Deccan plateau are (ii) Satpura<br />
hill ranges at the northern bounder of the state<br />
(elevation 450-700m.amsl), (iii) Ajantha-Satmala-<br />
Buldhana ranges,located south of Purna –Tapi valley<br />
( elevation range 900-450m.amsl), (iv) Balaghat<br />
range ( elevation600-900.m.amsl ) extends through<br />
higher elevation of Harishchandra and Maneghat<br />
through Ahemadnagar to Manjhira plateau in Beed<br />
and Latur district, (v) Mahadev Range extends from<br />
higher Plateau around Mahabaleshwar towards hill<br />
range of Sangli –Satara district.<br />
Hydrogeology:<br />
These hilly areas are predominantly<br />
underlained by rocks belonging to Deccan Trap<br />
430<br />
basalts & laterites except the southern part of<br />
Sahyadhri range which is underlained by Archeans<br />
and Kaladgis. The Archeans are represented by<br />
Dharwarian metasediments and granite gneisses<br />
with mafic and ultra-mafic intrusives. The Kaladgis<br />
rest unconformabily over the Archeans and are<br />
comprised of conglomerate, grits, orthoquartzites<br />
and shales.<br />
The metasediment and intrusives do not<br />
possess any primary intra granular opening and thus<br />
practically have no primary porosity and<br />
permeability .The major aquifers are granitic<br />
gnessies having secondary porosity developed by<br />
weathering and presence of joints/fractures. The<br />
Kaladgis are jointed in diverse directions and<br />
jointing along with weathered impart the water<br />
bearing property. The Deccan basalts are massive<br />
in nature and occupy higher elevations. They do<br />
not form good aquifers except when they are<br />
weathered, jointed and fractured. These are capped<br />
by laterite at several places. The joints, fractures
and weathering also control the water bearing<br />
capacity of laterites. Numerous voids and joints/<br />
fractures present in laterites provide free flow of<br />
ground water whereas lithomargic clay acts as<br />
effective aquiclude.<br />
Perspective of the area<br />
These areas are characterized by inherently<br />
heterogeneous and low yielding formations either<br />
exposed on surface or under moderately thin cover<br />
of soil. The soil is generally fragile and prone to<br />
severe erosion from hill slopes. The soil is deep<br />
black having low permeability that can hold only a<br />
fraction of water that falls on it. The ground water<br />
recharge is mainly through fissures and joints in<br />
exposed rocky strata. Although some of the areas<br />
coincide with high rainfall (2000-3000mm), yet the<br />
high topographic gradient and massive nature of<br />
underlying formations generate a high runoff and<br />
less of ground water recharge. Thus, development<br />
of water table is not very pronounced. Water occurs<br />
only as a small under ground pool in the form of<br />
perched water table along the elevated regions.<br />
However, in moderately sloping areas, the<br />
development of water table is common, but of steep<br />
gradient. The steep gradient leads to outflow of<br />
significant quantity of ground water from higher<br />
level to lower level as effluent base flow into rivers.<br />
Thus, depletion of water level is very quick in dug<br />
wells as well as in bore wells, which results into<br />
water scarcity soon after the monsoon season. These<br />
adverse topographic and hydrogeological conditions<br />
are inconducive for ground water development.<br />
Hence, construction of dug wells and bore wells is<br />
not techno- economically viable.<br />
Measures to Tackle Water Scarcity<br />
The techniques and methods used to<br />
overcome water scarcity vary from region to region<br />
depending upon their specific problems, nature of<br />
terrain, climate, hydrogeological conditions etc.<br />
Some of the appropriate techniques in such areas<br />
are enumerated below;<br />
Rain Water Harvesting<br />
Rainwater harvesting is old concept as far as<br />
India is concerned. Our ancestors had been doing it<br />
according to the means available then. Nevertheless,<br />
slowly with the advent of tap water supply the<br />
431<br />
rainwater harvesting has lost its importance. As in<br />
areas where water scarcity has become a common<br />
feature due to inadequate availability of source<br />
water, rainwater harvesting has become most viable<br />
option. It is necessary to resort to long-term<br />
measures in harvesting the rainwater to meet the<br />
daily demand. Though the objective of water<br />
harvesting in most cases is to store water for lean<br />
part of the year it also imparts indirect benefits such<br />
as recharging drinking water wells and hand pumps.<br />
In hilly areas, where water harvesting has been<br />
practiced together with afforestation and other<br />
methods of watershed development and land<br />
improvement, desaturated aquifers have also been<br />
recharged and water is available in abundance from<br />
ground water sources. For the hilltop villages,<br />
especially those included in the list of tanker<br />
villages, the water harvesting system could be the<br />
best solution for meeting the water demand during<br />
the dry months by impounding water in reservoirs.<br />
The other alternatives, such as drilling or digging<br />
wells, are not appropriate. Various methods of water<br />
harvesting are feasible in hilly terrain are as<br />
discussed below.<br />
Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting<br />
This system is useful mainly for drinking<br />
water purposes. The system consists of three<br />
components i.e. collection of rainwater, conveyance<br />
and storage. In this system, rainwater falling on<br />
roof of houses and other buildings is collected and<br />
conveyed through a system of pipes and semicircular<br />
channels of galvanized iron or PVC and is<br />
stored in tanks suitably located on the ground or<br />
underground. The practice is in vogue at the<br />
individual household level in remote hilly areas with<br />
high rainfall and also in some areas of moderate to<br />
low rainfall. This type of tank storage is common<br />
in areas where under ground storage in aquifer is<br />
not feasible. Roof catchments have the advantage<br />
that they can be constructed directly near the users,<br />
if the roof is suitable for this purpose. The amount<br />
of harvested water depends on roof area and its<br />
nature, and rainfall regime.<br />
Masnory Storage Tank<br />
In hilly areas where rainfall is high and<br />
number of rainy days widely spread over long<br />
period, Masonry storage tank structures of various
shapes and sizes are built underground or over<br />
ground to collect rainwater for drinking purposes.<br />
These are constructed in a variety of places like<br />
court yards, in front of houses and temples, in open<br />
agricultural fields, barren lands etc. These are built<br />
both for individual households as well as for village<br />
communities using locally available materials.<br />
While some structures are built in stone masonry<br />
with stone slab coverings, others are built with only<br />
rudimentary plastering of bare soil surfaces of the<br />
tank with cement or lime and covering with<br />
Zizyphus Numularia thorns. Some Kuccha<br />
structures have a convex covering of local wood<br />
with mud plaster. Inlet holes are provided in the<br />
convex covering at the ground level to facilitate<br />
entry of rainwater into the tank. In case of Pacca<br />
structures the wall of the tank is kept projecting<br />
above the ground to provide inlet hole below :<br />
Roof catchments, for instance, are not suitable<br />
in small adivasi villages, as their huts have<br />
roofs, which are not suitable for collecting water.<br />
For these villages, the most appropriate solution is<br />
to construct paved ground catchments connected<br />
with underground storage tanks. Other rainwater<br />
harvesting technologies such as rock catchments and<br />
paved catchments could be appropriate in water<br />
scarcity villages. The catchments are connected with<br />
a storage tank as illustrated in the picture.<br />
432<br />
In constructing ground catchments, it will<br />
be necessary to take into consideration a number of<br />
factors, such as the rainfall regime, the number of<br />
days in a year that rain harvested water is required,<br />
number of users, appropriate catchments and<br />
reservoir design, operation and maintenance.<br />
Ground catchments are costly to install and require<br />
a careful maintenance. They provide fairly good<br />
quality water and satisfy the water needs of the<br />
entire community. To construct a ground catchments<br />
require, relatively large plots of land that may not<br />
always be available in hilltop villages. The size of<br />
the area to be cleared depends on the factors<br />
mentioned for the roof catchments. The cleared area<br />
should be graded to reduce losses due to evaporation<br />
and infiltration, to avoid soil erosion and to prevent<br />
silt content in the water. The type of paving and its<br />
cost depends on the type of material used (concrete,<br />
tiles, plastered flat stones, etc.) and its local<br />
availability. In USA chemicals are used for this<br />
purpose, such paraffin wax shredded and spread on<br />
the ground surface. Wax is melted by sunlight and<br />
seals soil pores, making a water repellent surface.<br />
Reinforced asphalt membranes are also used where<br />
this material is cheap. In Arizona, USA, the ground<br />
catchment is made impervious by lying polyethylene<br />
sheets covered with gravel for protection against<br />
damage and sunlight. Catchments are generally<br />
fenced.<br />
Ponds / Tanks<br />
This is by far the most commonly used<br />
method to collect and store rain water in dug ponds<br />
or tanks. Most ponds have their own catchments,<br />
which provide the requisite amount of water during<br />
the rainy season. Where the catchments are too small<br />
to provide enough water, water from nearby streams<br />
is diverted through open channels to fill the ponds.<br />
Spring Water Harvesting System<br />
Spring water is a highly desirable source<br />
of community water supply. Since the water emerges<br />
at the ground surface through cracks and loose joints<br />
in rocks under internal pressure of the ground water<br />
system, no pumping is required. More over the water<br />
is fresh and free from pollution obviating the need<br />
for artificial purification. However, such sources are<br />
available mostly in hilly terrain, foothill areas or<br />
intermontane valleys.
One relatively easy means of storing and<br />
distributing spring water is through a device known<br />
as a spring box. Built usually into a hillside and<br />
deep enough to access the spring-water source, this<br />
device allows water to enter from the bottom and<br />
fill up to a level established by an overflow or vent<br />
pipe. Hydraulic pressure then maintains the level<br />
in the spring box. The outflow pipe near the base of<br />
the device may be connected via pipe to a larger<br />
storage system (such as a tank) closer to the point<br />
of use or tapped directly at the location of the box.<br />
This device can be constructed using local materials,<br />
and if built carefully and protected can provide<br />
many years of reliable operation. Depending on local<br />
water requirements and conditions, a number of<br />
these spring boxes may be constructed to provide<br />
year-round supply or used to recharge other community<br />
water storage systems. Alternatively, a variation<br />
on the spring box concept may also be employed<br />
known generally as an infiltration gallery. A long<br />
perforated pipe or box (3 to 6 inches or more in<br />
diameter) may be placed across the water-bearing<br />
433<br />
layer of the hillside to gather spring water. Backfilled<br />
with gravel or another sufficiently porous<br />
medium, the pipe or box is connected to an outflow<br />
pipe(s).<br />
Hill Slope Collection<br />
In this system, which is in vogue in many hilly areas<br />
with good rainfall, lined channels are built across<br />
the hill slopes to intercept rainwater. These channels<br />
convey water for irrigating terraced agricultural<br />
fields. The water is also used to fill small ponds for<br />
domestic use and the cattle.<br />
Diversion Dams<br />
Water from hill streams are diverted through<br />
small excavated channels for domestic use and<br />
irrigation. The Springs are merely in the form of<br />
water trickling through layers and joints in<br />
rocks,discharge copiously can used both for drinking<br />
water supply and irrigation. Split bamboo channels<br />
are used to trap and convey water upto the village/<br />
hamlet for drinking purposes.
Modern Structures<br />
During the last 100 years there has been<br />
considerable technological development, interalia,<br />
in the design and construction of water harvesting<br />
structures for various purposes. In areas where<br />
source of water is only rainfall, entire efforts of water<br />
conservation are to be concentrated on insitu<br />
rainfall.. Gully plugging , Contour bunding, Bench<br />
terracing and Gabbion structures are the common<br />
water conservation structures applicable in run off<br />
zone. They are also part of watershed improvement<br />
works. These measures are multipurpose, mutually<br />
complementary and conducive to soil and water<br />
conservation. They help to increase forestation and<br />
agriculture productivity.<br />
Gully Plugging : These are the smallest soil and<br />
water conservation structures built across gullies in<br />
hilly areas carrying drainage of tiny catchments<br />
during rainy season. These are built with locally<br />
available materials like stone boulders, earth,<br />
weathered rock brushwood etc. Sand bags or<br />
brickwork may also be used to strengthen the bund.<br />
Gully plugs may be chosen wherever there is local<br />
break in slope to permit accumulation of adequate<br />
water behind the bund. The height of individual plug<br />
depend upon land slope may be between 2 to 3 m<br />
above nala bed and progressively taper off on side<br />
slope. A number of gully plugs may be provided on<br />
the same gully or nala, one below the other at every<br />
hundred-meter separation.<br />
Contour Bunding :<br />
These are small structures earthen bunds<br />
built horizontally in parallel rows across the hill<br />
slope. These help in augmenting soil moisture and<br />
prevent erosion of topsoil. This technique is suitable<br />
in low rainfall area where monsoon runoff can be<br />
impounded by constructing bunds on the slopping<br />
ground all along the contour of equal elevation. The<br />
434<br />
flowing water is intercepted before it attains the<br />
erosive velocity by keeping suitable spacing<br />
between the bunds. The Spacing of between two<br />
contour bunds depends on the slope of the area and<br />
the permeability of the soil. Contour bunding is<br />
suitable on land with moderate slope without<br />
involving terracing..<br />
Bench Terracing :<br />
Sloping land with surface gradient up to 8%<br />
having adequate soil cover can be leveled through<br />
bench terracing for bringing under cultivation. It<br />
helps in soil conservation and holding runoff water<br />
on terraced area for longer duration giving rise to<br />
increased infiltration recharge. The width of<br />
individual terrace should be fixed depending upon<br />
the slope of the land. The upland slope between two<br />
terraces should not be more than 1;10 and the terrace<br />
should be leveled.<br />
Gabbion Structure<br />
This kind of check dam commonly<br />
constructed across small streams to conserve stream<br />
flow with practically no submergence beyond<br />
stream course. Small bund across the stream is made<br />
by putting locally available boulder in a steel of<br />
mesh wires and anchored to the stream banks. The<br />
height of such structures is around 0.5 m and is<br />
normally used in the stream with width of less than<br />
10.0 m. The excess water overflows this structure<br />
storing some water to serve as source at recharge.<br />
The silt content of stream water in due course and<br />
with growth of vegetation, the bund becomes quite<br />
impermeable and helps in retaining surface water<br />
runoff for sufficient time affect rain to recharge the<br />
ground water body.
Ground Water Conservation Techniques<br />
The water recharged into aquifer is<br />
immediately governed by natural ground water flow<br />
regime. It start seeping away due the steep water<br />
table gradient and transmissivity 0f the aquifer.As<br />
a result the water is not available for exploitation<br />
during the summer season.The aim is to conserve<br />
water for later use.The under ground bhandara has<br />
proved to be the most successful technique for<br />
improvement of sustenance of water supply source<br />
Ground Water Dams<br />
It is a sub-surface barrier across stream, which<br />
retards the base flow and stores water upstream<br />
below ground surface. The water level in upstream<br />
part of ground water dam rises saturating otherwise<br />
dry part of aquifer site where sub-surface dyke is<br />
proposed should have shallow impervious layer with<br />
wide valley and narrow outlet. After selection of<br />
site, a trench of 1-2 m wide is dug across the breadth<br />
of the stream down to impermeable bed. The trench<br />
may be filled with clay or brick / concrete wall up<br />
to 0.5 m below the ground level. These structures<br />
are preferred down stream of existing water supply<br />
structure to sustain availability during the summer.<br />
� � �<br />
435<br />
Sum Up<br />
The poor accessibility, adverse<br />
hydrogeological condition, higher cost of<br />
development and thin size of population etc are the<br />
factors not suiting to the state government norms,<br />
and also the ignorant attitude towards thinly<br />
populated poor people, are certain inhibiting factors<br />
for long term solutions to this problem. As a result<br />
these hilly areas remain perpetually under water<br />
scarcity for most part of the year. . In such situation,<br />
water scarcity can only be tackled by supply oriented<br />
management practices. While other measures of<br />
development of ground water are not found technoeconomic<br />
viable, the conservation of both surface<br />
water and ground water are the most appropriate<br />
option. The cost of construction of these structures<br />
is quite low as they can be built using the local<br />
materials and also not much scientific skill is<br />
required to execute them.<br />
References<br />
Hydrogeology of Maharashtra(1994), Central<br />
Ground Water Board,Ministry of water<br />
Resources,Faridabad<br />
PP 4-7<br />
Jain,S.K.& Jain,P.K.(2001) Possibilities of Rain<br />
water Harvesting and Ground water Augmentation<br />
in Rajpura parliamentary constituency,<br />
MaharashtraPP 36-41<br />
Manual of Artificial Recharge of Ground Water<br />
(1994),Central Ground Water Board,Ministry of<br />
water Resources,Faridabad PP112-117<br />
Rain water Harvesting Techniques to Augment<br />
Ground water,(2003) Central Ground Water<br />
Board,Ministry of water Resources, Faridabad<br />
pp14-18
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
78. Socio- Economic Upliftment of Farmers through Rainwater<br />
Harvesting at Dedag Watershed, Sirmour H.P.<br />
*Dr. Anirudh Manchanda *Dr. Pankaj Mittal *Dr. H.L.Thakur<br />
Abstract<br />
In Himachal Pradesh more than ninety percent of population lives in villages and<br />
earn its livelihood through farming. The farming in hills mainly depend on rainfall.<br />
Water in the hills is available through rain, snow, springs, surface flows and drainage<br />
courses. The hills of Sirmour receive 1670 mm as the average annual rainfall, still<br />
water is a scarce commodity in these areas, as more than 85% water is received during<br />
June-September, which goes waste as runoff due to inadequate harvesting and storage<br />
facilities. The excess rain water in shape of runoff takes away the fertile soil along<br />
with it. So in order to manage these natural resources watershed approach based on<br />
“community action” was adopted at Dedag under the National Watershed Development<br />
Program. The watershed is located at longitude 77 0 24’E and latitude 30 0 50’N with<br />
height varying from 1600-2348 meters above mean sea level in District Sirmour HP.<br />
The project has 570 ha of effective area from five villages supporting 145 families,<br />
with irrigation restricted to less than 15 % of the area. A Community managed system<br />
called “Jalagam Sangh” was constituted at watershed level, which helped in executing<br />
different modules through participatory approach.<br />
(a) Rain water harvesting from base or surface flow -The water source at Sanio<br />
contributed on an average 20-25 thousand litres of water per day under normal months<br />
but the discharge increased to 85-90 thousand litres per day during rainy season .This<br />
large volume of water resulting from rainfall was going waste .So, water storage and<br />
conveyance module was demonstrated to harvest every drop of water. This module has<br />
benefitted 55 families.<br />
(b) Rain water harvesting from roofs –The roofs of three houses were selected as<br />
catchments for the harvest of rain water at Dedag in the absence of natural catchments.<br />
The discharge from these roofs has been directed to a tank through PVC pipes and<br />
water yield of 2.0-2.5 lac litres is being harvested annually, which provides irrigation<br />
to 2-3 ha of land. This module has benefitted 6-7 families.<br />
The benefits and impacts of rain water harvesting can clearly be seen at watershed in<br />
shape of social-economic changes. The availability of water has been increased from<br />
0.3 ha-m to 2.4 ha-m annually and as result an increase has been observed in the<br />
yields of Potato, Pea ,Garlic and Maize (20-50%). The incremental gains were highest<br />
under Garlic Rs 70,000/ha followed by Potato Rs 61750/ha, Pea Rs 18900 /ha and<br />
maize Rs 7000/ha. Where as the Benefit :Cost ratio was highest in Pea(7.24) followed<br />
by Potato (5.63) , Garlic (3.56) and Maize (2.14). Higher values of Crop Fertilizer<br />
Index under Potato(0.50,0.44), Pea(0.40),Garlic (0.37,0.40) and Maize(0.50,0.60)<br />
clearly indicate that the farmers have started using NPK and Urea fertilizers at rates<br />
*CSK, HPKV. Hill Agric. Research and Extension Centre, Dhaulakuan. HP, INDIA anirudh_3322@hotmail.com<br />
436
anging from 37-60% of recommended doses. The higher values of Crop Productivity<br />
Index(58-87%) confirms the increase per unit area.<br />
The encouraging results of water harvesting have given confidence to farmers. They<br />
are now well organized in a system called “Jalagam Sangh”. The feeling of<br />
participation, cooperation and social justice can be seen among farmers. They are<br />
now governing the resources as per need, local rules and mutual understanding thus<br />
reducing social conflicts. These modules have given opportunity for women to<br />
participate in development programmes and have benefitted them by reducing drudgery<br />
and saving precious time. Women empowerment can be seen in the watershed as Ms<br />
Prem Lata is working as Watershed Secretary. General cleanliness and hygiene of<br />
village has also been improved. There is change in attitude, clothing and food habits.<br />
The people participatory index is also above 55 percent.<br />
Risk bearing capacity and financial empowerment can be seen in the farmers.<br />
Employment opportunities (1100 man days) have been generated due to different<br />
developmental works in progress. Economic equity is another positive point as weaker<br />
sections are being benefitted with wages and other interventions. The opportunities<br />
of livelihoods have also been increased.<br />
1.0 Introduction<br />
Himachal Pradesh is a hilly state and situated<br />
in the lap of Himalayan ranges in the north- west of<br />
India. It is situated between 30 0 -22’-40" to 33 0 -12’-<br />
40" N Latitude and 75 0 -47’-55" to 79 0 -04’22" E<br />
longitude (Anonymous,2002). Himachal Pradesh<br />
has twelve districts and more than 78 percent of<br />
cultivated area is rainfed. District Sirmour is situated<br />
at the south end and has its boundaries with<br />
Utranchal and Haryana state. As we move from<br />
valley to high hills in the district, we experience three<br />
different agro climatic zones (mid hill sub-tropical,<br />
mid hill-sub humid and high hill sub temperate zone<br />
). In Himachal Pradesh more than ninety percent<br />
of population lives in villages and earn its livelihood<br />
through farming . They are mainly involved in<br />
agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry. The<br />
farming in hills mainly depend on rainfall. Water in<br />
the hills is available through rains, snow, springs,<br />
oozing water sources, surface flows and drainage<br />
courses. Major share of water is being used by<br />
agriculture followed by domestic and other sectors.<br />
The hills of Sirmour receive 1670 mm as the average<br />
annual rainfall, still water is a scarce commodity in<br />
these areas, as more than 85% water is received<br />
during June-September, which goes waste in the<br />
shape of runoff due to inadequate harvesting and<br />
storage facilities. The water resources in hills have<br />
high potential, which need harvesting on scientific<br />
lines to cater to the needs of hill farmers. The soil<br />
degradations is another problem in the hills as excess<br />
437<br />
rain water as run off takes away the fertile soil<br />
along with it.<br />
Agriculture production is the major livelihood<br />
concern of the inhabitants of fragile, complex, diverse<br />
and risk prone agro-ecosystem of the Himalayas.<br />
Stake holders of this region have poor resources ,<br />
inadequate infrastructures ,marginalized farming<br />
situations and uncertainties due to rainfed conditions.<br />
Efficient utilization of natural resources is essential<br />
to accomplish sustainability and stability of food,<br />
nutritional and environmental securities (Mishra<br />
,2001).The productivity levels in irrigated areas has<br />
attained a level and there is little scope for further<br />
increase. So, the opportunity lies in the development<br />
of rain fed areas . Rainfed agriculture is complex,<br />
diverse and risk prone and is characterized by low<br />
productivity and low input usage. The farmers of<br />
rainfed areas generally face scarcity of water as<br />
major problem i.e erratic and uncertain rains, which<br />
results in wide variation and instability in crop yields.<br />
So in order to have holistic and sustainable<br />
development of natural resources in rainfed areas<br />
“Watershed Approach based on community<br />
action” was adopted, which makes it an ideal<br />
planning unit for development and management of<br />
water and soil resources besides it also enables a<br />
holistic development of agriculture and allied<br />
activities.<br />
The main objectives of watershed approach<br />
1. Natural Resource Development.<br />
2. Farm Production System.
3. Socio-economic upliftment of farmers-<br />
Livelihood issues.<br />
2.0 Location and Watershed information<br />
Watershed Dedag, is situated on Rajgarh -<br />
Haripurdhar state highway, 10 km from Rajgarh<br />
town in H.P. The watershed is situated at 77 0 24’E<br />
and latitude 30 0 50’N with height varying from 1600-<br />
2348 meters above mean sea level. It has total<br />
effective area 570 ha.The watershed consists 180<br />
ha of total culturable area and only 116 ha is being<br />
cultivated presently. The irrigation facility at<br />
watershed is only restricted to 43 ha whereas rest<br />
of the area is un irrigated .The main source of<br />
irrigation is rainfall and natural springs. There are<br />
145 families (SC-67, Gen- 78) which has been<br />
covered under project from five villages namely<br />
Dedag, Sanio, Matari , Jelag,and Khanoteo. The<br />
total beneficiaries are 753 out of which 392 are male<br />
and 361 female. Most of the family member (719)<br />
are literate and majority families ( 90%) earn their<br />
livelihood from agriculture.<br />
3.0 Concept<br />
There is growing realization that technology<br />
generation, dissemination and adoption cannot be<br />
taken in isolation. So National watershed<br />
development project for rainfed areas, Dedag, has<br />
been conceptualized differently from other Extension<br />
and Developmental programmes to solve farmer’s<br />
problem in participatory mode and through<br />
community action. Participatory endeavour of<br />
watershed project is to bring about the socio<br />
economic transformations by way of diversifying hill<br />
farming for complete sustainability. So, a systematic<br />
approach is followed to achieve the objective.<br />
Participatory approach is an important initiative to<br />
decentralize decision making process and promote<br />
ownerness among the farming communities. These<br />
paradigms of development are required for<br />
sustainable improvement of socio economic condition<br />
of resource poor stakeholders.(Mishra,2001) In this<br />
process, the real issues are analyzed by sharing<br />
experiences and knowledge of local communities and<br />
external service providers. This empowers the<br />
people in decision making by sharing responsibilities<br />
and accountabilities of activities to be carried out.<br />
The bio-physical and socio-economic constraints,<br />
priorities and preferences of interventions were<br />
438<br />
identified before launching the program through<br />
agro-ecological system analysis. The professionals<br />
and stakeholders work jointly for problem solving<br />
and decision making processes. The service provider<br />
acts as facilitators and the stakeholders as actors<br />
while preparing the project in participatory mode.<br />
Technologies generated at institute were assessed<br />
and refined through adaptive research and<br />
disseminated to farmer’s field by conducting<br />
demonstrations in a participatory mode.<br />
4.0 Methodology<br />
The national watershed development project<br />
for rainfed areas is basically a Participatory<br />
programme based on a community managed system<br />
called- “Jalagam Sangh” and all the development<br />
work has to be executed by the farmers under the<br />
guidance of experts. Therefore to achieve this<br />
objective a team of experts from Hill Agriculture<br />
Research and Extension Centre (HAREC)<br />
Dhaulakuan.(H.P Agricultural University , Palampur)<br />
worked with the farmers on following lines.<br />
4.1 Social Aspects<br />
Community Organization<br />
Capacity Building<br />
Planning. Execution of programme.<br />
4.2 Developmental and technical Aspects<br />
Technical programme (Survey, Design etc.)<br />
Farm Production system interventions.<br />
4.1 Social Aspects<br />
Important socio-psychological components<br />
(confidence building ,motivation, aspiration, conflict<br />
resolution, learning and transparency) ,which play<br />
crucial role in accomplishing sustainability were
given priority before implementation of program.<br />
� Community Organization-<br />
According to the government previous policy,<br />
decision making process was in the hands of official<br />
hierarchy of the authorities with top-down strategy.<br />
Paradigm shift from top-down to bottom-up<br />
community interactive process is an appropriate<br />
approach, as this results in real participation of the<br />
beneficiary in the development process and desirable<br />
goals of food security and self sufficiency are<br />
achieved. Hence, for effective participation of<br />
farmers, awareness campaign among farmers was<br />
created and they were motivated to come forward<br />
to understand the concept of participation by our<br />
team of experts. All beneficiaries were made<br />
members by contributing Rs 50/= as membership<br />
fee and they were allowed to choose leader<br />
democratically to form executive body i.e President,<br />
Secretary, Volunteers, Community organizers. The<br />
association was then registered with registrar<br />
Societies as “Jalagam sangh” or Watershed<br />
Association. The user group of Sanio and Deadg<br />
were formed under leadership of Mr Partap<br />
Chauhan and Mr Ashok kumar.<br />
� Capacity Building-<br />
Once the teams or groups are formed it becomes<br />
important that team efforts are sustained and team<br />
spirit is maintained, hence for successful team work<br />
they needed training to acquire knowledge and skills<br />
w.r.t. Management, Leadership, Communication,<br />
Mutual trust and Power to take decisions etc.<br />
(Wani,2002). The members of association were<br />
given training on management , social and technical<br />
aspects.<br />
� Planning and execution of Project<br />
activities-For Planning and execution of project<br />
activities agro-ecosystem analysis, PRA and priority<br />
analysis was carried out.<br />
• Agro-ecosystem analysis-<br />
Agro-ecosystem analysis is a method of finding out<br />
problems and solutions related to socio-economic<br />
improvements. Agriculture problems are<br />
systematic in nature and are linked with each other<br />
due to varying agro-ecological and socio-economic<br />
conditions. The concept of agro-ecosystem analysis<br />
initiated by Conway (1985) involves a minimum set<br />
439<br />
of assumptions acceptable to all the disciplines of<br />
rural and agriculture development. The behavior of<br />
agro ecosystem is characterized by four properties<br />
i.e Productivity , Stability, Sustainability and<br />
equitability.<br />
• Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and<br />
Surveys-<br />
After the capacity building phase the members<br />
of Watershed association conducted series of<br />
Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) exercises<br />
separately for each village to gather first hand<br />
information. Then information was confirmed by<br />
bench mark survey of individual village w.r.t Natural<br />
resources, Land use, Cropping pattern, Input use,<br />
Human resource, Animal resource, Socio-economic<br />
status of the families.<br />
The Sanio village has the following information<br />
w.r.t different resources.<br />
(a) The land use data revealed that out of total 150<br />
ha effective area,52 ha is culturable area and 40 ha<br />
is being cultivated presently. The irrigation facility is<br />
restricted to only 19 ha area. Main crops grown are<br />
Potato , Pea and Garlic. These are the main cash<br />
crops grown in watershed and their cultivation is<br />
restricted only to irrigated area.<br />
(b) The village Sanio has total 57 families and out<br />
of these 23 belong to Schedule caste. The femalemale<br />
ratio of watershed is 0.91, where as the literacy<br />
percent of the watershed is 98.3 The data on input<br />
use of watershed indicates that the input use is below<br />
fifty percent of recommendations.<br />
(c) The majority of the families(51) in the village<br />
are having agriculture as main occupation, where as<br />
service and business class constitute only 10.5
percent (6 families).Hence, majority of farmers will<br />
be interested in farm development activities.<br />
• Priority analysis-<br />
Priority analysis was worked out through the<br />
data generated from Participatory rural appraisal and<br />
Basic survey of village. So after prioritization of<br />
problems, an action plan was prepared for Sanio and<br />
Dedag villages. Water harvesting , soil management<br />
and farm production were the issues of the prime<br />
concern to farmers. The order of important priorities<br />
identified by the farmers has been given in figure.<br />
• Execution of Programme–<br />
User group of beneficiaries was formed at village<br />
level, which submitted resolution w.r.t Consent,<br />
Participation, Viability of project, Area to be covered<br />
and other Social benefits, to Watershed Executive<br />
Committee for approval. The work was then<br />
executed through community action by the members<br />
of user group Sanio, and Dedag under technical<br />
guidance of Soil Conservation Department experts<br />
4.2. Developmental and technical Aspects<br />
� Technical programme (Survey, Design etc.)-<br />
After doing the priority analysis by the farmers,<br />
technical program was made in consultation with<br />
the expert of Irrigation and public health or engineer<br />
of soil conservation department for different water<br />
harvesting ,conveyance and storage structures.<br />
Before executing the work, this technical program<br />
was got duly approved from the experts.<br />
� Farm Production system interventions—<br />
• Farm Production system interventions were<br />
finalized by the farmers in consultation with the<br />
agricultural expert. The analysis of data was done<br />
as per the statistical procedure by Gomes and Gomes<br />
(1992) and suggested by CSWCRTI Dehradun and<br />
440<br />
Sunabeda, Orissa .<br />
• Crop fertilization index was calculated as ratio<br />
of quantity of fertilizer used by the farmer per hectare<br />
to the recommended fertilizer dose per hectare .<br />
• Crop productivity Index was determined as<br />
ratio of yield obtained by farmers per hectare to<br />
recommended level of yield per hectare<br />
• People participation Index was calculated as<br />
percent of mean participation Score to<br />
maximum participation Score.<br />
• Economic analysis-To identify, quantify and<br />
value the social advantages (benefits) and<br />
disadvantages (costs)in terms of common monetary<br />
units various interventions were analyzed for gross<br />
returns, net returns and benefit cost analysis.<br />
5.0 Results and discussion -<br />
During the course of study various interventions<br />
were demonstrated in the watershed through<br />
participatory approach and the results obtained are<br />
as below.<br />
5.1. Intervention 1 - Rain water harvesting and<br />
conveyance system from base or surface flow<br />
at Sanio and its Socio- economic benefits.<br />
5.2. History of Water source –<br />
This water source is perennial one and has<br />
average water discharge of 20-25 thousand liters<br />
per day during normal months (having no rain<br />
fall) but the discharge increases to 85-90<br />
thousand liter per day during rainy season(June-<br />
September). The farmers were taking this water to<br />
their fields by open channel i.e traditional delivery<br />
system locally called Bandha, there were heavy<br />
conveyance losses as the channel was infested<br />
with weeds, broken at several places and the<br />
movement of water was very slow. The farmers<br />
were not getting good recovery of water from the<br />
system. With time this water delivery system<br />
became faulty. Since good amount of money was<br />
involved for its maintenance hence no body came<br />
forward to maintain it. The source was used only by<br />
2-3 influential and economically sound farmers and<br />
they were taking this small amount of water through<br />
their own delivery system i.e. plastic pipes of 1.0-<br />
1.5" to irrigate their fields and they were able to<br />
irrigate only 1-2 ha area and 50 plus families were<br />
deprived off from this facility from source which
was having potential to irrigate 15-20 ha area. So<br />
every one in the village was concerned to develop<br />
it and to harvest every drop of water from the<br />
source and also to capture additional discharge<br />
resulting from rains during rainy season in tanks<br />
They were also fascinated to install effective<br />
water conveyance and storage system if some<br />
funds were made available to them.<br />
5.3 Execution of work-<br />
Since it was a community asset and every<br />
farmer wanted to develop it. A group of beneficiaries<br />
called User group Sanio was constituted under the<br />
leadership of Mr Partap Chauhan and a Concept<br />
of People participation was introduced.<br />
5.4. Technical Details of water harvesting-<br />
The work was executed by the members of<br />
user group Sanio. The farmers cleaned the water<br />
source and the discharge was taken to a small storage<br />
cum siltation tank. GI pipe ( 3 inch) was selected as<br />
conveyance system by the irrigation expert since the<br />
discharge was comparatively less than the irrigation<br />
demands of command area so other option like open<br />
channels as conveyance system was not preferred.<br />
People also wanted that every drop of water<br />
harvested should reach to the last point (750meters<br />
away from source). Farmers laid out the pipe under<br />
expert supervision and after every interval of 150<br />
meters gate valve was provided to supply water for<br />
the agricultural fields. There were three old tanks<br />
in the fields and after minor repairs they were made<br />
functional. One new tank has also been constructed<br />
from the project funds. Now the water is being stored<br />
in these tanks (2.0 lac liters cumulative capacity)<br />
and is not allowed to go waste during night hours or<br />
surplus period . Since the flow of water is continuous<br />
and the conveyance system is passing through village<br />
Sanio, two another out lets have been provided in<br />
the village and farmers meet out their domestic water<br />
demands from these taps. The topography of the<br />
area also benefitted the villagers as the conveyance<br />
system is running on the top of village boundary and<br />
farmers are getting the water by gravity to their roof<br />
tanks by plastic pipes for domestic needs. The source<br />
of water is clean and is being taken in a covered<br />
pipe line, the farmers are using this water for drinking<br />
also. The work in this module has been taken in three<br />
components<br />
441<br />
1. Collection of water in a small storage cum<br />
siltation tank.<br />
2. Conveyance system for water transport from<br />
source to fields.<br />
3. Storage of water from source in big tanks for<br />
irrigation purpose.<br />
The total expenditure incurred to make this<br />
module operational was Rs 3,63,000=00 The tanks<br />
were made of RCC material and GI pipes were<br />
used for conveyance system. The farmers<br />
contributed 10-15 % share in the shape of labour,<br />
time, local material and devoted lot of time and energy<br />
for supervising the work.<br />
5.5. Findings-<br />
By instinct, we tend to protect something, on<br />
which we have invested. The farmers have invested<br />
their labour and time in construction and<br />
maintenance of the system. So they all worked for<br />
the success of this module. This module is now<br />
operational and the farmers are getting every drop<br />
of water harvested and there is virtually no wastage.<br />
The socio- economic effects of water harvesting<br />
module have been studied as below -<br />
5.5.1. Rain water harvesting and its<br />
availability to society -<br />
The day, this module became functional the<br />
water availability in the village and fields is round<br />
the clock as the water is flowing continuously from<br />
the source to tanks and to farmers fields.<br />
The average availability of water is now 2.0<br />
ha-m to 2.4 ha-m. annually as against 0.03 to 0.04<br />
ha-m in the past . The area has also been increased<br />
from merely 2-3 ha annually to 15.0 ha every crop<br />
season under irrigation and the beneficiary families<br />
are now more than 50 as against 2-3 in the past.<br />
Earlier the water losses were more than 85 % which<br />
are now below five percent.(Table 1.) The resource<br />
poor and weaker section farmers were having no<br />
access to this water but now they are comfortable<br />
and getting water for irrigation and other needs.<br />
The sowing of crops which used to be dependent on<br />
rains is now at the wish of farmers. The availability<br />
of irrigation has improved the crop stand and growth.<br />
The farmers are getting higher yields .The rain<br />
water harvesting module has turned out to be a<br />
social asset to the farmers of Sanio Village.
Table.1 Water availability status at Sanio village<br />
No Observation Before Project After Project<br />
1. Water availability Few days Round the clock<br />
2 Water availability( annually) 0.3-0.4 ha-m 2.0-2.4 ha-m<br />
3 Area covered 2-3 hectare >15 hectare each season<br />
4 Number of beneficiaries 2-3 >50<br />
5 Water losses >85%
water, use of improved seed and balanced fertilizers<br />
and agronomic practices. (Table.2 )<br />
( c) Input use-The benchmark survey indicated<br />
that farmers were using agricultural inputs at lower<br />
rates ranging from 30-50% of recommended doses<br />
and as a result low crop yields. The farm production<br />
interventions inspired the farmers and as a result<br />
the use of agricultural inputs increased, which has<br />
been reflected in the higher values of Crop fertilization<br />
index(CFI) & Crop productivity index(CPI). Higher<br />
CFI was observed under Potato(0.50,0.44),<br />
Pea(0.40),Garlic (0.37,0.40) and Maize(0.50,0.60)<br />
which clearly indicated that the farmers have started<br />
using NPK and Urea fertilizers at higher rates<br />
ranging from 37-60% of recommended doses.<br />
.(Table.3) The farmers have now recognized the<br />
balanced use of NPK fertilizers and their role in crop<br />
production.<br />
(d) Productivity-Before the start of project the<br />
crop productivity index in the village was below 54%<br />
under Potato, Garlic and Maize crops except Pea<br />
69%. The farmers were not harvesting good yield<br />
as per the potential of these crops so there was<br />
scope for improvement. Higher and judicious use of<br />
inputs along with assured irrigation has increased<br />
the yield of almost all the crops which comes as<br />
confirmation from the increasing trend of Crop<br />
Productivity Index registered under various crops at<br />
village Sanio.(Table .3)<br />
OUT COME OF THE SYSTEM-<br />
The water source which was not managed<br />
earlier has been developed by people and the user<br />
group Sanio is maintaining its functioning. The<br />
farmers have now developed a system at their own<br />
and every user is to abide the rules and regulations<br />
fixed by all members as below.<br />
� No person will be allowed to pollute the water<br />
source in any shape.<br />
� Members will be storing the water in tanks<br />
when it is surplus or at night time.<br />
� Farmers will be using their own plastic pipes<br />
as conveyance system to irrigate field.<br />
� Flood irrigation has been discouraged as it leads<br />
to losses and less water use efficiency.<br />
� Small amount has been fixed as user charge/<br />
fees and defaulter if any, will be fined by user group<br />
members.<br />
� All the members of user group are authorized<br />
to inspect the working and maintenance of system<br />
Table 3 – Effect of water harvesting on Crop fertilization index and Crop Productivity index<br />
S.No Crop Crop Fertilization Index(CFI) Crop Productivity Index(CPI)<br />
Before (2003) After(2005) Before (2003) After(2005)<br />
1 Potato 0.54 0.68<br />
NPK 0.4 0.5<br />
Urea 0.38 0.44<br />
2 Pea 0.69 0.87<br />
NPK 0.33 0.4<br />
3 Garlic 0.47 0.58<br />
NPK 0.31 0.37 - -<br />
urea 0.32 0.4 - -<br />
4 Maize 0.5 0.75<br />
NPK 0.4 0.5<br />
Urea 0.5 0.6<br />
443
5.5.3 Water harvesting benefits the women<br />
of Sanio- Women empowerment.<br />
The women in the village are ignorant ,undernourished,<br />
week and overburdened with farm and<br />
house hold work. The involvement of women was<br />
very essential to meet the gender neutrality and for<br />
betterment of society as well as realistic planning of<br />
watershed. There fore overall empowerment of farm<br />
women was attempted through following ways.<br />
� The watershed secretary, is a key position in<br />
the watershed and the person is responsible for<br />
maintenance of records, accounts, supervision of all<br />
works and community related activities. Ms Prem<br />
Lata from Village Sanio is working as<br />
Watershed Secretary and is the example of<br />
women empowerment .<br />
� Reduction in women drudgery has been<br />
achieved through water harvesting module which<br />
has come as a boon to village Women folk.<br />
� The average water requirement for a family<br />
of five in Sanio village was worked out to be 233<br />
litre /day(46.7 Liter/day/person) plus 40-50 litre for<br />
animals. The women of village used to spend on an<br />
average 3 hrs daily (1095 hrs annually) for bringing<br />
water to meet the domestic needs viz Cooking,<br />
Washing of cloths,Cleaning, Bathing and Sanitary.<br />
� Now these valuable hours have been saved<br />
and the women are spending this time for the<br />
welfare of their children and self care. The<br />
women are now happy and relaxed a lot , as water<br />
is available round the clock and they can plan the<br />
work according to their comfort and mood.<br />
� Regular health camps are also being organized<br />
to benefit the women.<br />
444<br />
� Women of the watershed have been included<br />
in the community institutions Viz-Watershed<br />
Committee, Watershed association SHG,User<br />
groups, Mahila mandal and they are encouraged to<br />
participate and express their needs, problems and<br />
priorities.<br />
5.5.4 Water harvesting and its Impact on the<br />
general hygiene of the village.<br />
� Due to shortage of water the overall cleanliness<br />
was poor in the village.<br />
� The farmers were not washing their clothes<br />
very frequently but now the situation has been<br />
improved.<br />
� The older people were not comfortable at all<br />
as the water source was far away and they had<br />
limited access to it. The conveyance system of this<br />
module is running through the village and catering<br />
the needs of all sections of the society.<br />
� The scheduled caste and other weaker<br />
sections in the village were not comfortable on<br />
the water issues but present scenario has reversed<br />
the situation and water is available to every body in<br />
plenty.<br />
� The availability of water has improved the<br />
General Hygiene in the village .<br />
5.5.5 Water harvesting introduced Social<br />
changes in community<br />
Participatory endeavour of watershed project<br />
is to bring about the socio economic transformations<br />
by way of diversifying hill farming for complete<br />
sustainability. This systematic approach has achieved<br />
the following objectives.<br />
� The people are now coordinated and they have<br />
developed the feeling of ownerness<br />
� The empowerment of people has come in<br />
decision making by sharing responsibilities and<br />
accountabilities of activities to be carried out and<br />
decision making process is now decentralized.<br />
� There is a new experience of working. The<br />
professionals and stakeholders jointly work in<br />
problem solving and decision making processes.<br />
� The service provider acts only as facilitator and<br />
the stakeholders as real actors while preparing the<br />
project in participatory mode.<br />
� The higher values of participatory index at<br />
different phases of project show that farmers are<br />
taking more interest in different activities and it is
the result of the success they have achieved under<br />
participatory approach. The overall score of people<br />
participatory index was 55% at Sanio.<br />
5.5.6 Economic Benefits- Impact of water<br />
harvesting on the economy of people.<br />
Right from the start of the project the members have<br />
been benefitted economicly as-<br />
� Yield Increase-The results of demonstration<br />
revealed that Av. Yield of 165.0 and 170.0 qtl/ha<br />
was harvested in Potato demonstrations which was<br />
22.2 & 25.9 % higher than control plots . Garlic<br />
demonstrations harvested 105.0 and 103.0 qtl/ha and<br />
was 21.1&23.5 % higher than control plots. Pea<br />
demonstration also resulted in 20-26 % higher yield<br />
than control plots. Maize demonstration registered<br />
an increase of 35-50% grain yield under<br />
demonstrations.<br />
� Monetary gains-The highest incremental<br />
gains (Rs/ha) were under Garlic Rs70,000 followed<br />
by Potato Rs 61750 , Pea Rs 18900 and maize Rs<br />
7000.<br />
� Where as the B :C ratio was highest in Pea7.24<br />
followed by Potato 5.63 , Garlic 3.56 and Maize 2.14.<br />
The increase in the productivity of crops was mainly<br />
attributed to higher availability of water for irrigation,<br />
use of improved seed and balanced fertilizers and<br />
agronomic practices.<br />
� Employment Generation-More than 1100<br />
man days were generated as employment from<br />
project activities.<br />
� The flow of funds have created confidence<br />
among farmers and now they are having better risk<br />
bearing capacity .They are now in a position to<br />
decide the rates with the dealers where as earlier<br />
the dealers had upper hand and they used to dictate<br />
their terms and conditions.<br />
� Assets Possessions and Consumer<br />
durables-The farmers have also added assets to<br />
the village viz-New houses (6), Radio sets(15),<br />
Television(7), Dish TV(7), Gas connection (15),<br />
Livestock (10), Agricultural equipment(8),<br />
Latrines(3) which indicates the economic growth of<br />
farmers.<br />
� Sustainability and Replicabilty-The<br />
enthusiastic participation of farmers across the<br />
developmental stages of the project added to<br />
sustainability dimension of the modules. Now the<br />
farmers are trained and have capacity to replicate<br />
445<br />
the work at other places.<br />
6.2. Intervention.2. -”Rain water harvesting<br />
from roofs through community managed system<br />
at village Dedag, Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh”.<br />
6 .2.1 Execution of work and technical Details-<br />
The roofs of three houses were selected as<br />
catchments for the harvest of rain water at Dedag<br />
in the absence of natural catchments. The discharge<br />
from these roofs has been directed to a tank through<br />
PVC pipes and water yield to a tune of 2.0-2.5 lac<br />
liters is being harvested annually, which provides<br />
irrigation to 2-3 ha of land. This module has benefitted<br />
6-7 families. The results of demonstration revealed<br />
that Av. Yield of 138.0 qtl/ha, 38.0 qtl/ha and 91.0<br />
qtl/ha were recorded under Potato, Pea and garlic<br />
which was higher than control by 15.0% in<br />
Potato,13.0% in Peas and 21.0% in Garlic The<br />
system has been developed under community<br />
managed system under leadership of Mr Ashok<br />
Kumar User Group Dedag with the main objective<br />
to harvest rain water for irrigation purpose. Being<br />
first year ,the data on the yield has been presented
where as data on socio economic impacts will be<br />
available for presentation after second year.<br />
7.0 Conclusion :<br />
The rain water harvesting through community<br />
managed system at Dedag watershed has benefitted<br />
the farmers of Sanio and Dedag villages by providing<br />
water for irrigating and other domestic purposes.<br />
The availability of water has increased the<br />
productivity of crops and in turn better monetary<br />
returns. The economic gains have made the farmers<br />
more comfortable and confident .The women<br />
empowerment can be seen in the watershed as<br />
women are involved at every stage of development<br />
and their opinion is given due importance. Reduction<br />
in women drudgery is another out come of the<br />
project. The weaker sections have also been<br />
involved in the watershed and they have been<br />
provided employment opportunities in the watershed.<br />
� � �<br />
446<br />
8.0 References :<br />
1. Anonymous (2002). Annual Season and Crop<br />
Report. Directorate of land records H.P.Shimla<br />
India.<br />
2. Conway,G.R.,1985.Agroecosystem analysis.<br />
Agricultural Administration .20(1):31.<br />
3. Gomez. A.K and Gomez.A.A (1981). Statistical<br />
procedures for agricultural research 2 nd edition An<br />
IRRI publication..<br />
4. Mishra A.S (2001) Social concept and<br />
participatory approaches in watershed<br />
development.Procedings of workshop on watershed<br />
development. CSWCRTI Dehradun.pp-103-111.<br />
5. Wani,S.P.,T.J.Rego and P Pathak (2002)<br />
Improving management of natural resources for<br />
sustainable rainfed agriculture. ICRISAT.<br />
Proceedings of workshop on “On farm participatory<br />
Research Methodology”P:1-61
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
79. Rain water harvesting –Public awareness<br />
* Pradeep S. Bhalge<br />
Abstract<br />
Indian ancestors realized that water is very ephemeral resource for them. They<br />
began to love the monsoon season. They realized that human society couldn’t grow without<br />
extending the bounties of monsoon water from the wet months to the dry months. They<br />
slowly grew the extraordinary traditions of rainwater harvesting in myriad form in different<br />
parts of India. Ancestors have given holistic approach to the water. India is the only<br />
country in the world where water is called as “Tirth”. “Tirth” means the holy water. Due<br />
to this concept in mind no body was wasting the available water and dared to add impurities<br />
to the water resources. Unfortunately today, peoples are forgetting the water heritage,<br />
water culture, and the sustainable technology. This results in to impure and scare water.<br />
In the past days the peoples/ community always had an important role in constructing and<br />
managing the traditional water harvesting systems. This was the reason of the prosperity<br />
in the olden days. This paper deals with the public awareness about the traditional rainwater<br />
harvesting techniques, and importance of people’s participation for efficient use of available<br />
water resources.<br />
Introduction<br />
Once upon a time India was known for surplus<br />
production in the field of agriculture. The prosperity<br />
at that time was depends upon the Agricultural<br />
production and the agriculture was depends upon<br />
the wise full management of available water<br />
resources. Indian agriculture is a monsoon feed<br />
agriculture. The monsoon is known for its vagaries.<br />
One cannot predict anything about its quantity,<br />
extent, intensity, and period of stress. Some times<br />
it rains so heavily, at others it does not rain at all.<br />
To overcome these uncertainties the fore fathers<br />
invented various devices of water conservation.<br />
Some of them are still functioning in different parts<br />
of the country, while the others are waiting for<br />
getting restored. Water is prerequisite of life and<br />
there is no substitute for water. Hence the by gone<br />
scientist realized the essence of water. They made<br />
entire society aware of it. They made conservation<br />
and preservation of water the concern of every-body<br />
and hold every body responsible for its misuse. The<br />
wrong done were severely punished. Ancient stories<br />
description and the narrations written by the foreign<br />
visitors describe the prosperity of our nation at that<br />
time. The prosperity was depending upon the wise<br />
full management of water resources. Prosperity was<br />
attended in the period of dynasty like Gupta’s,<br />
Satwahana’s, Morvay’s,Yadava’s, Hinu dynast of<br />
Vijaynagram, and others. In that period we were<br />
far ahead of other nations in agriculture science.<br />
Information about the few glimpses of Traditional<br />
wisdom in water management is given below.<br />
Water as Tirth<br />
India is the only country where water is<br />
honored as ‘Lok Mata’ i.e. folk mother. They are<br />
hence worshiped as goddesses. Water of rivers and<br />
scared hydraulic bodies was given the status of<br />
‘tirtha” i.e. holistic drink. Tirtha has great respect<br />
in the society. On every religious occasion water is<br />
worshiped at the beginning of the ceremony. On<br />
the third day of Vaishkh a ritual of Akshaya Tritiya<br />
is observed though out the country. Rivers like<br />
Ganga, Yamuna, Sindhu, Sarswati, etc. and<br />
hydraulic bodies like lakes and reservoirs, step<br />
wells, and hot water springs were honored<br />
* Assistant Engineer Gr .II, Jayakwadi Project Circle, Aurangabad.<br />
447
throughout the country. Water is assumed as god’s<br />
gift. This assumption helps to maintain the purity<br />
of water, its efficient use and also helps in<br />
maintenance of the water structure. The traditions<br />
are still vogue. Special Melas (Festivals) are<br />
organized in honor of them. Indians have given<br />
importance not only for the collection of rainwater<br />
but equally importance to the purity of the water.<br />
India is mining Ground water, which may be as<br />
much as 7000 years old. They had respect of water<br />
and they loved water and handled it with great<br />
sensitivity and wisdom. Almost all-small rivers,<br />
springs, and other water bodies including tanks, are<br />
attributed some degree of holiness and associated<br />
with the local pantheon of Hindu god and goddesses.<br />
The digging of tank was considered to be one of<br />
the seven great meritorious acts a person has to<br />
perform during a lifetime.<br />
Traditional method of rain water harvesting<br />
The base of Indian civilization has ever since<br />
remained agriculture; however the technique of<br />
irrigation differs according to climatic diversion.<br />
Therefore it has very long tradition in the<br />
development of water bodies like, surface and<br />
subsurface (ranging from small to large), river works<br />
such as diversion weirs, diversion canals, flood<br />
canals, diversion of river courses, inter basin transfer<br />
of water, constructing of underground tunnels<br />
(through soft or hard strata), underground channels<br />
(lined or unlined), digging open well and step well,<br />
laying pipeline on ground or under ground, tapping<br />
sub soil water through tunnels and infiltration<br />
galleries, transforming water over long distance<br />
through open or closed conveyance system for rain<br />
water harvesting etc. Few examples of the systems<br />
are given below.<br />
Lakes and reservoirs<br />
India has been rightly known to be the country<br />
of lakes. At every village there was at least one lake.<br />
The man made tanks or lakes were devised for<br />
different objectives such as irrigation, fishery,<br />
religion, recharging ground water, drinking water,<br />
tanks for cattle’s etc. These hydraulic bodies were<br />
developed in almost all part of India with active<br />
support and encouragement from beneficiaries.<br />
There was a common belief that this type of pious<br />
deed could secure a place in heaven. Many of such<br />
448<br />
works are still functioning. The best examples are,<br />
reservoirs at Bhopal, Jodhapur, Bikaner, Chittod,<br />
Rajkot, Devas Jaipur-Ajamer, Jaisalmer,<br />
Budhelkhand, Anhillpattn etc. were constructed in<br />
this distributed historical span.<br />
Step well<br />
The ancestors were taken care of recharging<br />
of these well. Techniques of rainwater harvesting<br />
are used here to improve the ground water level. At<br />
many sites water tank were constructed to recharge<br />
the ground water. The recharge ground water is then<br />
enters slowly in to the step well. That is the reason<br />
of the centuries old steep wells are still functioning.<br />
The steps wells are found all over India. It is an<br />
extraordinary form of the underground water<br />
conservation system. Few examples of the best step<br />
wells are, Adalaj near Ahmedabad in Gujarat, Rani’s<br />
Barav at Patan in Gujarat, Ahilyabai’s Barav at<br />
Chandavad near Nasik, in Maharashtra etc.<br />
Water harvesting from the hill slope<br />
Devagiri- Daultabad is situated in a hilly<br />
terrain known for water scarcity where no river<br />
flows, assuring perennial source of water. Being a<br />
capatial and metropolitan nature of the centre, it<br />
required ample water for its daily needs. The huge<br />
magnitude of the population with sizable number<br />
of animals including elephant, camels, and<br />
residential quarters would have necessitated an<br />
ample supply of water. They introduced number of<br />
rainwater harvesting schemes. The wisdom they<br />
used since long remain to be the unique in nature.<br />
The hill on the left side of the highway going<br />
towards Ellora, situated well above the level of the<br />
palace complex in the fort. The average annual<br />
rainfall in this region is around 600 mm. The<br />
rainwater running down the slope of the hill is<br />
guided to a collecting chamber by a guide wall cum<br />
bund. The thickness of the bund is 450 mm, height<br />
is 750 mm. and length is 2000 meter. Two pipelines,<br />
one of them stoneware pipe line 400 mm in diameter<br />
and other earthenware pipeline 200 mm diameter,<br />
were provided. These two pipelines were taken<br />
through the valley at about 35 m below the inlet<br />
level and let in to the rock mot running around the<br />
foot of the hill, over which the fort stands. The out<br />
let is about 11 meter below the inlet level. The two<br />
pipe lines thus acted as syphons and collecting the
un off from one hill and conveying to other hill by<br />
crossing the valley between the two. An estimated<br />
yield of 173000 cubic meter of water is obtained<br />
from this source. This single example is sufficient<br />
to prove the Indian wisdom in hydraulic faculty.<br />
Water thus brought and collected in a water tank<br />
inside the moat of size 20 m x 10 m x 200 m length<br />
section is separated from the body of the moat by<br />
rock cut diaphragms left deliberately uncut while<br />
excavating the moat section. From this tank water<br />
was supplied to the neighboring guesthouse<br />
complex. Bullock operated arrangements locally<br />
known as ‘Moat’ was provided to lift the water from<br />
the tank in moat. The lifted water then conveyed to<br />
the palace complex.<br />
Peoples Participation-Phad System of Irrigation<br />
The community managed Phad irrigation<br />
system is prevalent in northwest Maharashtra i.e.<br />
part of Dhule and Nasik districts. Each independent<br />
Phad system comprises of a diversion weir, a canal<br />
on the bank and distributaries for irrigation. The<br />
technique of construction of weirs and diverting the<br />
river water for irrigation were developed form the<br />
dynast Morya’s period (300 BC). The average<br />
rainfall in this area is 674 mm. Most of them receive<br />
in between June to September. The land is fertile.<br />
Surface irrigation is boon for this area. A Weir/<br />
Bandhara may supplies water to more than one<br />
village. The right to water has been fixed by<br />
tradition, which is strictly adhering to. Phad<br />
irrigation system can be set a good example of<br />
equitable distribution of available water and its<br />
proper management. At few places the Fad irrigation<br />
system is still in existence. Fad irrigation is unique.<br />
King or Ruler supported the capital costs for<br />
construction of weirs. The distribution network is<br />
to be prepared by the irrigators. The maintenance<br />
works were the collective responsibility of the<br />
irrigators. And they had performed in such a way<br />
that the system runs years to gather. The wisdom in<br />
the management is very attractive. All the<br />
stakeholders in the irrigation limits are the members<br />
of the organization. Their elected punch- committee<br />
(Executive body) is to discharge day to day working.<br />
There is annual gathering of all the members on the<br />
eve of first day of Hindu calendar year. The<br />
members of the committee are honorary workers,<br />
to executive the duties they were assisted by<br />
449<br />
irrigation staff which includes.<br />
1. Havaldar- Vigilant officer and responsible for<br />
maintenance of the system. Observation of rotation<br />
and distribution of water are his prime concerns.<br />
Generally he is an outsider and paid in cash.<br />
2. Patakari- Working on canal distribution<br />
3. Barekari- In charge of rotation and crop<br />
patterns.<br />
The miraculous Kazana well<br />
Beed is a district head quarter, situated in<br />
Maharashtra state of India. The city is situated in<br />
the scanty rainfall zone. The average rainfall in this<br />
region is about 750mm. The rain is irregular. In such<br />
a situation Kazana well was constructed to supply<br />
water for irrigation. This well is situated on the bank<br />
of the Bindusara River. It is 5 Km. away from the<br />
Beed City.<br />
The details of the well are given in the table below<br />
Year of construction 1572<br />
Material of construction<br />
Diameter inside up to<br />
Coursed rubble<br />
masonry in lime mortar<br />
5m depth from the top<br />
Diameter inside form 5m<br />
19.7meter<br />
to 8depth from the top 13.0meter<br />
Diameter outside 20.6 meter<br />
There are three underground tunnels inside<br />
the well. All the three tunnels are at the same level.<br />
The length of the southeast tunnel is not known.<br />
Only 5.40meter length is seen, the rest of it is filled<br />
with earth. Water does not come from this side. The<br />
southwest tunnel is having length 540meter as per<br />
Government record. This tunnel is constructed<br />
below the riverbed and joins the Kazana well. The<br />
water flowing in the river recharges the ground<br />
water and saturates the subsurface layers. The tunnel<br />
is passing through these saturated layers. The water<br />
in these layers enters the tunnel through the holes<br />
provided on the walls of the tunnels. The water<br />
collected in the tunnel, then flows towards the well<br />
due to gravity. This much water is sufficient to<br />
irrigate 212 ha of lands with traditional flow<br />
irrigation methods, which is miraculous and unique<br />
of its kind. An irrigation tunnel 2.42 Km long is<br />
provided on the north side of the well. Since 1572,
without much expenditure this scheme is running<br />
well and irrigating 212 ha. It also fulfills the needs<br />
of drinking water of the rural and new urban area<br />
of Beed City. Given the unreliability of the Indian<br />
monsoon, the seasonality of surface water sources<br />
and the expenditure involved in the supply of piped<br />
water, water-harvesting structures can play a useful<br />
role in meeting the survival needs of the people<br />
Water management<br />
Find out how much water is available in your<br />
village. An example and one table are given below.<br />
Water requirement of village under<br />
consideration<br />
Area = 1000 haPopulation =1000 no. Animals =<br />
600 no.<br />
Water will be required for 1.Drinking ( people +<br />
cattel) 2.Irrigation 3.Forest 4.Industries<br />
1. Calculation of annual water requirement for<br />
drinking purpose for peoples<br />
=365 days x 100 liter per day requirement x<br />
population 1000 =3,65,00,000 liters.<br />
2. Calculation of water requirement for drinking<br />
purpose for peoples<br />
=365 days x 150 liter per day requirement x No. of<br />
animals 600 =3,28,50,000 liters<br />
Total= 365 00 000 + 328 00 000= 693 50 000 liters<br />
=6.9 ha-m = 7 ha-m<br />
3. Calculation of annual water requirement for<br />
irrigation purpose<br />
For one rotation 100 mm (0.1 mater) water<br />
will be required. Generally 60% of the area is under<br />
cultivation. Thus the cultivated land of our village<br />
will be 60% of 1000 ha. i.e. 600 ha. Out of which<br />
50% will be assumed under irrigation (300 ha).<br />
450<br />
Assuming one rotation in Kharif and four rotation<br />
in Rabi the tatol water requirment for 300 ha will<br />
be<br />
= 300ha x 5 rotation x 0.1 meter =150 ha-m.<br />
4. Calculation of annual water requirement for<br />
Jungle purpos e<br />
Plants in the jungle or Horticulture garden<br />
require 100 liters of water per week. There are 52<br />
weeks in a year. Let us not consider 2 rainy weeks.<br />
Then assuming water requirement of 50 weeks only.<br />
Let there are 200 no trees in a hectare, and the<br />
plantation is on 100-hectare area. Then total number<br />
of trees will be<br />
= 200 no per ha x 100 ha area = 20 000 Nos.<br />
Water requirement of 20 000 trees will be<br />
= 20 000 no x 100 liters per week x 50 weeks<br />
= 100000000 liters = 10 ha-m<br />
5. Calculation of annual water requirement<br />
for Industrial purpose<br />
There will be production of vegetables,<br />
flowers, and fruits. It can be sale directly or some<br />
times it is to be preserved in cooling plants. Or some<br />
times it may process. For that purpose canning<br />
centers are required. Water requirement of various<br />
small-scale industries will be assumed to be<br />
=13 ha-m.<br />
6. Assumption of annual water requirement<br />
for Garden around the School = 5 ha-m<br />
Thus the total annual water requirement will be<br />
= 7+150+10+13+5 =185 ha-m<br />
Available annual water from rainfall over 1000<br />
hectare area and 600 mm annual rainfall will be<br />
(From above table) = 210 ha-m<br />
This is more than the annual water requirement of<br />
a village under consideration.<br />
Thus it is found that the water scarcity is not<br />
natural, it is due to the mismanagement. Rainwater
harvest will certainly solve the water problems in any village. Thus we can overcome the erratic nature of<br />
rain. For that purpose we should leave the nature of dependence on the others. Then only we can stop the<br />
tanker for water supply.<br />
Comparison of India with Other nations<br />
Water availability per head in different River Basins in India<br />
General Information of Maharashtra: ( 1996-1997)<br />
(Reference : Maharashtra Irrigation Commission)<br />
( If gross availability is assumed as 125936 M cum)<br />
451
Sub basin wise water availability per head and per hectare in Maharashtra<br />
( Reference : Maharashtra State water and irrigation commission)<br />
452
If the rain precipitation in a village is kept in<br />
the village then all the problems will solve. Roof<br />
water should be diverted in to the Bore well or open<br />
well. Install a hand pump over it. The rain<br />
precipitated over the fields shall be filtered and<br />
diverted in to the open dug well, will improve the<br />
water table in the vicinity of the well.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The area getting heavy rains have water<br />
scarcity in summer days; the reason behind is that<br />
efforts are not taken to make the water to percolate<br />
in to the ground. “catchment’s area development”<br />
is necessary for solving the water problems.<br />
Generally pumping of ground water is more than<br />
the naturally percolated water in to the ground. As<br />
the money is deposited first in to the bank and then<br />
utilized, in the same way Allow pumping of that<br />
much amount of water, which is replenished in the<br />
preceding rainy season. This attitude will solve the<br />
water scarcity problems.<br />
Irrigated area of Different Nations<br />
[Reference: World Irrigation Statistics 2002- IWMI]<br />
District wise average annual rainfall in Maharashtra state in millimeter<br />
(Reference : Maharashtra State water and irrigation commission)<br />
� � �<br />
453<br />
There may not be have suitable geology to<br />
store underground water at all places. In such places<br />
store the rainwater in surface storage structures like<br />
field tanks, village tanks, storage tanks, weirs etc.<br />
Otherwise, every year, water scarcity problem gets<br />
severe and severe. By construction of very simple<br />
structure the rainwater can make to percolate in to<br />
the ground.<br />
References<br />
1. Zopale Ajun Mal : Santosh Gondhalekar<br />
2. Maharasshtra water commission repot : President –<br />
Madhav Atamaram Chitale<br />
3. Param Vaibhawacha Tappa Ala Prof. Ramesh Pandav<br />
4.Aaj Bhee Khare Hia Talab : Anupam Misara<br />
5. Pani sarvasathi : Pradeep Bhalge<br />
<strong>Papers</strong><br />
1. Few Glimpses of Indian Water and Culture : Dr. R.S.<br />
Morwanchikar<br />
2. Glimpses of Water History of India : Dr. D.M. More<br />
3. Well water management in India : Pradeep Bhalge
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
80. Involvement of People for Flood and Drought Control<br />
*Rahiman pani Rakhiye, bin pani sab soon, pani<br />
gaye na ubren, moti manas chune*<br />
When Rahim says and explain in two lines in<br />
the year —— there were no water scarcity, nor water<br />
was polluted , even at that time he was well aware,<br />
that this gift of nature is how precious, for the<br />
existence of the planet which believes that there is<br />
only earth, where the life is ,we can see how limited<br />
the availability of water ,which we are using without<br />
even thinking, about the fact that this can not be<br />
produced in any factory, except through the nature<br />
itself ,we hardly feel its importance ,however<br />
whenever there is a scarcity of water we realize how<br />
useful it is in our day-to-day life ,apart from our<br />
daily use ,we depend on water, to fulfill our other<br />
requirements ,A large amount of water is used in<br />
agriculture, to produce food, also industries use<br />
water, to carry out various processes ,increasing<br />
demand of electricity is also needs water Although<br />
the earth has a huge stock of water, the amount of<br />
water that can be used by human beings and other<br />
animals is very small.<br />
The figure shows about the availability of fresh<br />
*A. K. Charles<br />
water —as per diagram shown below——of the total<br />
water available on earth , 97.40%is in the oceans.<br />
due to its salinity it cannot be used by human beings<br />
most of the fresh water is frozen in the polar , how<br />
important this precious gift of nature in early days<br />
traditional Indian culture was for the betterment of<br />
the society not for personal ,every where from<br />
Kashmir to Kanyakumari we can see Amrais, Talab,<br />
Dharamshala , wells etc. now the old tradition has<br />
gone and seemed outdated ,nobody wants to<br />
maintain that type of community places and the<br />
result is, all these structures are being ruined ,no<br />
public involvement ,lack of interest to manage are<br />
the main problem nowadays, at the other hand we<br />
are not aware of this fact that day by day situation<br />
is going worst, if the attention will not pay timely<br />
we have to pay enormous damage to the society and<br />
then we will not be able to check then, this is the<br />
right time when we should fully involved ourselves<br />
and get it done with war foot level in this context<br />
our very first priority is to maintain groundwater<br />
level which is going down with alarming speed ,<br />
cautious about its cleanliness aware about its<br />
*Wainganga Samudayik Vikas Kendra, Dhapewara,Kumhari,Balaghat, M.P. 481022, Mo.9893217825<br />
E-mail –charles_ ak@rediffmail.com<br />
454
echarging , A study of world wide fund in the year<br />
2006 shows that all the developed countries are<br />
using water as the other resources , the fact is this<br />
that these countries are facing acute water shortage.<br />
When we Actually look in the field, and we<br />
are really interested to change the situation<br />
everybody get involve and within very short span<br />
of time, we can watch the difference, we have<br />
already very suitable and dynamic example of Tarun<br />
Bharat Sangh when Mr. Rajendra singh started water<br />
conservation works in the Rajasthan everybody<br />
including local people of the area laughed and<br />
nobody can believe, now the changes we are<br />
looking, that is the result of ones deep sense of love<br />
and affection to the nature his dedication whole<br />
heartedly working in that kind of worst situation, it<br />
changed the whole economy of the area ,and once<br />
the area where even fodder was not available for<br />
cattle’s, now the farmers are busy with farming<br />
activities and getting three crops in a year.<br />
And the works leads Mr. Rajendra Singh to<br />
won the Megsese Award for his outstanding works<br />
in the field of water conservation.Another example<br />
is Mr. Anna sahib hajare, position of the village<br />
Ralegaon sindhi was just like any other village of<br />
Maharashtra state and when he started his work on<br />
conservation of water with the help of local people<br />
he got Padam shri and Padam vir awards.<br />
In the state of MP when Mandideep near<br />
Bhopal,was identified to develop as industrial estate<br />
there was acute water shortage and AKVN took<br />
initiative to develop water bodies in the area now<br />
Mandideep become self supported water bodies<br />
which are not only feeding its peoples drinking water<br />
but also providing water for industries ,all these three<br />
case studies shows us the work done by locals<br />
themselves and we can see the result whether it is a<br />
question of involvement of peoples like in our first<br />
two cases or it is a dedicated work of government<br />
agencies, the important thing is to start with a good<br />
intention ,result oriented zeal dedication and ready<br />
to complete timely .<br />
One National level studies shows when there<br />
were only one thousand tube wells, in the year 1947<br />
now there are more then sixty lacs tube wells are in<br />
the country , when MP Government with a very good<br />
intention to the farmers of the state, decided to clear<br />
all the loans and provided free electricity farmers<br />
over exploited this facility and 8 districts poured<br />
455<br />
water more then the capacity which damaged the<br />
reserve store which cannot be restored anyway, this<br />
is the position when in the 80’s all the wells were<br />
capable to provide water in the summer season now<br />
seventy-five percent of the wells are drying in the<br />
month of December ten percent in the January ,ten<br />
percent in the February only two percent of the wells<br />
of MP has the capacity to feed in the summer, this<br />
is only because of the tube wells, one tube well dried<br />
ten wells of surrounding area,<br />
Now even environmentalist and geologist are<br />
agree with this fact that one tube well damaged 5 to<br />
10 nearby wells , Officers of the water conservation<br />
authority says due to digging up to 300 feet all the<br />
underwater current disturbed and diverted the<br />
ground water layers.<br />
Madhya Pradesh plays a very critical role in<br />
this context all the rivers originating from MP are<br />
because of the forest and ground water sources<br />
unlike the rivers of the northern part which are the<br />
result of ice melting of Himalaya ,rivers of MP needs<br />
proper attention to conserve forest ,rainwater<br />
harvesting techniques should be the integral part<br />
of our planning thus only we will be able to fight<br />
with this great manmade disaster of the country other<br />
wise this will damage the ecosystem of the whole<br />
country .we need proper attention of local people<br />
and general public to involve in the whole process<br />
of conservation of water like if we follow these very<br />
simple techniques in our daily life how much our<br />
contribution in the field of water conservation we<br />
can observe ourselves .<br />
It is a very common fact that next world war<br />
will be for water as we are observing, all the rich<br />
and developed countries are facing acute water<br />
shortage and when the position will be beyond their<br />
limit they will sure try to exploit undeveloped and<br />
underdeveloped countries to fetch water for the<br />
citizens, even now many multinational companies<br />
has already started various plants, which needs<br />
plenty of water and spreading pollution in the<br />
surrounding area, thus this is the right time to start<br />
not thinking but functioning from top to bottom we<br />
have to start from every nook and corner in this<br />
situation we need awareness ,Training ,Skill<br />
development ,methodology ,and last but not least<br />
funds within a fixed time frame which involves short<br />
term, medium and long term plans, all the<br />
recommendation and conclusion depends upon the
SN Activity If tap is on Water used If use this way Water used Saving<br />
1 Brushing 5 minuets 20 Ltr. Mug /Glass 0.5Ltr. 19.5 Ltr.<br />
2 Shaving 2 minuets 10 Ltr. Mug 0.25Ltr. 9.75 Ltr<br />
3 Bathing 30 minuets 90 Ltr. Bucket 30Ltr. 60 Ltr<br />
4 Toilet 10 minuets 30-40 L. Using flush 7.5Ltr 20-30 Ltr<br />
5 Home Cleaning 10 minuets 50 Ltr. Mug/ Bucket 20 Ltr 20-30 Ltr<br />
6 Two wheeler 10 minuets 70-90 L. Bucket/ Mug 20 Ltr 50-70 Ltr<br />
7 Car wash 30 minuets 300 Ltr. Bucket/ Mug 50 Ltr 200-250Ltr<br />
availability of resources ,Human, Technical ,and<br />
Financial are important for that .Major cause of the<br />
floods and draught in the area like Balaghat which<br />
is paddy growing area is that due to traditional<br />
knowledge and practice, all the fields filled with<br />
water for crop, in this process the whole area of<br />
agriculture convert in a kind of blockage which don’t<br />
allow water to absorb in the mansoon which<br />
ultimately create draught in summer.<br />
Some of the recommendations are as follows :<br />
1. All the data available at government, non<br />
government Academic and Research institutions<br />
should be compiled and made available to<br />
everybody on internet.<br />
2. All the latest Rainwater harvesting techniques<br />
should be compiled and made available to all<br />
interested individual and institutions from panchayat<br />
to national level.<br />
3. All the works from traditional knowledge to<br />
the latest one should be collected and made available<br />
to everybody.<br />
4. This is a work which needs involvement of<br />
everybody at every level so the planning, Execution,<br />
media should also come together and work with<br />
target and result oriented strategy.<br />
5. Develop some systematic plan with the help<br />
and guidance of planning commission to suit every<br />
body and every sector.<br />
6. formation of high power committees from<br />
National to village level with the involvement of<br />
every sector.<br />
7. All the Government, Nongovernment,<br />
Panchayat, Cooperatives, Media, Technical<br />
institutions should be the members of this<br />
committee.<br />
8. proper feed back systems are very essential for<br />
the monitoring and follow up.<br />
9. Near railway lines, Roadsides, canals<br />
plantation work should be encouraged.<br />
10. Some special Award can be launched for proper<br />
implementation, as this is very positive way to<br />
recognize for their outstanding works in the field.<br />
11. All the Panchayats should be involved to take<br />
necessary works related rainwater harvesting these<br />
grass root agencies are very effective for such works.<br />
When rahim says these words in the year —<br />
— there were no water scarcity, nor water was<br />
polluted, even at that time he was well aware, that<br />
the gift of nature is how precious, for the existence<br />
of the planet which believes that there is only earth,<br />
where the life is, we can see how limited the<br />
availability of water, which we are using without<br />
even thinking, about the fact that this can not be<br />
produced in any factory, except through the nature<br />
itself, we hardly feel its importance, however<br />
whenever there is a scarcity of water we realize how<br />
useful it is in our day-to-day life ,apart from our<br />
daily use ,we depend on water, to fulfill our other<br />
requirements ,A large amount of water is used in<br />
agriculture, to produce food, also industries use<br />
water, to carry out various processes ,increasing<br />
demand of electricity is also needs water Although<br />
the earth has a huge stock of water, the amount of<br />
water that can be used by human beings and other<br />
animals is very small. The figure shows about the<br />
availability of fresh water —as per diagram shown<br />
below——of the total water available on earth,<br />
97.40%is in the oceans. Due to its salinity it cannot<br />
be used by human beings most of the fresh water is<br />
frozen in the polar.<br />
� � �<br />
456
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
81. Public Awareness on Rain Water Harvesting<br />
- A Case Study in Chennai City<br />
GENERAL<br />
Water is life and blood of our environment and<br />
without water no living being can survive. Water is<br />
finite resource and cannot be replaced/duplicated<br />
and produced on commercial scale. Ground water<br />
is the largest reservoir of fresh water on the planet.<br />
It immensely contributes to India’s development and<br />
economy. It meets 85% of drinking water needs of<br />
rural India. It sustains 60% of irrigated agriculture<br />
and plays an important role in social equity and<br />
poverty reduction.<br />
The phenomenon of human induced ground<br />
water extraction due to excessive development led<br />
* A. Jebamalar **Dr. G. Ravikumar<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Any initiative involving the public in a mass scale will be successful only when the<br />
public themselves are consulted and are participating in every process. As the stakeholders,<br />
their involvement has been necessitated, in the recent times, in any water related initiative.<br />
This paper attempts to bring out the importance of public awareness in the implementation<br />
of rain water harvesting. Government, though it represents the public, may not be in a<br />
position to deal with such water related issues out and out by itself. Understanding this,<br />
Tamil Nadu Government made rain water harvesting (RWH) as mandatory by the public.<br />
This paper focuses on public awareness for RWH implementation in Padmavathi Nagar of<br />
Chennai City.<br />
A nondisquised structured questionnaire was prepared in Tamil & English and the<br />
questionnaire survey was conducted at 38 households of the study area. It is a 5 page<br />
questionnaire contains three major parts. The first part is about general information<br />
regarding the resident’s personal details, No. of persons in the family, area of the premises,<br />
soil details, awareness about RWH system and their willingness towards this survey. The<br />
second part contains water resources engineering aspects, with water availability, water<br />
usage, quality of water and the sufficiency of the available water at their premises. The<br />
third part contains the details of the RWH systems like type of the system, features and their<br />
opinion about the RWH systems.<br />
Coding sheet was prepared and the information like awareness about RWH system,<br />
its purpose & its impact, willingness to conduct study and their opinion about RWH were<br />
studied. This will help to study the involvement of the public in implementing RWH system.<br />
to decline in ground water level, resulting in water<br />
scarcity in some areas. There are a lot of impacts<br />
associated with falling water levels such as sea water<br />
intrusion, land subsidence, depletion of surface<br />
water, high pumping cost, etc. So, ground water<br />
resources should be managed in such a way that the<br />
recharge is kept at pace with the with drawls through<br />
artificial recharge of rain water. Hence, artificial<br />
recharging of ground water by Rain Water<br />
Harvesting is the solution to improve ground water<br />
potential in order to maintain the sustainable water<br />
resource.<br />
*Sr.lecturer, Velammal Engg. College, Ambattur, Chennai-66<br />
**Asst. Professor, Centre for Water Resources, College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai – 25<br />
457
RAIN WATER HARVESTING (RWH) IN<br />
CHENNAI<br />
Chennai gets an average of 1300 mm of rainfall<br />
every year. But, this rainfall occurs in short spells<br />
of a high intensity and nearly 65 percent of the<br />
rainfall is lost due to surface runoff to the sea and<br />
evaporation. With the open space area around<br />
houses and buildings being cemented, rain water,<br />
which drains off from terraces and the roofs is not<br />
percolating into the soil. Therefore, precious rainfall<br />
is being squandered, as it drains into sea eventually.<br />
If better methods like roof top rain water harvesting<br />
techniques are adopted, will have proper recharge<br />
and the water will be available throughout the year.<br />
RWH means catch the rain water where it falls.<br />
It is the activity of direct collection of rain water.<br />
Rain water can be stored for direct use or can be<br />
recharged in to the ground water for later use. In<br />
cities, due to shrinking of open spaces, rain water<br />
can be harvested and recharged to the ground water.<br />
So, the Government of Tamil Nadu made RWH<br />
mandatory in all the houses. With the participation<br />
of the public in RWH, roof top rain water can be<br />
collected and stored in the place of generation itself.<br />
This will improve the self-sustainability in fulfilling<br />
the day to day water requirement of the public.<br />
RAIN WATER HARVESTING STUDIES IN<br />
INDIA<br />
Deepak Khare et al (2004) have reviewed the<br />
impact assessment of RWH on ground water quality<br />
at Indore and Dewas, India. The impact assessment<br />
of roof top rainwater harvesting on ground water<br />
was carried out with the help working tube wells to<br />
improve the quality and quantity of ground water.<br />
The roof top rainwater was used to put into the<br />
ground using sand filter as pretreatment system. This<br />
lead to a reduction in the concentration of pollutants<br />
in ground water which indicated the effectiveness<br />
of increased recharge of aquifer by roof top rain<br />
water. He observes that in certain areas, the amount<br />
of total and faecal coliform were observed high in<br />
harvested tube well water than normal tube well<br />
water. The reason of this increase was poor<br />
cleanliness of roof top and poor efficiency of filter<br />
for bacterial removal. The author concludes that<br />
quality mounting of rainwater harvesting is an<br />
essential prerequisite before using it for ground<br />
water recharge.<br />
458<br />
Venkateswara Rao (1996) in his article has<br />
reviewed the importance of artificial recharge of<br />
rainfall water for Hyderabad city water supply.<br />
Rainfall water from the roof tops of the buildings<br />
recharged through specially designed recharge pits<br />
in order to augment the ground water resource in<br />
the city. This water meets almost 80% of domestic<br />
water requirements, storm run off from the public<br />
places like roads, parks, play grounds etc., is<br />
recharged through naturally existing tank within the<br />
city by not allowing municipal sewage and industrial<br />
effluents in these tanks. He finally suggests that,<br />
wherever natural tanks are not existing, community<br />
recharge pits are to be constructed at hydro<br />
geologically suitable location.<br />
Sharma and Jain (1997) describe the ground<br />
water recharge through roof top rain water<br />
harvesting in urban habitation. In Nagpur city an<br />
experiment was conducted where 80,000 litres of<br />
water collected from the roof top of 100 m2 area<br />
was recharged at the expense of Rs.1500/-. The rise<br />
in water level up to one meter was recorded in the<br />
recharge well and adjusting dug wells. The quality<br />
of ground water was also improved as nitrate<br />
concentrations got diluted considerably to desirable<br />
limit. They conclude that such a practice, if<br />
replicated on a large scale can bring out sustainable<br />
augmentation to ground water reservoir.<br />
Sekar Raghavan (2004) in his paper deals with<br />
survey on constructions of roof top RWH structures<br />
at Gandhi Nagar. He analyzed the RWH system<br />
based on completeness viz., roof top and open space<br />
RWH, apportioning of roof water, design of<br />
structures and maintenance of RWH system. Finally<br />
he concludes that 15% of the systems were very<br />
good, 35% were good, 30% were satisfactory and<br />
20 % were bad.<br />
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN RWH<br />
Indira Khurana and Suresh Babu explained the<br />
experiences in community based water harvesting.<br />
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) had<br />
been promoting the concept of rain water harvesting<br />
doing research on community based water<br />
harvesting. Some of the case studies from Alwar<br />
and Laoriya in Rajasthan, Ralegaon<br />
Siddhi,Darewadi and Hivare Bazar in<br />
Maharastra,Raj-Samadiyala in Gujarat and Jhabua<br />
in Madhya Pradesh are discussed in their article. In
these villages, the people themselves are managing<br />
their water resources and have set an example for<br />
the rest of the country.<br />
Gurunathan and Karuppusamy made an<br />
attempt to share DHAN Foundation’s experience<br />
in one of the water starved districts,<br />
Ramanathapuram in Tamil Nadu State, about the<br />
people participatory oorani development and<br />
management in people’s drinking water for survival.<br />
The authors confidently argue that deepening or<br />
construction of oorani in Ramanathapuram district<br />
is the simple and very effective RWH method, which<br />
can cater the drinking water needs of the people<br />
throughout the year even during the scarce situation.<br />
In Chennai, the RWH was initiated by Chennai<br />
Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board<br />
(CMWSSB) and Tamil Nadu Water Supply and<br />
Drainage Board (TWAD).<br />
SCOPE OF THE STUDY<br />
RWH is the important task to be done in war<br />
foot urgency in order to augment the degrading<br />
ground water in terms of quantity and quality. This<br />
RWH should be done from the topmost level to<br />
lowermost level viz Government to individual. To<br />
increase the use of RWH system, the knowledge<br />
about it with the public must be analyzed. For this,<br />
the Questionnaire survey is the best methodology.<br />
It will give both qualitative and quantitative<br />
information from public. An attempt is made to<br />
study the public awareness in RWH in Padmavathi<br />
Nagar of Chennai city with the help of<br />
Questionnaire. From the results obtained, any<br />
improvement activity can be decided and<br />
implemented in RWH with the help of public<br />
participation.<br />
This paper focuses on Public awareness in<br />
RWH in Padmavathi Nagar, Chennai. Padmavathi<br />
Nagar is located in between Vadapalani and<br />
Virugampakkam, having a plot area of 16,556 m 2<br />
and roof area of 8,584 m 2 approximately. The lay<br />
out map is shown in Figure 1. It has 69 plots out of<br />
which 59 were constructed with buildings. In that,<br />
10 are apartments containing an average of 10 flats.<br />
The soil condition of this area is clayey in nature<br />
up to 5 feet and after that it is sandy in nature. The<br />
average depth of water table from ground level is<br />
8.5 m. The water colour is yellow. In this area, all<br />
the houses have only roof top RWH systems. Most<br />
459<br />
of the RWH systems are connected to open wells<br />
through filters. Awareness was created among the<br />
residents of Padmavathi Nagar on one to one basis<br />
on the need for efficient RWH structures.<br />
RESEARCH DESIGN<br />
Slesinger and Stephenson in the Encyclopedia<br />
define research “as the manipulation of things,<br />
concepts of symbols for the purpose of generalizing<br />
to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that<br />
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the<br />
practice of an art”. Research methodology is a way<br />
to systematically solve the research problem.<br />
Research design is a basic plan that guides the data<br />
collection and analysis of a research project. “A<br />
Research Design is the arrangement of conditions<br />
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that<br />
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose<br />
with economy in procedure.” This research falls<br />
under the category of descriptive research of<br />
conclusive nature.<br />
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH<br />
Descriptive research studies are those studies,<br />
which are concerned with describing the<br />
characteristics of a particular individual or of a<br />
group. Descriptive Research is characterised by a<br />
carefully planned and structured research design.<br />
Poate and Daplyn explained the questionnaire<br />
design, which consists of six principles.<br />
i) Content: include the minimum number of<br />
topics to meet the objectives;<br />
ii) Time for the interview must be kept reasonable;<br />
iii) The question should be easy to use as an<br />
interview guide for the enumerator and as an<br />
instrument for recording answers;<br />
iv) It should be self contained;<br />
v) Coding for analysis should be done directly<br />
on the form; and<br />
vi) Smart presentation, careful thought should be<br />
given to the quality of the paper, clarity of printing<br />
& presentation and the spaces provided for<br />
recording answers. They also explained about the<br />
coding system in the text book.<br />
QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY<br />
To know about the public awareness in RWH<br />
system, a nondisquised structured questionnaire was<br />
prepared both in English and Tamil. The
questionnaire contains three major parts. The first<br />
contains general information regarding the residents<br />
personal details, No of persons in the family, area<br />
of the premises, soil details, awareness about RWH<br />
system and their willingness towards this survey.<br />
The second part contains water resources<br />
engineering which has water availability, water<br />
usage, quality of water and the sufficiency of the<br />
available water at their premises. The third part<br />
contains the details of the RWH systems like type<br />
of the system, features and their opinion about the<br />
RWH systems.<br />
The Questionnaire survey was conducted at<br />
Padmavathi Nagar. It was conducted in 38 houses<br />
out of which 23 residents accepted for taking water<br />
levels in every fortnight for conducting impact study.<br />
To derive the information, coding sheet was<br />
prepared and it was analysed.<br />
FINDINGS<br />
Awareness<br />
The residents were asked whether they are<br />
aware of RWH and its purpose. All respondents<br />
reported that they are aware of RWH and its purpose.<br />
With this response, certainly the purpose of<br />
implementing RWH will be achieved. Then<br />
awareness regarding all the structures like sump,<br />
source well, recharge well, percolation pit and<br />
recharge well cum bore pit were enquired. All<br />
respondents were aware of structures like sump &<br />
source well.<br />
The awareness was low for structures like<br />
Percolation pit & Recharge well cum Bore pit.<br />
Percentage of awareness about RWH structures in<br />
Padmavathi Nagar is presented in Table 1 and the<br />
graph is shown in Figure 2.<br />
All respondents were aware of structures like<br />
sump & source well.<br />
The awareness was low for structures like<br />
Percolation pit & Recharge well cum Bore pit.<br />
People may be educated by the different soil<br />
conditions and their suitability of different types of<br />
RWH structures in order to improve the efficiency.<br />
They were also asked whether they are aware of<br />
impact of RWH. All respondents are aware of impact<br />
of RWH. They were reported that RWH will<br />
Table 1 : Percentage of awareness about RWH Structures in Padmavathi Nagar<br />
Awarness in %<br />
No. Structure Awareness<br />
Percentage<br />
1 Sump 36 100<br />
2 Source well (Open well/bore well) 36 100<br />
3 Recharge well 35 97.22<br />
4 Percolation pit 25 69.44<br />
5 Recharge well cum Bore pit 20 55.55<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Sum p Source well Recharge w ell Percolation pit Recharge w ell cum Bore pit<br />
Figure. 2 Percentage of awareness about RWH Structures in Padmavathi Nagar<br />
460
improve the quantity and the quality of the ground<br />
water.<br />
Willingness<br />
The respondents were asked to express their<br />
willingness for the RWH impact study to be<br />
conducted in their houses. The percentage of<br />
willingness to conduct RWH Study is shown in<br />
Table 2 and the graph is shown in Figure 3.<br />
Table 2 : Percentage of Willingness to Conduct<br />
Study in Padmavathi Nagar<br />
No. Willingness No. of<br />
People<br />
Percentage<br />
1 To conduct study 21 58.33<br />
2 Not to conduct study 15 41.66<br />
41.66 To conduct study<br />
58.33<br />
Not to conduct study<br />
Figure 3 : Percentage of Willingness to Conduct<br />
Study in Padmavathi Nagar<br />
Around 58 % of the respondents expressed<br />
their willingness to conduct a study in RWH while<br />
others did not give their consent. They are also asked<br />
about their interest to improve the existing design<br />
through advice from Centre for Water Resources,<br />
Anna University. About 62 % of the respondents<br />
are interested to improve their existing design, while<br />
rest of them expressed their inability to afford for<br />
the modification.<br />
Implemented in %<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
RWH Implementation<br />
The Respondents are also asked about the cost<br />
of implementation, time of implementation, designer<br />
details and the type of the RWH structures. Only<br />
53% of the respondents are implemented during the<br />
year 2003, rest of them implemented before 2003.<br />
They have spent Rs. 2000 to 4000 on an average.<br />
About 62% of the RWH structures are designed and<br />
constructed by the local plumbers and all of them<br />
have done only roof top RWH. The details of<br />
implemented RWH structures in roof top harvesting<br />
are shown in Table 3 and the graph is shown in<br />
Figure 4.<br />
Table 3. Type of RWH structures in Padmavathi Nagar<br />
No. Type No. of<br />
houses<br />
Percentage<br />
1 Source well<br />
(Open well/ bore well) 31 86.11<br />
2 Recharge well 0 0<br />
3 Percolation pit 5 13.88<br />
4 Recharge well cum<br />
Bore pit<br />
0 0<br />
Most of the respondents reported that they had<br />
implemented RWH using the open well through<br />
filter while few had resorted to percolation pit. RWH<br />
system like recharge well, recharge cum bore pit<br />
were not implemented. RWH through open well is<br />
common because the top soil is clayey in nature<br />
and if any other structure would be effective only if<br />
implemented at high depth.<br />
Source w ell( Open w ell/ bore w ell) Recharge w ell Percolation pit Recharge w ell cum Bore pit<br />
Figure 4 : Type of RWH structures in Padmavathi Nagar<br />
461
Filter details<br />
Recharge of Source Well through filter : 90%<br />
Recharge of Source Well without filter : 10%<br />
Average Filter depth : 3 ft<br />
Type of filter : Sand and Pebble are mostly used<br />
Location of filter : Near to storage structure<br />
Almost 90% of the respondents used sand & a<br />
pebble filters before the source well. Filter was<br />
located near to storage structure. 10% had not used<br />
filter before the source well. Most of the respondents<br />
felt that filters are needed because open well water<br />
was used by them.<br />
Opinion in %<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Maintenance<br />
The respondents are also asked about the<br />
method of maintenance and the frequency of<br />
maintenance of the RWH structures. Only 70% of<br />
them are maintaining their RWH structures by<br />
cleaning and desilting once in a year.<br />
OPINION OF THE PUBLIC<br />
To know the opinion of the public about the<br />
RWH structures, four questions are asked to the<br />
public and their views are represented in the<br />
following graphs. The opinion of the public for the<br />
question “RWH will improve ground water level?”<br />
is shown in the following Figure 5.<br />
Strongly agree Agree Neither Agree nor Dis agree Disagree Strongly Disagree<br />
The opinion of the public for the question “An improper structure will affect the<br />
efficacy of RWH?” is shown in the following Figure 6.<br />
Opinion in %<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Strongly agree Agree Neither Agree nor Dis agree Disagree Strongly Disagree<br />
The opinion of the public for the question “RWH is the best method to solve water<br />
crisis?” is shown in the following Figure 7<br />
Opinion in %<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Strongly agree Agree Neither Agree nor Dis agree Disagree Strongly Disagree<br />
462
The opinion of the public for the question “RWH will improve the quality of water?” is shown in the<br />
following Figure 8.<br />
Opinion in %<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Strongly agree Agree Neither Agree nor Dis agree Disagre e Strongly Disagree<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
An attempt is made to study the<br />
public awareness in RWH in<br />
Padmavathi Nagar of Chennai City.<br />
This study shows that the people are<br />
100% aware of RWH, its purpose and<br />
its impact. Public involvement in RWH<br />
implementation is also good. People<br />
feel that RWH will improve the ground<br />
water quantity and quality. Further<br />
studies can be made to check the<br />
efficacy of implemented RWH in<br />
terms of improving both quantity and<br />
quality of ground water.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
• Agarwal, A., Narain, S and Khurana, I.<br />
“Making Water Everybody’s Business-<br />
Practice and Policy of water harvesting”,<br />
Centre for science and Environment, New<br />
Delhi.<br />
• Poate, C.D and Daplyn, P.F, “Data for<br />
Agrarian Development”, Cambridge<br />
University Press,Edition, 1993.<br />
• Indira Khurana and Suresh Babu,<br />
S.V.(2001), “Experiences in Community<br />
based Water Harvesting”, National<br />
Workshop on Water Resources and Water<br />
Quality Management for Sustainable<br />
Drinking Water Supply, pp.1- 7.<br />
• Gurunathan, A., and Karuppusamy,<br />
N.(2001), “Water for All - Making a reality”,<br />
National Workshop on Water Resources<br />
Fig. 1 : Layout map of Padmavathi Nagar, Virugambakkam<br />
and Water Quality Management for Sustainable Drinking Water Supply, pp.v5-v11.<br />
• “Manual on Rain Water Harvesting”, (2001), Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board.<br />
• “Manual on Rain Water Harvesting in Urban Areas”, Rain Centre, Akash Ganga Trust, Chennai.<br />
� � �<br />
463
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
82. Modern Water – Energetic Resources Use Problems<br />
and Perspectives of Tajikistan on Conditions<br />
of Global Non-Stability Climate<br />
*Nurmahmad Shermatov *Inom Normatov *Georgy Petrov<br />
The beginning of irrigated farming in Central Asia<br />
belongs to sixth – seventh century b. c. Since that<br />
time and up to now its role constantly grew, the area<br />
of irrigated lands increased and the methods<br />
improved. To the beginning of 20 th century about<br />
3,5 mln. ha was irrigated in region. Particularly the<br />
intensive development of irrigation in region began<br />
in period of USSR existence (mainly from, 60-s up<br />
to 90-s). Occurring in this time interference on<br />
nature and its achievement could be named as<br />
unique in world practice in such experiments. In<br />
the result to 90-s the total area of irrigated lands in<br />
region increased to 8,8 mln. ha.<br />
The same abrupt drawing in soviet time was<br />
also observed in hydropower. As a matter of fact<br />
beginning from the 30-s of XX century in the region<br />
the perfectly new base branch – hydropower was<br />
founded. The total fixed capacity of all power<br />
stations in region reached to the middle of 90-s –<br />
37,8 mln. kWt.<br />
Unfortunately all these impressive results also<br />
led to negative consequences. Intensity of ecological<br />
balance breach processes in region sharply<br />
increased, particularly hard it showed itself in zone<br />
of Aral Sea, the salting of lands and their becoming<br />
deserted increased, the quality of water became<br />
worse practically in all sources. With it already to<br />
70-s the water resources of Syrdarya river basin<br />
proved quite fully to be exhausted. Practically all<br />
these turn into the global ecological problem of<br />
region and according to Aral Sea – to ecological<br />
catastrophe. The rapid growth of population<br />
negatively influenced upon it.<br />
In integrated view anthropogenesis influence of<br />
people in nature shows itself on change of climate.<br />
The conception of “Climate” includes aggregate of<br />
physical and geographical processes happening in<br />
atmosphere at their interaction with surrounds.<br />
Climate is the main factor from the condition of<br />
which depends to existence of all olives on the Earth.<br />
The Earth itself and its components form under the<br />
operation of climate change.<br />
Generalized parameters of climate change from<br />
the hydropower point of view are the temperature<br />
and almond of precipitation.<br />
In the article the results of researches on<br />
vulnerability of hydropower of Tajikistan from<br />
climate changes the possible consequences of it and<br />
necessary measures on decreasing such influences<br />
as on hydropower itself so on surrounds as a whole<br />
are presented.<br />
Vulnerability on its definition is the opportunity<br />
to get negative consequences at influence of some<br />
factors. There are two sides at consideration of<br />
vulnerability problem – objects, which are under<br />
influence and influenced factors themselves.<br />
First we consider objects of influence. In our<br />
case it is hydropower. But the common conception<br />
itself does not tell anything concrete, so as energetic<br />
can be very different. There are important its type,<br />
technical state, location, conditions of exploitation<br />
etc.<br />
Peculiarity of modern energetic of Tajikistan is<br />
its quite full orientation on hydropower resources.<br />
If the share of power stations on common structure<br />
of capacity and working out energy makes up about<br />
9% in average in the world, so in Tajikistan it equal<br />
to 92% now on capacity and more 95% on<br />
production.<br />
The analysis made above convince shows that<br />
*Institute of Water Problems, Hydropower and Ecology Academy of Sciences Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe,<br />
Tajikistan<br />
464
in fact the base of energy in Tajikistan both now and<br />
in visible perspective will be hydropower. More that<br />
it is quite probable that on Tajik hydro – resources<br />
the neighboring countries will orientate in future. And<br />
apparently this export potential will be already in next<br />
future claimed in region. Already now the volume of<br />
hydropower export – import of Tajikistan makes up<br />
3,5 – 5,0 bln. kWt. h./year.<br />
Even with account of coal, the total found out<br />
stocks of mineral fuel in region, on which based the<br />
energetic of all other republics beside Tajikistan are<br />
rather restricted – in general about 8,45 bln. t.<br />
specific fuel (s. f.) including in Tajikistan – 0,5 bln.<br />
t. s. f. Therefore at the level of power resources<br />
consumption, proper in 1990 to 2,6 t. s. f./year pro<br />
person and restrained growing of population number<br />
providing of region with mineral fuel equals to 60<br />
years. Taking into account expected economical<br />
growth and also that all given estimation ware done<br />
15-20 year ago; in fact this term can reduce to 30<br />
and less years.<br />
Thus, even in average all regions are provided<br />
with mineral fuel only in tern almost comparable<br />
with term of building large hydro unit type of<br />
Nurek’s. What about Tajikistan so for it even<br />
theoretically the stocks of or necessary needs of the<br />
state?<br />
Tajikistan owns very insignificant stocks of oil<br />
and gas as absolute size so in comparison with<br />
another republic of Central Asia. The stocks of coal<br />
in republic are quite significant, but they are located<br />
mainly in small not necessary areas for building<br />
large thermo stations and transportation network is<br />
not developed.<br />
Besides, the use of coal requires the large<br />
outstripped expenses for exploring and organizing<br />
of fields. All these prove very restricted<br />
opportunities of industrial use of coal.<br />
Less possibilities of industrial use of non –<br />
traditional renewable sources of energy are in<br />
Tajikistan.<br />
Wind – power is quite expensive, the small in<br />
capacity wind – installations require estrangement<br />
of large areas (about 100 m 2 for capacity of 1 kWt),<br />
and the large installations emerge serious ecological<br />
problems. Besides, all of them are very complex in<br />
exploitation. In result of it even in the countries<br />
where it initially got spreading, interest to wind –<br />
power decreased gradually.<br />
465<br />
Tajikistan is located in more favorable zone in relation<br />
to solar energy, between 37 th and 41 st degrees of<br />
northern latitude and fully comes into so called, world<br />
solar belt (45 0 n. l. – 45 0 s. l.). Theoretically at 100<br />
% use of solar energy, from 1 m 2 area about 1700<br />
kWt. h./year can be obtained. That is essentially<br />
more than it is used in everyday life pro person.<br />
But technology of direct convert energy into<br />
electrical current is nowadays still very difficult and<br />
expensive. Therefore even in high developed<br />
industrial countries it is used on too districted scales.<br />
Thus, in Tajikistan now to consider solar energy as<br />
reliable source for receiving energy in industrial<br />
scale is not real. Its use possible and expedient only<br />
for obtaining low – potential thermo – energy which<br />
use in everyday life.<br />
Atomic energy on purely technical plan could<br />
have in Central Asian and in Tajikistan good<br />
perspective, but really in next future its development<br />
is problematical. First of all it is connected with<br />
high schismatic of region and high cost, their energy<br />
significantly high even energy of thermal stations,<br />
holing to say about hydraulic. And finally the<br />
building of atomic station in any republic, all the<br />
more so in Tajikistan requires agreements with<br />
neighboring countries, not only with the closes, but<br />
also with the fares that in nowadays condition it is<br />
hardly possible.<br />
Even less perspectives of industrial use of bio<br />
– energy in Tajikistan.<br />
Tajikistan possesses large, simply unique stocks<br />
of hydropower resources. The republic is in the<br />
eighth place in the world with its total stock – 527<br />
bln.<br />
kWt. h. after China, Russia, USA, Brazil, Zaire,<br />
India and Canada. What about specific showers, so<br />
on hydropower potential per capita (87,8 th. kWt.<br />
h./year/person) it is in the first – second place and<br />
with potential stock of hydropower per one square<br />
kilometer of territory (3682,7 th. kWt. h./year/km 2 )<br />
the first place in the world much for outstripping<br />
the followings after it countries.<br />
Thus not only the republic itself but all regions<br />
as a whole will e forced increasingly to orientate on<br />
hydropower of Tajikistan in visible perspective.<br />
It is necessary to mention that such structure of<br />
hydropower based on hydropower resources besides<br />
all others it is more economical effective.<br />
It is determined by following:
• hydropower does not have in structure of its<br />
exploitation expenses fuel<br />
making up in our conditions with account of<br />
transport even now equal to about 2 cent/kWt. h.<br />
Therefore the cost price of hydropower production<br />
equals to only 0,1cent/kWt. h. when on thermal<br />
stations 2,1 – 2,5 cent/kWt. h.;<br />
• the term of hydropower station constructions<br />
service, such as dam, water<br />
overflows, HPS building are essentially more than<br />
TPS constructions;<br />
• specific number of exploitation personal on<br />
HPS also twice – three time<br />
more than in TPS.<br />
For that it is necessary to take into account the<br />
following factors :<br />
Hydropower resources of Tajikistan are used<br />
now on only about 5%. Therefore there is not<br />
absolutely any real danger of their exhausting or<br />
deficit in very for respective and at very<br />
optimistically scenes in development of hydropower<br />
as in republic itself so in all region. It can be said<br />
that practically hydropower resources of Tajikistan<br />
are inexhaustible.<br />
Besides apprehension on intensive melting of<br />
glaziers and sharp on 30% change of their volume<br />
in last quarter of century, apparently is rather<br />
overstatement. We will make a simple account. The<br />
total volume of Tajikistan glaciers ice as know<br />
equals to 456,9 km 3 . At their decreasing on 30%<br />
during 25 years, annual volume of formed after it<br />
water would be equal to :<br />
456,9 × 0,3 : 25 = 5,48 km 3<br />
All this water might river flow, formed in<br />
territory of republic, increasing it in this period on<br />
average about 10%. This is quite serious addition<br />
and it can not be mentioned. But in fact water –<br />
platy off all rivers of Tajikistan for last 25 years has<br />
been on norm limits.<br />
Any hydropower and Tajik’s also in relation to<br />
this is not exception, first forms with per pose of<br />
regulation river flow leveling its natural and<br />
occasional vibrations: in slit of days, season, year<br />
and many years periods. It is in other way we can<br />
say that one of the main conditions at energetic<br />
assimilation of hydro-resources is decreasing<br />
vulnerability of all objects in relation to<br />
changeability of river flow parameters that in its turn,<br />
466<br />
of course, are determined by climatic factors.<br />
As an example it can be brought the fact, that all<br />
constructions of hydropower are planned on expense<br />
of water many times increasing their average<br />
meaning. Particularly flood expenses with repeating<br />
once in thousand years for normal and once in ten<br />
thousand years for extreme conditions of<br />
exploitation are takes as account for objects of<br />
higher class of capital to which belongs, for<br />
example, Nurek’s HPS. The large stocks are founded<br />
also in constructive elements of buildings – land,<br />
concrete and metal.<br />
Hydropower has very large stocks in relation<br />
to capacity of their stations and aggregates. For<br />
example, the number of hours on using fixed<br />
capacity of Tajikistan’s power-system equals 3401<br />
hours/year at total number of hours 8760 annual, so<br />
the stock is more than 2,5 times.<br />
At this guaranteed, that is minimum capacity,<br />
on which the whole people’s economy expects, is<br />
also twice – three time less than fixed.<br />
At summary all objects of hydropower differ<br />
with very high reliability on connation to all<br />
influencing factors, including climatic.<br />
It has been shown above that hydropower differs<br />
with high reliability and very small vulnerability<br />
on relation to main climatic factors – expenses of<br />
waters on rivers. But all these at first belong to<br />
safeness, protection from possible accident.<br />
What about exploitation showers (electric,<br />
power production, its distribution on seasons,<br />
regimes of work etc.), here hydropower of Tajikistan<br />
vice versa is very sensitive to climate changes,<br />
displaying – in form of river flow’s water regime. It<br />
is well shown by two last years of 1999 and 2000<br />
when because of low water level in republic a sharp<br />
deficit of electric power was observed.<br />
Such situation is not expected. It connects with<br />
the fact that formation of Tajikistan’s hydropower<br />
does not yet finish. It is not able to realize many<br />
year regulation of flow with its parameters. For this<br />
it is not enough the total capacity of reservoirs.<br />
Summary volume of all reservoirs in Tajikistan<br />
makes up only 14,4 km 3 at general river flow,<br />
forming in republic of 61,8 km 3 and flowing about<br />
80 km 3 . For many year regulations volume of<br />
reservoirs should be as minimum equal to half of<br />
this size, it is 30 – 40 km 2 .And has hydropower of<br />
republic has the such task. For its decision in the
end of 80’s building of Roghun’s HPS was started<br />
with volume of reservoir more than 13 km 3 and a<br />
number of other HPS with reservoirs.<br />
Arising now in the world ideas practically<br />
synonymously value possible in perspective changes<br />
of climate. It is connected with degradation of<br />
glaciers, drying up of Aral Sea and forming of salt<br />
winds, spreading right up to Pamir’s mountains<br />
cutting off woods, erosion of river banks etc. In this<br />
case the valuation hesitates from moderate –<br />
pessimistic up to apocalyptic.<br />
Unfortunately all these are weakly confirmed<br />
by actual materials. The systematical observations<br />
on glaciers in republic are not carried out since 1986<br />
yet and as it is shown above the point of view about<br />
their sharp restriction are not based enough. There<br />
is not any data on salt wind. The connection of<br />
another analogical factor with climate is not<br />
unambiguous.<br />
change of temperature, 0 С<br />
scenario 1<br />
scenario 3<br />
1<br />
3<br />
2,5<br />
2<br />
1,5<br />
1<br />
0,5<br />
In these conditions it is necessary use of many<br />
– factor mathematical models for obtaining<br />
objective and reliable valuation of climate changes.<br />
We have for models scenarios of climate change<br />
now developed by west specialists: 1. CCC – EQ;<br />
2. UK – TR; 3. GFDL – model of geophysical hydro<br />
dynamic laboratory of USA; 4. Had CM2 – model<br />
of United Kingdom.<br />
All these are based on accounting of emission<br />
influence of green gases and gives valuation of<br />
climate change on main parameters – temperature<br />
of surrounds and atmosphere precipitation to the<br />
end of 50 – year’s period. Their very big difference<br />
from each other can be noted.<br />
In general view matrix of climate change on all<br />
four scenarios as a whole for republic, but for<br />
difference periods of year is sown in table 1 and<br />
fig. 1.<br />
Matrixes have analogical view for other zones of<br />
Table 1. Matrix of climate change for different scenarios<br />
Scenario Change of temperatures Change of precipitation<br />
year winter summer year winter summer<br />
1 2,6 3,0 2,3 -4,0 1,0 -8,9<br />
2 2,5 2,5 2,5 4,8 2,1 7,6<br />
3 2,0 1,9 2,1 -1,9 2,4 -6,3<br />
4 1,9 1,8 1,9 17,1 16,0 18,2<br />
scenario 2<br />
0<br />
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20<br />
change of quantity raining, mm/year<br />
Fig. 1 : Diapason of the climate changes on various scenarios<br />
467<br />
scenario 4
Tajikistan. It can be mentioned that sparseness of<br />
parameters for various scenarios, especially on<br />
relation to temperature is very large and doesn’t let<br />
to make unambiguous valuation. As a matter of fact<br />
these scenarios help too less on prognosis of climate<br />
change, since preliminary choice some of them are<br />
required without enough criteria for it. This<br />
conclusion by the way, fully is affirmed by<br />
Convention Framework of UNO on climate change<br />
in 1992, in which are marked numerous indefinites<br />
of climate change prognoses, particularly in relation<br />
to their terms, scales and regional features.<br />
In these conditions for valuation real possibilities<br />
of climate changes connected with technogen’s<br />
activity of people and the most essential their<br />
influence on such hydrological characteristics of river<br />
flow as common water – plenty and flood expenses<br />
being the main factors determining vulnerability of<br />
hydropower in relation to climate, we consider passed<br />
yet period of 1960 – 1990. By the way such analysis<br />
can help and also on choice of more suitable scenario<br />
of climate change, considered in previous section.<br />
This period is characterized by sharp, dynamic<br />
development economics of Tajikistan, the main<br />
statistics of which are given in table 2.<br />
It is seen, that gross product of industry<br />
increased in this period more then five times<br />
Table 2. Common index of economy development of Republic of Tajikistan<br />
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1989<br />
Production of energy, mln. kWt’”h 125 143 314 459 1351 14746 13340<br />
Production of oil, th. t 17 47 181 391 387 190<br />
Production of gas, mln. m3 52 388 222 303 194<br />
Production of coal, th. t 854 904 887 832 516 515<br />
Population, th. man 2032 2468,8 2899,6 3391,8 3900,9 4499,3 5108,6<br />
change of temperaure, o C<br />
change of raining, mm<br />
1,00<br />
0,50<br />
0,00<br />
-0,50<br />
-1,00<br />
-1,50<br />
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990<br />
yeas<br />
Fig. 2. Factual change of temperature for the Republic of Tajikistan as a whole.<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
-50<br />
-100<br />
-150<br />
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990<br />
years<br />
Fig. 3. Factual change of precipitation (from average meaning for period)<br />
468
consumption of oil on 11 times more, gas – about<br />
four times, hydropower – more than 100 times. Two<br />
and a half times the population number of republic<br />
increased. Moreover approximately such growth of<br />
all these statistics was observed also in region<br />
around and in the world.<br />
Now the rates of economics growth of Tajikistan<br />
and Central Asia Region essentially have lowered.<br />
Therefore from the point of view of technogen’s<br />
influence on climate period of 1960 - 1990 is more<br />
introductive.<br />
Unfortunately, the reality foes not confer evenly<br />
for Tajikistan presence of large influence of<br />
technogen’s activity of people on climate. In the<br />
fig.2,3 are given actual data on average – annual<br />
meanings change of air temperature and atmosphere<br />
Waterness, shares, unit<br />
1,5<br />
1,4<br />
1,3<br />
1,2<br />
1,1<br />
1<br />
0,9<br />
0,8<br />
0,7<br />
change of charg, m 3 /second.<br />
1961<br />
1000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
1963<br />
0<br />
-200<br />
-400<br />
-600<br />
1965<br />
1967<br />
1969<br />
1971<br />
1973<br />
1975<br />
years<br />
Fig. 4 : Waterness of rivers of Tajikistan<br />
precipitations.<br />
It can be noted that in average for all considered<br />
period these climatic statistics remained practically<br />
unchangeable. It tells that it is necessary to refer<br />
with big care to propose above scenarists of climate<br />
changes evenly for period in several decades.<br />
This conclusion belongs to the all period of<br />
observation (1960 - 1990) in average. At the same<br />
time in separate shorter periods such changes of<br />
climate parameters (precipitations and temperature)<br />
were felt more. They let us to evaluate influence of<br />
climate change (not important by which reasons<br />
happened) on hydrological parameters of river flow,<br />
determining conditions of functioning hydropower.<br />
In given on fig.2, 3 prophets three periods with stable<br />
trends of parameters changes can be divided: 1964<br />
1977<br />
r. Vakhsh Average w aterliness on republic Polinominal (average w aterliness on republic)<br />
-800<br />
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990<br />
Fig. 5 : Factual changes of climatic parameters of Tajikistan (averae of the period)<br />
469<br />
years<br />
1979<br />
1981<br />
1983<br />
1985<br />
1987<br />
1989
– 1972, 1973 – 1982, and 1983 – 1988.<br />
As comments to climate changes, determining<br />
vulnerability of hydropower, as it was mentioned;<br />
we accepted water – plenty of river flow and flood<br />
expenses. Appropriate data are given in fig.4,5.<br />
The analysis of flood expenses in the fig.5 is<br />
made for Vakhsh river, since its relative water –<br />
plenty and water – plenty of all reveres in average<br />
on republic practically identify (fig. 4). The<br />
explanation of this fact can be that Vakhsh river<br />
flowing through all republic from one its border to<br />
another crosses all climatic and high-rise zones.<br />
It can be seen that in these diagrams as<br />
characteristically also three periods are divided:<br />
1964 – 1972, 1973 – 1982, and 1983 – 1988.<br />
For further analysis on the Table 3 is given the<br />
matrix of actual changes of climate and appropriate<br />
comments to it in form of hydrological<br />
characteristics of Vakhsh river. Comparing it with<br />
matrix of climate change scenarios 1 – 4, it can be<br />
mentioned that it covers significantly big range with<br />
rainfall and essentially less with temperature. Thus<br />
by all these essential varieties scenario 4 – model<br />
Had CM2 and then scenario 3 are closer scenarios<br />
for local vibration of climate in Tajikistan and its<br />
fluctuation.<br />
These statistics show that there are enough close<br />
connection between change of river flow and flood<br />
expenses from one side and change of atmosphere<br />
rainfall quantity from another. They are given in<br />
fig.6,7.<br />
According to made analysis increasing of rainfall<br />
quantity increases the common water – plenty of<br />
Table 3 : Matrix of actual climate change and Vakhsh river water regime<br />
Periods Climate change Water regime, m 3 /year<br />
Temperature Precipitation Water full change, Spring floods<br />
change, °C change, mm/year km 3 /year change, m 3 /s<br />
1964-72 -0,2 14,4 0,71 49,7<br />
1973-82 -0,01 -8,37 -0,35 129,2<br />
1,0<br />
1983-88 0,16 28,1 0,91 -38,6<br />
change of waterness of Vakhsh km 3 years<br />
0,8<br />
0,6<br />
0,4<br />
0,2<br />
0,0<br />
-0,2<br />
-0,4<br />
Fig. 6. Dependence of waterness of Vakhsh River due to the rainfall<br />
470<br />
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20<br />
change of raining, mm/year
change waterness charge o Vakhsh m 3 /sec<br />
140<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
-20<br />
-40<br />
-60<br />
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30<br />
rivers, but decreases flood expenses. The last is<br />
explained by distribution of water – plenty change<br />
and temperature on year, leading to their more<br />
leveling on seasons. At the right time, such position<br />
in mentioned in scenarios of climate change 1 – 4,<br />
examined above.<br />
In difference of atmosphere rainfall changes,<br />
in relation to actual changes of temperature, any<br />
district connection with hydrological parameters of<br />
rivers is not possible to expose. It is connected with<br />
thing that observed changes of temperature are not<br />
very meaningful, their total range equal 0,36 0 C. But<br />
it does not have particular meaning for us. Since<br />
comments to climate change are for us hydrological<br />
parameters of river flow so more suitable description<br />
of climate change itself naturally is accepted change<br />
of atmosphere precipitation quantity. Connections<br />
between them, as shown above are revealed clear<br />
enough.<br />
We examine now what kind of influence could<br />
have climate changes on hydropower.<br />
It is necessary to mention that hydropower of<br />
Tajikistan really in determined measure is<br />
vulnerable in relation to climatic influences. It is<br />
well show by examples of accidents, happened in<br />
last decades. Of course, the main reason of these<br />
accidents are the hard economical state of energy<br />
system and connected with this large use up of its<br />
channge of raining,mm/year<br />
Fig. 7. Depend of change waterness charge o Vakhsh region from changing raining<br />
471<br />
main founds, but a definite role played also climatic<br />
factors. The lists of such common accidents are<br />
given below:<br />
• In 1993 the up – river building dam of Rogun’s<br />
HPS on Vakhsh river 40 m<br />
the main reason of accident was over – accounted<br />
flood, horded by slides phenomena and mashes.<br />
• In 1994 the Watergate construction of Vanj HPS<br />
was fully destroyed which<br />
was maid up of concrete water – overflow two bay<br />
dam with segment water – gates. The reasons of<br />
accident were high flood and wash – out of<br />
foundation on tail water.<br />
• Beginning from 1990 and up to now Aksu HPS<br />
practically is in permanent<br />
accidental state. All concrete construction of head<br />
water – gate unit and head pool last stability.<br />
Concrete revetment of derivative channel and<br />
happen regular washing out of its sides. The main<br />
reasons of accidents are hard winter climatic<br />
condition, ice marshes and frost swelling of ground.<br />
• In 1992 and in 2002 in result of mighty slides<br />
of Baypazin’s HPS tail water the course of river<br />
partially dammed and the building of HPS was<br />
flooded. Station’s way out of operation was<br />
succeeded to avoid only due to stripping of slides<br />
by explosion including use of military aviation. The<br />
reason of accident was water satiety of landslide
slope due to atmosphere precipitation.<br />
• In 1999 downfalls of Nurek’s HPS foundation<br />
were formed that already during more than 25 years<br />
testing rise of deformation. The reason is carts –<br />
formation and washing out of salt layers by surface<br />
and underground waters.<br />
It can be mentioned that actually all these<br />
accidents in some measure are connected with<br />
climate phenomena clearer with their sharp<br />
vibration. It proves that hydropower is vulnerable,<br />
first of all not to stable changes of climate, but to its<br />
occasional fluctuations.<br />
In purpose of number estimation of hydro –<br />
power vulnerability degree as the first very<br />
approximates the following dependences can be<br />
proposed:<br />
• For estimation of vulnerability directly only<br />
from climatic factors change:<br />
V cl. = P n = 0,9999 10 = 0,999;<br />
P – probability of hydropower construction (objects)<br />
normal work in conditions of stable unchanged<br />
climate with rated characteristics of climatic factors.<br />
For our case P = 0,9999<br />
1<br />
1 − = 0,<br />
9999<br />
10000 ;<br />
n – multiples increasing possibility of rising rated<br />
parameters of climatic factors (as the stables so<br />
occasional). We conditionally accept for our case n<br />
= 10.<br />
• For estimation of vulnerability directly only<br />
from technical condition of<br />
hydropower object (from degree of their way out):<br />
V<br />
tech<br />
T 10<br />
= 1 − = 1−<br />
=<br />
t<br />
25<br />
SERVICE<br />
0,<br />
6;<br />
Where :<br />
T – actual term of exploitation more vulnerable<br />
elements of energy – system – technical equipment<br />
without normative through repairs. In our case T =<br />
10 years.<br />
t service – normative term of technological equipment<br />
service without thorough repairs. For HPS t service =<br />
472<br />
25 years.<br />
• For estimation of energy – system vulnerability<br />
connected with its functional<br />
features, first of all with regimes of work:<br />
W 14,<br />
4 3<br />
r−<br />
s<br />
km<br />
V = = = 0,<br />
23<br />
W 61,<br />
8<br />
;<br />
flow<br />
3<br />
km<br />
Where:<br />
W r-s – total volume of system regulating reservoirs.<br />
W flow – average - annual volume of river flow,<br />
forming on all water – gathering area of republic.<br />
Meaning “V” – factor of vulnerability<br />
nominated and changes for all there cases from 1 –<br />
that corresponds non-practical vulnerability or<br />
absolute degree of adaptation, up to O – that<br />
corresponds absolute vulnerability or zero degree<br />
of adaptation. Execution of estimation confirm made<br />
earlier stated conclusions that hydropower<br />
vulnerability of Tajikistan now is, determined by<br />
its technical descriptions: by insufficient volume of<br />
reservoirs and way out degree, that eguals 0,6 – this<br />
is it approaches to state of neutrality degree (0,5),<br />
when probability of normal work and accident are<br />
equal.<br />
In common case all objects of hydropower<br />
subjected to influence of climatic changes can be<br />
divided on two groups. These are resource base of<br />
hydropower and objects of system itself, its<br />
constructions.<br />
The resource base of Tajikistan power industry,<br />
as shown earlier, now end in really invisible<br />
perspective is hydropower. Here it is necessary to<br />
mention two moments.<br />
First taking into account that now resources of<br />
hydropower are used only not more than 5%, one<br />
can be confident that at any possible changes of<br />
climatic, hydropower will be always able to provide<br />
any development strategy of republic, both in case<br />
of orientation on own consumption and on export.<br />
Second as shown above, not change of absolute<br />
hydropower stocks, but if it is possible to express,<br />
their quality, under which is understood, first of all,<br />
vibration of hydrological parameters of river flow<br />
– many years, seasonal occasional are the most<br />
important for considered problem.<br />
Object of power system itself are characterized<br />
by their parameters and features, the mains of which
are following:<br />
a) Compound of constructions. In power – system<br />
of Tajikistan as the mains, most impotents can be<br />
picked out:<br />
• Dams;<br />
• Reservoirs;<br />
• Water – gate and water outflow constructions;<br />
• Channels and tunnels;<br />
• Power – transfer lines of various tentions and<br />
transformations under–stations.<br />
The dams are the most massive, initiative<br />
constructions. They are the simplest on construction<br />
and naturally insert to natural landscape. But from<br />
another side dams have one of the lowest, is not the<br />
lowest coefficient of stocks from all other<br />
existences. For example, for Nurek’s dam 30m<br />
height the stare of its height (increasing of top core<br />
above maximum level of reservoir) makes up only<br />
3m, that is coefficient of its stock is only 1 %. There<br />
are nowhere such examples in technique. It tells of<br />
very high sensibility of dams, doth the smalls, and<br />
the larges to parameters of flow, first of all to their<br />
prognoses and exploitation level.<br />
Reservoirs – these are the constructions with<br />
constant changing parameters. They are constantly<br />
in working regime – filling. The reform their<br />
sensibility to climate change is first of all sensibility<br />
to prognoses of hydrological parameters and<br />
regimes. Besides, regime of alluviums objects large<br />
meaning to their work, their silting.<br />
From the point of sensibility new to climatic<br />
changes both individual parameters of separate<br />
reservoirs and their summary units have meaning.<br />
Water-gate and water-outflow constructions,<br />
channel and tunnels also as reservoirs are sensitive<br />
to change of calculating hydrological parameters<br />
and prognoses. The change of flow is very important<br />
for them/ Their water – letting in ability may be not<br />
enough at its increasing that either leads to<br />
accidental situation or requires extra water –<br />
outflow. Power – transfer lines and transformator<br />
under – stations are sensitive mainly to second<br />
displays of climatic changes – landslide, avalanche,<br />
downpour and other similar phenomena.<br />
b) Parameters of constructions. The main<br />
parameter of constructions, determining degree of<br />
sensibility to climatic changes is their size. From<br />
the most general reasoning it can be established that<br />
at this case there is reserve dependence between<br />
473<br />
size of construction and subjection of them to danger<br />
from climatic changes. It is aggravated also by worse<br />
quality of building work at construction of smaller<br />
stations and less strict control after them.<br />
c) Quantity of objects. Influence of objects<br />
quantities on vulnerability of them in relation to<br />
climatic change is unsynonymous. It is positive<br />
factor for large hydro – units with reservoirs,<br />
because it provides large possibilities for regulation<br />
of river flow. More quantity of them, on the contrary,<br />
for small hydro – units carry to necessity of use<br />
along with the better also worse areas and as<br />
consequence, lead to large danger of arising cascade<br />
accidents.<br />
d) Technical state of construction is one of the<br />
main parameters determining their sensibility to<br />
climatic changes. It is defined first of all by level of<br />
project and building which up to last time were<br />
enough high and the very main by degree of way<br />
out. Namely way out of construction (as shown<br />
above) now is one of the main dangers.<br />
e) Locating of construction. It is completely<br />
obvious, that degree of objects danger to relation<br />
of any negative sequence influence including<br />
climatic will be different at locating their on<br />
mountainous districts and volleys. In mountains<br />
there are more harsh base conditions and more scope<br />
of all climatic parameters vibration.<br />
In all these cases and similarly for all objects of<br />
power – system of concrete climatic influence,<br />
degree of this influence can be arisen in different<br />
kind, different forms and in different levels. As the<br />
mains six such levels can be assigned:<br />
The first level: Changes of technical states,<br />
connected with inevitable, non – managed factors<br />
that change parameters of constructions. Here for<br />
example, silting of large reservoirs suspended and<br />
drown; by river alluviums belongs to silting, as the<br />
rule, has quite significant amounts, it is impossible<br />
to manage it and necessary simply to take into<br />
account at exploitation, accordingly correcting<br />
regime of reservoirs and HPS work.<br />
The second level: Changes of technical states,<br />
connected with technogene factors and house – hold<br />
conditions. HPS as one of the such kind of factor’s<br />
example economy assimilation of tail water of<br />
Nurek’s can be given in result of which water let in<br />
ability of Vakhsh river course in this area reduced<br />
up to 2000 m 3 /sec. In these conditions letting in
through Nurek’s HPS normal account flood with<br />
expenses of 5400 m 3 /sec inevitably lead to<br />
catastrophic sequences. Another example can be<br />
Kayrakum’s hydro – unit which safety and<br />
prediction of flowing regime to it existent raised<br />
due to building on upper flow of river Narin –<br />
Sirdarya’s cascade of HPS.<br />
The 3 – rd level: Changes of technical states,<br />
connected with changes of natural – climatic<br />
conditions. Here it is necessary to put as well as<br />
climate change, change of geological conditions.<br />
Besides changes of natural – climatic condition con<br />
be connected with their irregular estimation or under<br />
– estimation of some factors on stage of project. As<br />
examples underestimation of cars – rising in toil<br />
water of Nurek’s HPS and modern processes of<br />
course formation on GBAO rivers con be given.<br />
The 4 – th level: Changes of technical states,<br />
connected with change of planning and exploitation<br />
norms of hydro – technical constructions. Such<br />
changes are quite normal and determined by<br />
development of science and techniques and also<br />
world experience, gained in process of exploitation<br />
existent hydro – technical constructions. Here, first<br />
of all it is necessary to mention change of common<br />
approach to letting in flood trough constructions.<br />
With standards act at USSR for this purpose had<br />
been taken into account all water – outlets, including<br />
HPS turbines. Now, according to world standards<br />
there are only special water – outflows. It frequently<br />
lead to necessity of full reconstruction hydro – units<br />
and building in them new extra water – outflows.<br />
Now the standards of endurance and dam’s firmness<br />
accounts, including with taking into account seismic<br />
influence, are changed.<br />
The 5 – th level: Changes of technical states,<br />
connected with natural way out of constructions,<br />
shock – absorption main founds. These factors are<br />
well known and detail developed norms of their<br />
account exist. In our case the special interest has<br />
not total way out itself, determining by term of<br />
construction’s service, that good enough is<br />
conditional, but that part of it which can be<br />
liquidated at expense of it major repairs . the<br />
experience shows that real form of constructions<br />
service can be extended due to well – timed repairs.<br />
In power – system of Tajikistan the normal repairs<br />
are not realized during the last 10 year already. Of<br />
course the main reason of it is the hard economical<br />
� � �<br />
474<br />
statement of water – power complexes.<br />
The 6 – th level: Changes of technical states,<br />
connected with accidental situations. It is undoable<br />
the most dangerous level,. But unfortunately, it is<br />
not possible to avoid it now. It is shown particularly<br />
by all given above examples of accidents. No one<br />
of them is liquidated finally and all these<br />
construction are continued to exploration under the<br />
danger of further development of accidental<br />
situation.<br />
First of all it is connected with instrumental and<br />
natural observation after the constructions. The<br />
system of KNA establishing at building of hydro –<br />
units is not finished, up to now in mend cases<br />
automatized assembly and even initial processing<br />
of statistics are lacking.<br />
The serious technical analyses of them are not<br />
absolutely realized, since such functions were<br />
entrusted on specialized scientific and planning<br />
institutions of other GIS republics, connection with<br />
them has broken now. For adaptation of Tajikistan’s<br />
power – industry to sequences of climate changes<br />
is necessary for account all these levels of influence.<br />
In this case the determining role belongs to<br />
management and organizing forms.<br />
In this connection it is very important the<br />
question of carried out now in power – industry<br />
reforms, connected with transition to marked<br />
economies. Planned according to approvable by<br />
President of Republic of Tajikistan E. Sh. Rahmonov<br />
joint – stock and privatizing program of power –<br />
industry objects increases its competition ability and<br />
efficiency. But at this case it is important not to lose<br />
manageability and as consequence reliability of<br />
functioning.<br />
For this purpose in October 2000 the Ministry<br />
of power – industry was formed in Tajikistan. Its<br />
main objectives are to carry out state policy in area<br />
of power – industry control and management after<br />
all enterprises, interpedently from their form of<br />
property. The low on power – industry was passed<br />
in republic, the low on safety of hydro – technical<br />
construction is in stage of preparation. There are<br />
introduced the system of activity licensing in power<br />
– industry and experting of all projects. The question<br />
of introducing for enterprises declaration on safety<br />
is on agenda.
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
83. Water Harvesting and Management for Increasing Agricultural<br />
Production and Household Water Supply in Bangladesh<br />
*Dr. Md. Abdul Ghani<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Bangladesh receives annually about 795,000 cubic meter of water through surface<br />
flow and about 2 meter (200 cm) from rainfall, which will bring the entire country under<br />
about 7.5 meter water depth if there was no flow to the Bay of Bengal. Therefore, Bangladesh<br />
does not need to be concerned for water management as total annual available water may<br />
be enough for year-round use. However, rainfall distribution pattern and onrush of surface<br />
water over the year, makes a complex water environment in the country and causes flooding<br />
almost every year sometime during June to September. During this period of the year, the<br />
country receives over 90% of surface flow and rainfall thereby affects assured harvest of<br />
most crops during October to April without irrigation and due to flooding during June to<br />
September. Therefore, the country is to deal with too much and too little water environments<br />
during certain time of the year and thereby faces challenges for water management for<br />
sustainable agricultural production, safety of infrastructures and safe water for household<br />
purposes. In this paper, water harvesting has been selected in place of rainwater harvesting<br />
intentionally as under Bangladesh context it is not possible to separate water volumes<br />
received from these two sources during June to September when the country receives about<br />
90% of total annual water. Conservation and effective use of this huge water volume is very<br />
important for sustainable agricultural development and reliable safe drinking water supply<br />
over reaming period of the year.<br />
Through conjunctive use of ground and surface water, about 76% of the cultivable<br />
area can be irrigated of which about 60% are presently under irrigation. About 75% of the<br />
irrigated area use groundwater since the country does not have full control over surface<br />
water flow. Unfortunately, in recent years, water quality during the dry season is deteriorated<br />
due to arsenic contamination of groundwater and deserves immediate action for its<br />
mitigation. Rainfall distribution and surface water availability pattern, salinity in coastal<br />
area and arsenic contamination during dry months have become a limiting factor for supply<br />
of good quality water for drinking purpose in Bangladesh. With possible low cost treatment/<br />
purification this can be solved specially during the rainy season (May to October).<br />
Conservation of excess water received during rainy season and effective use of rain water<br />
and infrastructure developed so far can play important role in improving water availability<br />
in dry season if comprehensive use of the facilities are ensured. Improved management at<br />
local and national levels through government and social interventions can solve the problem<br />
and can ensure clean water for all.<br />
In coastal area, increased salinity during the dry months (February to May) causes<br />
problem in availability of good quality water both for human consumption and for<br />
*Executive Director, Center for Research and Development, Eastern University and Life Fellow, Institution of<br />
Engineers Bangladesh (IEB), House 15/2, Road 3, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1205, Bangladesh. Telephone: (88 02)<br />
9677523 & 8621419 Ext.301, Residence Phone (88 02) 9113832, Fax: (88 02) 9675981, E-mail:<br />
maghani@bdonline.com and maghani@easternuni.edu.bd<br />
475
agricultural use. Water conservation through storage of excess rainwater during the<br />
monsoon and surface flow in the existing low areas, canals and smaller rivers is possible.<br />
Cultivation of irrigated second crop with the stored water during the winter/dry season<br />
can change fate of the coastal people. Excavation of ponds and re-excavation of existing<br />
canals will increase storage capacity for subsequent use of water for irrigating the second<br />
crop. New ponds and re-excavated canals can also be used for fish cultivation. Fish<br />
cultivation alone in the ponds and re-excavated canals will be cost effective.<br />
Rainfall contributes a significant portion of water requirements for most crops in<br />
Bangladesh, even in most of the irrigation projects especially during the monsoon. But<br />
rainfall is unpredictable and sometimes uncontrollable at the field level beyond certain<br />
amount in a day or a week. Often excess rainfall drains out of the command area of the<br />
irrigation systems or crop fields. Rainfall can be more beneficially utilized if storage or<br />
pump suspension can adjust irrigation deliveries for maximum use of rainfall. In field<br />
conditions, effectiveness of rainfall is more important than the total amount of rainfall for<br />
a day, week, month and season. Studies conducted in Bangladesh for determination of<br />
effective rainfall since 1970s indicate that about 70 to 95 percent of total rainfall is effective<br />
during Aman ((Second Kharif) season. Effective rainfall in these studies was determined<br />
by using 10 to 15 cm levee heights and semi-empirical method suggested by Dastane with<br />
3-day grouping for loamy soils. Study conducted in a pump cum gravity irrigation system<br />
indicates that pump operation can be suspended for 40 to 45 days during rainy season<br />
without any yield reduction, which will reduce operation cost and will encourage and<br />
influence farmers in timely planting of rice (Aman).<br />
An understanding of the characteristics of rainfall in relation to crop growth stages<br />
and soil condition are required for successful crop planning and for maximum utilization<br />
of rainwater. The onset of monsoon determines planting time and subsequent distribution<br />
of rainfall influences growth and development of crop. Rainwater management strategies<br />
should be considered depending on need and suitability in the wet season. Rainwater<br />
harvesting for stabilizing T. Aman production should get top priority in Bangladesh. In<br />
plain land, it could be achieved by means of a suitable ditch constructed at one corner of a<br />
plot. In hilly and Barind areas, the ditch can be located at a suitable place of the catchments.<br />
Studies conducted with 5m x 5m x 2m trapezoidal ditch found to be appropriate for storing<br />
rainwater enough for one supplemental irrigation of about 6cm depth. It has also been<br />
observed that a ditch size of 5% (2m deep) of the rice plot is required to conserve enough<br />
rainwater for sustaining rice productivity in wet season in Bangladesh. Benefit-cost (B-C)<br />
ratio of ditch irrigations were calculated for five years during early 1980s and the highest<br />
B-C ratio of 6.8 were found for the study in 1983. Five years average B-C ratio of 2.4<br />
indicates that permanent ditch is profitable even if there is drought once in every five year<br />
cycle. Fish cultivation in the ditch will help to increase benefit from the ditch, which will<br />
require cleaning once in every three years. Studies conducted in Bangladesh confirmed<br />
that well managed 15 cm high levees could help to conserve significant amount of rainwater<br />
(91%) which can be beneficially used to obtain a good T. Aman crop if there is short<br />
duration drought.<br />
Rain water and part of surface flow during later part of monsoon can be stored in lowlying<br />
area, canals and ponds for supplemental irrigation of rice crops. There are<br />
opportunities to use pond water for supplemental irrigation to stabilize yield of Aman crop<br />
and for dry season irrigation. Observations have also been made that with one ha of pond<br />
about 10 hectare lands can be brought under supplemental irrigation for rice. The same<br />
pond can also be used for irrigating about 10 hectare of dry season non-rice crops.<br />
Excavation of ponds and re-excavation of existing canals will increase storage capacity<br />
476
for subsequent use of water for irrigating the second crop. New ponds and re-excavated<br />
canals can also be used for fish cultivation (personal communication with fisheries experts).<br />
Fish cultivation alone in the ponds and re-excavated canals will be cost effective.<br />
Rivers especially smaller rivers can be compartmentalized to series of seasonal ponds<br />
during November to May through appropriate water conservation structures like weirs<br />
and rubber dams. Community based fisheries management system can be introduced in the<br />
seasonal ponds following the Common Property Resource Management Procedure of the<br />
country. Fisheries experts confirmed that these seasonal ponds could be brought under<br />
profitable fish cultivation program through stakeholder participation and on an average,<br />
0.5 to 1.0 ton fish can be harvested per hectare of water body. Moreover, water stored in<br />
the seasonal ponds/riverbeds will be a continuous source for groundwater recharge, which<br />
subsequently can be used for irrigation using deep and shallow tubewells without severe<br />
lowering of groundwater table. River water conservation will also contribute to afforestation<br />
program along the riverbanks, irrigation development using low lift pumps for the lands<br />
adjacent to the rivers and availability of drinking water and bathing place for cattle. Success<br />
of this approach in one river may be replicated in other area of the country, which will<br />
contribute to its overall development.<br />
The national development plan should be to maximize utilization of rainfall, surface<br />
and ground water through conjunctive use of these resources. The development strategy<br />
will be to increase production per unit of land, unit of water and unit of time.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Bangladesh is blessed with excellent quality of<br />
ground and surface water for irrigation, which is in<br />
abundance for the year-round use. However,<br />
distribution pattern of surface water availability over<br />
the years makes a complex condition for its<br />
profitable use and causes flooding almost every year<br />
sometime during June to September. The country<br />
receives about 90% of the surface water resources<br />
during June to October through rainfall and river<br />
flows, most of which flows to the Bay of Bengal.<br />
With management alternatives, part of it can be<br />
retained in crop fields (especially rice), rivers, canals<br />
and low areas and can be effectively used for<br />
agricultural (crop and fish production) and nonagricultural<br />
purposes during the lean period,<br />
November to May. Through conjunctive use of<br />
ground and surface water, about 76% of the<br />
cultivable area can be irrigated (MPO 1991 and<br />
WARPO 2000), of which about 60% are presently<br />
under irrigation (MOA 2005). Out of the present<br />
irrigated area of 60%, about 90% is irrigated using<br />
deep tubewells (DTWs), shallow tubewells (STWs),<br />
manually operated and low lift pumps (LLPs) which<br />
are popularly known as minor irrigation in<br />
Bangladesh. Rainfall distribution pattern indicate<br />
that water requirement for most crops be met from<br />
477<br />
rainfall only during May to September, since monthly<br />
rainfall during these months on an average is more<br />
than 200 mm. Therefore, sustainable crop production<br />
can only be expected with rainfall only during these<br />
months and irrigation is essential during other eight<br />
months of the year.<br />
Water conservation and management strategy<br />
of Bangladesh should be based on water availability<br />
conditions and improvement potential of different<br />
regions of the country and integrated management<br />
of flood control, drainage and irrigation (FCDI)<br />
infrastructure. The country may be divided into four<br />
zones depending on water availability, land<br />
capability, subject to annual flooding and<br />
agricultural practices. These are; Northwest, Coastal<br />
area, Central Flood plain and Hilly area. The specific<br />
areas considered under different zones in this paper<br />
are; (i) Northwest which includes area under present<br />
Rajshahi division and greater Kushtia and Jessore<br />
districts, (ii) coastal area, (iii) central flood plain<br />
which includes most part of central flood plain and<br />
remaining area of coastal belt where saline water<br />
inundation is rare, and (iv) hilly area of Chittagong,<br />
Sylhet, Comilla and Chittagong Hill tract.<br />
Development options through integrated land and<br />
water resources of these zones and FCDI<br />
infrastructure are explored and implementation
strategies are suggested in this paper which may<br />
make significant contribution to the overall<br />
agricultural development of the country.<br />
Professional experiences indicate that if crop water<br />
requirements can be met, household water supply<br />
may not be a problem, as agriculture is the major<br />
user of water resources.<br />
METHODOLOGY<br />
Land area especially cultivable area and water<br />
resources, which include rain, surface, and ground<br />
water of the above zones to be carefully estimated.<br />
Land area of each zone should be further estimated<br />
in relation to flooding conditions (Fo to F4 types of<br />
lands). Potential crops for the zones and its specific<br />
localities to be selected reviewing farming system<br />
research data from the research institutes and<br />
extension department. Production maximization<br />
packages to be developed with assistance of the<br />
farmers and extension agents. Government<br />
machinery to provide advisory services for input<br />
supports and market information. No price support<br />
or subsidy is expected from the government but<br />
facilitating roles are expected. Agricultural<br />
production, which includes crop, fishery, forestry<br />
and livestock, can be increased through integrated<br />
use of water and land resources. The strategy should<br />
be to increase production per unit of land, unit of<br />
water and unit of time. In this paper, water<br />
conservation cum water harvesting methods is dealt<br />
with separately for each region as the regions have<br />
unique water environments.<br />
Northwest Region<br />
Northwest region covers the area under present<br />
Rajshahi division and greater Kushtia and Jessore<br />
districts which coincides with full of NW and part<br />
of SW of the Hydrological Regions (Table 1)<br />
suggested by the Water Resources Planning<br />
Organization (WARPO). Most part of this area has<br />
low rainfall but fewer subjects to flood damages.<br />
However, this area which has net cultivable area<br />
(NCA) of about 2.94 Mha, has dependable<br />
groundwater and can be brought under double/triple<br />
cropping with conjunctive use and improved<br />
management of water resources. This is the most<br />
potential area for agricultural development and may<br />
be subdivided into Barind tract, Atrai basin and the<br />
remaining area as NW plain land.<br />
478<br />
Barind tract: The Barind tract is located in the low<br />
rainfall area (about 125 cm /year) of Bangladesh<br />
and has hard red soil. High temperature in the<br />
summer (which goes above 40 degrees Celsius) with<br />
low humidity and rainfall has distinguished Barind<br />
tract of about 1.4 Mha from other parts of the<br />
country. There is very limited source of surface<br />
water and water availability in the dry season is a<br />
major constraint for crop cultivation in the area.<br />
Groundwater is a dependable source of irrigation<br />
in the area and can cover about 60% of the Brind<br />
tract. However, groundwater level goes below<br />
suction limit especially during the dry months<br />
(March to May), therefore, high cost tubewells are<br />
required for providing irrigation. Moreover, part of<br />
the area is showing symptom of arsenic<br />
contamination and will require especial attention<br />
for water management and year-round use of<br />
groundwater. However, surface water conservation<br />
is possible in the rivers, low-lying areas including<br />
beels and ponds. This is also required for other areas<br />
of the country as out of 32 agro-ecological-region<br />
(AER), only 13 have ample surface water for year<br />
round use (UNDP & FAO, 1988)<br />
There are about 32,000 ponds in the Barind<br />
Multipurpose Development Authority (BMDA)<br />
project area and about 70,000 ponds in the entire<br />
Barind area (personal communication with BMDA).<br />
These ponds were used for supplemental irrigation<br />
for transplanted Aman ( transplanted paddy grown<br />
during June/July to November) during earlier days.<br />
Most of the ponds are silted and will require reexcavation<br />
for their effective use. The project<br />
management have program of re-excavating all the<br />
ponds. These ponds vary in size and their waterbody<br />
varies from 0.13 to 0.40 ha. These ponds after<br />
re-excavation can be used for accumulating excess<br />
rainwater during the rainy season and can be<br />
subsequently used for supplemental irrigation,<br />
household uses and fish cultivation. Banks and the<br />
adjacent land area around the ponds can be used<br />
for afforestation and vegetable cultivation through<br />
participatory management with local poor people<br />
which will further help in poverty reduction in<br />
addition to water conservation for agricultural and<br />
household uses.<br />
There are about 25 major beels (low lying areas)<br />
in Barind area which retain adequate water over the<br />
year in most years except during the abnormally dry
years. These beels can also be converted to water<br />
reservoirs through modifications and adding water<br />
retention structures. These will also help in<br />
increasing fish cultivation, groundwater recharge,<br />
improved environment and poverty reduction in<br />
addition to water conservation for agricultural and<br />
household uses.<br />
Atrai Basin : The Atrai river basin broadly covers<br />
the Lower Atrai river basin. The major internal rivers<br />
coming into the basin are Atrai-Gur-Gumni<br />
(commonly known as Atrai River) and its tributaries:<br />
Little Jamuna, Tulshi Ganga, Nagar, and Badai on<br />
the left bank and Sib-Barnai and Nandakuja on the<br />
right bank. Fakirni is a link channel between the<br />
Atrai and the Barnai and the Baral is the spill<br />
channel of the Ganges to the Atrai River. Besides,<br />
there are many other smaller channels draining the<br />
isolated basins formed between the fore-going main<br />
regional channels. Atrai, the major channel of the<br />
area, rising from the Himalayan foot hill in India<br />
flows through part of Bangladesh (Panchagar and<br />
Dinajpur districts) and again to India then to the<br />
Chalan Beel area at Mohadevpur in Bangladesh.The<br />
catchment’s area following the second entry of the<br />
Atrai river in Bangladesh is considered Atrai river<br />
basin and is also called Chalan Beel area or Lower<br />
Atrai river basin. The river Atrai is subject to<br />
occasional spillage from the Teesta at times of<br />
exceptional high flood. Gross area of the basin is<br />
about 600,000 hectare (ha). About 14 flood control,<br />
drainage and irrigation (FCDI) projects have been<br />
developed in this area which cover net area of about<br />
500,000 ha. However, these projects are not able to<br />
provide full benefit to the area since those are not<br />
complete and are not inter-linked with each other.<br />
In this paper an attempt has been made to<br />
explore opportunities for potential development of<br />
the Atrai river basin through comprehensive<br />
development of its land and water resources. In the<br />
Atrai river basin, 20 to 90 percent areas are subject<br />
to annual flood, sometime during June to October.<br />
Whereas, the annual average rainfall of the area is<br />
about 125 cm compared to national annual average<br />
of about 200 cm. About 90 percent of the annual<br />
rainfall occurs during June to October, which is the<br />
possible period of floods in the area. River water<br />
starts receding from November and by the end of<br />
February most rivers of the area become unsuitable<br />
479<br />
for navigation and become completely dry during end<br />
of March to May. Therefore, without access to<br />
irrigation, crop production in the area during<br />
November to May is uncertain and crops grown<br />
during June to October may be damaged if flood<br />
control and drainage (FCD) facilities do not function<br />
properly. Therefore, water conservation in the rivers<br />
for the dry season uses are of utmost importance.<br />
Effective flood control during the monsoon/rainy<br />
season will provide opportunities for water<br />
harvesting and agricultural development of the area.<br />
Rivers in the area can be compartmentalized to<br />
series of seasonal ponds during November to May<br />
through appropriate water conservation structures<br />
like weirs and rubber dams. Community based<br />
fisheries management system can be introduced in<br />
the seasonal ponds following the Common Property<br />
Resource management procedure of the country.<br />
Fisheries experts confirmed that these seasonal<br />
ponds could be brought under profitable fish<br />
cultivation program through stakeholder<br />
participation and on an average 0.5 to 1.0 ton fish<br />
can be harvested per hectare of water body.<br />
Moreover, water stored in the seasonal ponds/<br />
riverbeds will be a continuous source for<br />
groundwater recharge, which subsequently can be<br />
used for irrigation using deep and shallow tubewells<br />
without severe lowering of groundwater table. River<br />
water conservation will also contribute to<br />
afforestation program along the riverbanks,<br />
irrigation development using low lift pumps for the<br />
lands adjacent to the rivers and availability of<br />
drinking water and bathing place for cattle. Success<br />
of this approach in the Atrai river basin may be<br />
replicated in other area of the country, which will<br />
contribute to its overall development.<br />
Coastal Area<br />
Coastal area consists of about 2.0 Mha<br />
cultivable area and falls under SW, SC, RE and SE<br />
regions. The entire area is mostly under single crop<br />
(Aman) due to limited sweet water, which is most<br />
often considered suitable for irrigation. The coastal<br />
area can be a potential area for increasing crop<br />
production through better management of land and<br />
water resources. On an average, Bangladesh faces<br />
annual food deficit by about 2 million ton (however,<br />
the situation has improved since 2000). If an<br />
additional crop can be harvested in the coastal area
of 2 Mha with average yield of even 1 ton/ha, the<br />
country may remain self-sufficient in food grain.<br />
With available water resources, its management and<br />
technical knowledge, it is possible to introduce a<br />
second crop in the coastal area, which may produce<br />
more than three ton/ha. Water conservation through<br />
storage of excess rainwater during the monsoon and<br />
surface flow in the existing low areas, canals and<br />
smaller rivers has been proved possible. Proper use<br />
of the stored water for irrigating the second crop<br />
during the winter/dry season, fate of the coastal<br />
people can be changed. Excavation of ponds and<br />
re-excavation of existing canals will increase storage<br />
capacity for subsequent use of water for household<br />
uses and irrigating the second crop. New ponds and<br />
re-excavated canals can also be used for fish<br />
cultivation. Fish cultivation alone in the ponds and<br />
re-excavated canals will be cost effective (Personal<br />
communication with fishery experts). Irrigation<br />
from these additional water bodies during dry season<br />
and supplemental irrigation in the wet season will<br />
provide added benefit. Appropriate methodology for<br />
conjunctive use of water and multiple uses (ricefish<br />
cultivation) in the storage facilities can be<br />
determined through water management related<br />
research. Integrated water management in the polder<br />
area can also contribute significantly in increasing<br />
agricultural production in the coastal area.<br />
Hill Tracts<br />
Hill tracts cover about 1.94 Mha of which only<br />
about 0.34 Mha is net cultivated area (NCA), has<br />
unique water availability and land topographic<br />
conditions. This area comes under the EH (Eastern<br />
Hills) of Hydrological Regions. Hill slopes can be<br />
brought under fruits, vegetables and fodder<br />
cultivation. Plain lands can be used for suitable crop<br />
production and low lands and riverbeds can be used<br />
for fish cultivation through appropriate water<br />
conservation and fish production practices.<br />
Initiatives of water conservation have started in this<br />
region with rubber dams and are proved to be<br />
successful. However, all these innovative practices<br />
should be developed through beneficiary<br />
participation and provision of operation and<br />
maintenance and cost recovery. This approach can<br />
be expanded to other hilly areas of Chittagong,<br />
Sylhet, and Comilla districts.<br />
480<br />
Flood Plains<br />
Flood plain area in this paper covers most part<br />
of the central flood plain and remaining area of the<br />
coastal belt where saline water inundation is rare.<br />
With reference to the Hydrological Regions, NE,<br />
NC and part of SW and SC falls under this category.<br />
Annual floods affect this area and FCDI facilities<br />
have been created for saving lives and properties of<br />
the people. Multiple uses of the FCDI facilities will<br />
facilitate improved water management and<br />
integrated agricultural production in flood plains.<br />
On an average, about 22 percent of Bangladesh<br />
is flooded annually (FPCO 1995). In the eastern<br />
regions, flash floods are hazards in the early summer<br />
and cause extensive damage to the Boro 3 rice crop.<br />
In coastal areas, tidal floods and cyclone surges<br />
cause damage to the lives and properties of coastal<br />
area people. Moreover, when the peak flows of the<br />
Ganges and Brahmaputra coincides, as they did in<br />
1988, about 60% of the country is inundated.<br />
Therefore, the country needs some type of<br />
infrastructure for minimizing flood damages and<br />
creating favorable environment for agricultural<br />
development.<br />
River Basin Management Approach<br />
On an average, the country receives annual<br />
rainfall of about 200 cm, almost 90% of it is during<br />
the monsoon. Rainfall and surface water if<br />
accumulated will result to a water body of about<br />
7.5 meters depth over the country if not flowing to<br />
the Bay of Bengal. But the country faces water<br />
shortage during November to May every year due<br />
to uneven distribution of river flows and rainfall.<br />
Most of the Northwest and Southwest regions<br />
become dry especially during March to May. Rivers<br />
in these areas become dead during this part of the<br />
year and become alive with onset of monsoon.<br />
Rivers in the central area and eastern part of<br />
Bangladesh have better access to water due to tidal<br />
flows from the Bay of Bengal at least during high<br />
tides. In this paper, approaches have been suggested<br />
to keep rivers in Atrai and Baral basins (Figure 1)<br />
alive for the whole year through improved<br />
management (Atrai and Baral basin is selected as<br />
examples for improvement through water<br />
harvesting). This will further assist in incremental<br />
crop and fish production. Healthy rivers in Atrai<br />
and Baral basins will contribute to creation of water
ody through water conservation and management<br />
especially from the end of monsoon and will provide<br />
opportunities for groundwater recharge in the area.<br />
This may further contribute to expansion of irrigated<br />
area and minimizing level of arsenic contamination<br />
of groundwater. There will be better environment<br />
through increased vegetation and available water<br />
body during dry months (November to May). During<br />
June to October, all rivers in Bangladesh including<br />
those in the Atria and Baral basins have very healthy<br />
life and often cause flood. Flood problem is not<br />
covered in this paper as it involves bigger dimension<br />
of the problem, which is also required for overall<br />
improved agricultural production environment,<br />
safety of people and infrastructures. Development<br />
options for maintaining healthy life of the rivers and<br />
improved production environment through<br />
integrated land and water resources are explained<br />
for the Atrai and Baral river basins, which is part of<br />
the Northwest region of Bangladesh.<br />
The Baral river basin area is comprised of the<br />
river systems: Baral-Nandakuja, Musakhan, Narod<br />
and Godai and about 16 minor channels from Baral-<br />
Nandakujs rivers. The Baral is an off take of the<br />
Ganges originating at Charghat (Figure1), flows<br />
towards East and Northeast and discharges into the<br />
Atrai – Gur - Gimini river system (BETS and HCL,<br />
1997). Therefore, Baral serves a spill channel for<br />
diversion of excess flows from the Ganges to Atari.<br />
This is why, Atrai and Baral basins are dealt together<br />
in this paper as these are interlinked and separation<br />
of basins covered by these rivers is difficult. The<br />
entire Baral basin is covered by interconnecting river<br />
channels. Bangladesh Water Development Board<br />
constructed a 3-vent regulator at Charghat and a 5vent<br />
regulator at Atghori. Construction of regulator<br />
at Charghat has reduced flow of Baral river from<br />
567 cubic meter per second (20,000 cfs) to 142 cubic<br />
meters per second (5,000 cfs) but construction of<br />
these two regulators has created environment of<br />
water conservation and improved water<br />
management for Baral basin and can be utilized for<br />
improving crops, fish and forestry products in the<br />
benefited area of about 86,000 ha (BETS and HCL,<br />
1997).<br />
Rivers listed in Table 2 are passing through and<br />
covers most part of Atrai and Baral Basin areas<br />
generally of narrow widths and can be<br />
compartmentalized to series of seasonal ponds<br />
481<br />
during November to May through appropriate water<br />
conservation structures like weirs and rubber dams.<br />
With planned water conservation and appropriate<br />
management from end of monsoon when most river<br />
water become clean and silt free, water can be stored<br />
to full supply level. This will augment surface water<br />
availability and will serve as supplemental source<br />
of irrigation water for the area. Augmentation of<br />
surface water is required to irrigate the entire area<br />
under these basins since with groundwater, only<br />
about 60% of the area can be irrigated. With the<br />
suggested water conservation in the rivers and canals<br />
and conservation of rainwater in ponds and low<br />
lying area (beels, low lying areas expected to have<br />
standing water even during the dry months) during<br />
the rainy season, almost 100% of the basins can be<br />
irrigated and year-round crop cultivation may be<br />
introduced. Moreover, water stored in the seasonal<br />
ponds/riverbeds will be a continuous source for<br />
groundwater recharge, which subsequently can be<br />
used for irrigation using deep and shallow tubewells<br />
without severe lowering of groundwater table. River<br />
water conservation will also contribute to<br />
afforestation program along the riverbanks.<br />
Irrigation development using low lift pumps for the<br />
lands adjacent to the rivers will be facilitated and<br />
availability of drinking water will improve. Water<br />
bodies can also be used as bathing place for cattle.<br />
Community based fisheries management system<br />
can be introduced in the seasonal ponds following<br />
the Common Property Resource management<br />
procedure of the country. Fisheries experts<br />
confirmed that these seasonal ponds could be<br />
brought under profitable fish cultivation program<br />
through stakeholder participation and on an average,<br />
0.5 to 1.0 ton fish can be harvested per hectare of<br />
water body. In the Baral basin alone, about 3348<br />
metric tons of additional fish can be produced,<br />
which will be worth of Taka 146.3 million<br />
equivalents to about US$3 million as of 1997 price<br />
(Table 3).<br />
Survey results indicate that there are 9 major<br />
canals in Atrai basin area, with water area varying<br />
from 900 to 3900 hectares and having water<br />
conservation structures, 1 to 3 vents (Table 4). These<br />
drainage canals can also be used for water harvesting<br />
and for fish cultivation in addition to irrigation and<br />
household water supply. Success of this approach<br />
may be replicated in other area of the country, which
will contribute to its overall development and will<br />
ensure healthy life of the rivers in Bangladesh.<br />
Lessons learned may be transferred to other part of<br />
East and Southeast Asia with local adjustment.<br />
Other Areas<br />
Local Government Engineering Department<br />
(LGED) undertook development, maintenance and<br />
management of small scale water resources schemes<br />
up to command area of 1000 hectare (ha) or less.<br />
LGED implemented 280 against target of 300<br />
subprojects under the first small scale water<br />
resources development sector project (SSWRDSP)<br />
during1995-2002. The completed 280 subprojects<br />
are covering 165,000 ha of cultivated land that<br />
benefit about 142,000 farm families (SSWRD<br />
update of June 2005, LGED). In the second small<br />
scale water resources development sector project<br />
(SSWRDSP), LGED targets to implement 300<br />
subprojects during 2002 to 2009 for providing<br />
benefit of sustainable water management to about<br />
180, 000 ha of cultivated land and to about 280,000<br />
farm families. The second SSWRDSP activities are<br />
grouped under broad heads; (i) mobilization of<br />
beneficiary participation, (ii) community based<br />
infrastructure development, (iii) water resources<br />
oriented support programs, (iv) monitoring and<br />
quality control, and (v) institutional strengthening<br />
of small-scale water resources sector. Water<br />
resources oriented support programs are based on<br />
the principles of water harvesting for all over<br />
Bangladesh through beneficiary participation and<br />
institutional development for sustainable use of the<br />
infrastructures.<br />
Compartmentalization of Rivers, Water<br />
Conservation and Opportunities for its Multiple<br />
Uses<br />
Rivers especially smaller rivers can be<br />
compartmentalized to series of seasonal ponds<br />
during November to May through appropriate water<br />
conservation structures like weirs and rubber dams.<br />
Bangladesh has river area of 12,790 square km<br />
(WARPO 2000) of which about 1890 square km<br />
have width between 25 to 100 meter. These narrow<br />
rivers can be converted to temporary water<br />
reservoirs with rubber dam or any other suitable<br />
water conservation structures and will provide<br />
additional water body of about 189,000 ha. Water<br />
482<br />
conservation in the narrow rivers and irrigation and<br />
drainage canals especially during the lean period<br />
(November to May) will provide opportunities for<br />
storing water over additional area of about 192,000<br />
(189,000 + 2000 + 800) ha. With about one meter<br />
depth, these water bodies can be used for fish<br />
cultivation in addition to their normal use. Water<br />
conservation structures on the rivers and irrigation<br />
and drainage canals will also help in conserving<br />
water in the adjacent low lying areas (beels). This<br />
will further assist in increasing total water storage<br />
capacity of the country. These water bodies, which<br />
are not existing, at least in planned way can<br />
contribute to groundwater recharge, development<br />
of additional irrigation facilities during the dry<br />
season and will also contribute to better<br />
environment. Fisheries experts confirmed that these<br />
seasonal ponds could be brought under profitable<br />
fish cultivation program through stakeholder<br />
participation and on an average, 0.5 to 1.0 ton fish<br />
can be harvested per hectare of water body.<br />
Moreover, water stored in the seasonal ponds/<br />
riverbeds will be a continuous source for<br />
groundwater recharge, which subsequently can be<br />
used for irrigation using deep and shallow tubewells<br />
without severe lowering of groundwater table.<br />
Success of this approach in any river may be<br />
replicated in other area of the country, which will<br />
contribute to its overall development.<br />
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS<br />
Post monsoon river water can be stored to full<br />
supply level through appropriate water conservation<br />
structures in river basins. This will make the rivers<br />
healthy, otherwise most of the rivers will remain<br />
dead during later part of the dry season, February<br />
to May. Water stored to the full supply level at the<br />
end of the monsoon (end of October or early<br />
November) will last till beginning of the following<br />
monsoon and will conserve water for subsequent<br />
use. Beels connected to rivers will have adequate<br />
water during the dry season. These water bodies<br />
will facilitate recharge of groundwater even during<br />
the dry season and lowering of water table beyond<br />
suction limit during later part of the dry season may<br />
not occur. Irrigation facilities using stored surface<br />
water will expand and groundwater based irrigation<br />
will be more cost effective as pumping depth will<br />
be reduced. Additional water bodies will also
contribute to increased fish production, improved<br />
environment and supporting sustainable<br />
afforestation along river banks and FCDI<br />
infrastructures. Additional fish production, trees and<br />
vegetation will provide job opportunities and added<br />
income to the stakeholders and will contribute to<br />
improved livelihood and poverty reduction in the<br />
river basins. Rain water stored in the existing and<br />
excavated ponds and even low areas in the rice fields<br />
in a planned way will assist in overcoming affects<br />
of short duration drought by using water resources<br />
for supplemental irrigation.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
1. Abedin, D. S. S and Alam, A, F. M., 2000. Chalan<br />
Beel Project: Problems and Prospects. Paper presented<br />
in the workshop on Chalan Beel Area Development on<br />
April 6, 2002 at Natore Zila Council Hall, Natore.<br />
Bangladesh Water Development Board, WAPDA<br />
Building, Motijheel C/A, Dhaka, Bangladesh.<br />
2. Bangladesh Engineering and Technical Services<br />
(BETS) and House of Consultants Limited (HCL), 1997.<br />
Feasibility Study of Baral Basin Development Project,<br />
Final Report. Bangladesh Water Development Board,<br />
WAPDA Building, Motijheel C/A, Dhaka, Bangladesh.<br />
3. Flood Plan Coordination Organization (FPCO), 1995.<br />
Bangladesh Water and Flood Management Strategy.<br />
Ministry of Water Resources, Bangladesh Secretariat,<br />
Dhaka.<br />
4. Master Plan Organization (MPO), 1991. National<br />
Water Plan Project Phase II. Ministry of Water<br />
Resources, Bangladesh Secretariat, Dhaka.<br />
5. Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), 2005. Minor<br />
Irrigation Survey Report 2004-2005. Bangladesh<br />
Secretariat, Dhaka.<br />
6. UNDP & FAO, 1988. Land Resources Appraisal of<br />
Bangladesh for Agricultural Development. Report 2,<br />
Agro-Ecological Regions of Bangladesh. Ministry of<br />
Agriculture, Bangladesh Secretariat, Dhaka.<br />
7. Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO),<br />
2000. Technical Paper No. 7: Land and Water<br />
Resources. Saimon Centre, House No. 4A, Road No. 22,<br />
Gulshan – 1, Dhaka 1212.<br />
Table 1 : Present and Projected Regional Distribution of Net Cultivated Area (NCA)<br />
and Irrigated Area in Million Hectares (Mha)<br />
Region Total 1994 2025 Irrigated Area*<br />
Area NCA NCA 2000 2025 Maximum Dev.<br />
(Mha) (Mha) (Mha) Area<br />
(Mha)<br />
% Area % Area %<br />
NE 2.01 1.16 1.14 0.48 41 0.91 80 1.08 95<br />
NC 1.60 1.06 0.99 0.55 52 0.89 90 0.98 99<br />
NW 3.16 2.30 2.23 1.47 64 2.12 95 2.21 99<br />
SW 2.43 1.28 1.24 0.59 46 0.99 80 1.19 96<br />
SC 1.25 0.82 0.80 0.12 15 0.56 70 0.76 95<br />
SE 1.01 0.68 0.65 0.32 48 0.58 90 0.62 96<br />
RE 0.59 0.33 0.31 0.13 37 0.27 80 0.32 95<br />
EH 1.93 0.34 0.33 0.11 33 0.23 75 0.29 95<br />
TOTAL 13.98 7.97 7.69 3.77 47 6.55 7.45<br />
Note : Total irrigated area as of 2004-2005 was 4.8 ha (MOA), but distribution by Region is not elaborated.<br />
* Irrigated area is estimated based on water availability during November to May period of the respective time.<br />
NE=Northeast, NC=North Central, NW=Northwest, SW=Southwest, SC=South Central,<br />
SE=Southeast, RE=Rivers and Estuaries, EH=Eastern Hills.<br />
Source: Technical Paper No. 7: Land and Water Resources, Water Resources Planning Organization (WARPO), June 2000. WARPO<br />
could not update it as there is no funding support for such work (personal communication with WARPO management).<br />
483
Table 2 : Major Rivers, those are flowing through Atrai and Baral Basins<br />
Rivers Length (Km)<br />
Atrai 51.41<br />
Jamuna 46.59<br />
Nagar 41.13<br />
Nandakuja 21.68<br />
Fakirni 18.48<br />
Gur 24.10<br />
Gohala 22.49<br />
Barnai 39.36<br />
Gumani 43.68<br />
Baral 83.54<br />
Sundai 30.51<br />
Source : Chalan Beel Project: Problems and Prospects.<br />
Table 3 : Extent of Water Body and Prospect of Fish Production in Baral Basin.<br />
Fish habitat No. in basin Area in ha Annual fish Annual Fish Fish value<br />
Production Production (In Million<br />
(t/ha) (MT) Taka)<br />
(1997 price)<br />
Perennial Ponds 7000 670 2.70 1800 78.3<br />
Beels 12 269 0.41 110 4.7<br />
Baral river 1 13700 0.11 1438 63.3<br />
Total 14639 0.23 3348 146.3<br />
Source: Feasibility Study of Baral Basin Development Project, Final Report.<br />
Table 4 : Drainage Structures for Water Conservation in Atrai Basin.<br />
No. Name of drain Length in km Area in ha Discharge in No. of vent &<br />
(cubic feet/sec) opening size<br />
(1.52m x 1.83m)<br />
1 Shimultali 4.50 900 10.19 1-vent<br />
2 Udaysiri 4.00 1942 20.37 2-vent<br />
3 Mohatala 2.00 1000 10.19 1-vent<br />
4 Satbeela 1.50 1850 21.69 2-vent<br />
5 Sonadanga 3.00 1833 21.69 2-vent<br />
6 Katabari 2.00 3200 31.10 3-vent<br />
7 Mohishbathan 1.50 2800 31.10 3-vent<br />
8 Ramcharan 2.00 3560 31.10 3-vent<br />
9 Biddyapur 6.00 3800 32.00 3-vent<br />
Source: Feasibility Study of Baral Basin Development Project, Final Report.<br />
484
Figure 1 : Map of Bangladesh showing Atrai and Baral Basins.<br />
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485
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
84. Water Resources Planning and Management in the face of<br />
Global Warming and Changing Climate<br />
* Pradeep K. Naik *P. K. Parchure *S. K. Bhatnagar<br />
Climate is changing<br />
Over the past century, India has built a vast<br />
and complex infrastructure to provide clean water<br />
for drinking and for industry, dispose of wastes,<br />
facilitate transportation, generate electricity, irrigate<br />
crops, and reduce the risks of floods and droughts.<br />
This infrastructure has brought tremendous<br />
benefits, albeit at a substantial economic and<br />
environmental cost. To the average citizen, the<br />
Nation’s dams, reservoirs, treatment plants, and<br />
pipelines are largely invisible and taken for granted.<br />
Yet they help insulate us from wet and dry years<br />
and moderate other aspects of our naturally variable<br />
climate. Indeed they have permitted us to almost<br />
forget about our complex dependence on climate.<br />
However, time has come we can no longer ignore<br />
these close connections. The scientific evidence that<br />
humans are changing the climate is increasingly<br />
compelling. Complex impacts affecting every sector<br />
of society, including especially the nation’s water<br />
resources now seem unavoidable.<br />
Don’t rely on uncertainties<br />
Most impact studies have been using<br />
information from global climate models that evaluate<br />
the effects of increases in greenhouse gas<br />
concentrations up to particular levels. Greater and<br />
greater impacts would be expected to result from<br />
ever increasing levels of climate change. Models<br />
have their limitations, and many uncertainties still<br />
remain. It is vital that uncertainties not be used to<br />
delay or avoid taking certain kinds of action now.<br />
Prudent planning requires that a strong national<br />
climate and water research program be maintained,<br />
that decisions about future water planning and<br />
management be flexible, and that the risks and<br />
benefits of climate change be incorporated into all<br />
long-term water planning. Policy makers must start<br />
considering climate change as a factor in all decisions<br />
about water investments and the operation of existing<br />
facilities and systems.<br />
Need for action<br />
A continued reliance solely on current<br />
engineering practice may lead us to make incorrect<br />
– and potentially dangerous or expensive –<br />
decisions. India has invested thousands of crores of<br />
rupees in dams, reservoirs and other concrete<br />
structures. These systems were designed and for<br />
the most part are operated assuming that future<br />
climatic and hydrologic conditions will look like past<br />
conditions. We now know this is no longer true.<br />
Accordingly, two of the most important coping<br />
strategies must be to try to understand what the<br />
consequences of climate change will be for water<br />
resources and to begin planning for and adapting to<br />
those changes.<br />
Coping and Adaptations – Public Policy<br />
1. Prudent planning requires that a strong<br />
national climate and water monitoring and research<br />
programme be maintained, that decisions about<br />
future water planning and management be flexible,<br />
and that expensive and irreversible actions be avoided<br />
in climate-sensitive areas.<br />
2. Better methods of planning under climate<br />
uncertainty should be developed and applied.<br />
3. Governments at all levels should re-evaluate<br />
legal, technical, and economic approaches for<br />
managing water resources in the light of potential<br />
climate changes. Improvements in the efficiency of<br />
* Scientist, Central Ground Water Board, Central Region, N.S. Building, Civil Lines, Nagpur – 440 001<br />
Ph.9423106185; Email. pradeep.naik@water.net.in<br />
486
end uses and the intentional management of water<br />
demands must now be considered major tools for<br />
meeting future water needs, particularly in waterscarce<br />
regions where extensive infrastructure<br />
already exists. There is great a potential for<br />
improving the “water efficiency” with which we<br />
produce food, by changing cropping patterns toward<br />
crops that require less water per calorie to produce,<br />
by reducing wasteful applications of water, by cutting<br />
losses between the field and the source, and by<br />
cutting diets.<br />
4. Water engineers should begin a systematic<br />
re-examination of engineering designs, operating<br />
rules, contingency plans, and water allocation policies<br />
under a wider range of climate conditions and<br />
extremes than has been used traditionally. For<br />
example, the standard engineering practice of<br />
designing for the worst case historical observational<br />
record may no longer be adequate. Recent flooding<br />
in Mumbai and the desert State of Rajasthan are<br />
examples.<br />
5. Cooperation between the water resources<br />
development agencies and leading scientific<br />
organizations can facilitate the exchange of<br />
information on the state-of-the-art thinking about<br />
climate change and impacts on water resources.<br />
6. The timely flows of information among the<br />
scientific global change community, the public, and<br />
the water-management community are valuable.<br />
Such lines of communication need to be developed<br />
and expanded.<br />
7. Traditional and alternative forms of new<br />
supply, already being considered by the water<br />
agencies, can play a role in addressing changes in<br />
both demands and supplies caused by climate<br />
changes and variability. Options to be considered<br />
include wastewater reclamation and reuse, water<br />
marketing and transfers, and even limited<br />
desalinization where less costly alternatives are not<br />
� � �<br />
487<br />
available and where water prices are high. None of<br />
these alternatives, however, is likely to alter the trend<br />
toward higher water costs.<br />
8. Prices and markets are increasingly important<br />
for balancing supply and demand. Because new<br />
construction and new concrete projects can be<br />
expensive, environmentally damaging, and politically<br />
controversial, the proper application of economics<br />
and water management can provide incentives to<br />
use less and produce more. Among the new tools<br />
being successfully explored are water banking and<br />
conjunctive use of groundwater.<br />
9. Even without climate change, efforts are<br />
needed to update and improve legal tools for<br />
managing and allocating water resources. Water is<br />
managed in different ways in different places around<br />
the country, leading to complex and often conflicting<br />
water laws. Lat’s remember that water is a State<br />
subject in India.<br />
10. The reliability of ground water as the most<br />
dependable source of irrigation has led to its overexploitation<br />
in many parts of the country. The<br />
development of this resource has not been uniform.<br />
The reason for this can be technical, socio-economic<br />
or political, but the non-uniform growth has created<br />
some management problems. Demand side<br />
management specially related to regulation, licensing,<br />
policing etc. are difficult to implement and are not<br />
appreciated by the users and public representatives.<br />
Supply side management of ground water resources<br />
and its augmentation through artificial recharge and<br />
rainwater harvesting would possibly bring positive<br />
results by increasing the water availability. Society<br />
and the common man need to be activated so that<br />
adequate water supply is ensured to everybody<br />
throughout the year. Rainwater harvesting schemes<br />
may be mandatory to all new buildings countrywide<br />
and the public needs to appreciate its advantages<br />
and necessity.
National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11-12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur<br />
85. Large Water Storage Structures and<br />
Rain Water Harvesting Structures- Limitations and Efficacy<br />
*R. S. Goel **Jay Narayan Vyas ***V. B. Patel ****Aditya Sharma<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
This paper critically examines the controversies of large vs small dams and focuses<br />
on limitations and efficacy of large water storage versus small dams and rain water<br />
harvesting structures. Important conclusions of significant studies have been interwoven<br />
regarding comparative evaporation, submergence, seismic & hydrologic safety as well as<br />
the benefits and cost aspects of large dams versus RWH schemes and small dams. Basic<br />
objectives and drivers of Interlinking of Rivers (ILR) are also summarised. Few NGOs<br />
and self styled non-professional environmentalists leave no stone unturned to oppose almost<br />
each water storage dam, hydel plant and continue fighting tooth and nail against vitally<br />
needed inter-linking of rivers, perhaps also siphon off foreign funds mainly to garner<br />
awards, fame and monopoly. They are generally ignorant of even basic facts and intricate<br />
‘dose response functions’ of complicated environmental processes and techniques of water<br />
resources and hydro power development due to no professional background. Such persons<br />
repeatedly use media to create fantasies and tirade against water storage projects on<br />
many shifting grounds. In every sector other than water and power, specialists like doctors,<br />
surgeons, economists, space & atomic scientists etc. are considered competent but any<br />
‘Tom’, ‘Dick’ and ‘Harry’ claims to be expert to oppose large dams, hydel projects and<br />
inter-basin transfer of water projects. Supreme Court’s admission of PIL by NCCL against<br />
NBA and Prime Minister’s direction for vigilance inquiries against NBA due to siphoning<br />
of foreign funds and over 200 FIR’s for stopping R&R works are matters of alarming<br />
concerns. Even though such presentation cannot be an exhaustive treatise; nevertheless,<br />
authors hope that the policy planners, administrators, professionals, media, NGOs and<br />
public at large should understand basic facts to avoid street fights and social tensions<br />
almost every where now in India, due to breaking down of water and power supplies.<br />
Key words- large dams, water harvesting, run of river projects, interlinking of rivers,<br />
relation of forest & water.<br />
*Chairman, Indian Water Resources Society, Gandhinagar Centre, Convenor, Coordination Committee, Water<br />
Related National Professional Societies, Chief Engineer, Narmada Tapi Basin Organisation, Central Water<br />
commission, Sector 10 A, Gandhinagar (Gujarat) – 382043 Fax- 079-23246115 E-mail - goelrscwc@yahoo.com<br />
**Former Minister for Narmada & Water Resources, Govt. of Gujarat, Chairman, Saket Projects Limited,<br />
Saket House, Panchsheel, Usmanpura, Ahmedabad 380013 Fax- 079- 27550452 E-mailmail@saketprojects.com<br />
***Vice-President, Indian Water Resources Society & Former Chairman, Central Water Commission & Ex- officio<br />
Seccretary to Govt. of India, Co-chairman, Coordination Committee, Water Related National Professional<br />
Societies,128, Manekbaug Society, Ambawadi, Ahmedabad – 38 00 52 FAX- 079- 26764099<br />
E-mail - vbpatel@multimantech.com<br />
****Convenor, Indian Water Resources Society, Gandhinagar Centre, Deputy Director, Narmada Tapi Basin<br />
Organisation, Central Water commission, Sector 10 A, Gandhinagar 382043 FAX- 079-23246115<br />
E-mail- cwcmon_gandhinagar@yahoo.co.in<br />
488
INTRODUCTION<br />
Indian water sector is confronted with the<br />
controversies of inter-state disputes vs. integrated<br />
basin development, reliance on water-shed<br />
development vs. reservoir projects, government<br />
owned vs. private utilities and large vs. small<br />
projects. On one side, the technological advances in<br />
the fields of meteorology, hydrology, geology,<br />
seismology and the techniques of investigation,<br />
planning, construction and operation of the projects<br />
are making possible the optimisation of scarce<br />
national resources. On the other hand, a fear<br />
syndrome has been created against river valley and<br />
hydro projects by exaggerated likely or assumed<br />
adverse environmental impacts and by ignoring or<br />
suppressing their need and tremendous benefits by<br />
few non-credible NGOs like NBA and novelists self<br />
styled activists. As a result, many potential economic<br />
developmental activities, which could generate<br />
wealth and employment in India have been blocked<br />
in large cities, towns and villages due to acute<br />
shortage of water especially during the dry season.<br />
At the same time, fury of floods routinely continue<br />
to affect the economic activities causing large scale<br />
loss of life, properties and flora & fauna.<br />
Widely prevalent beliefs about the role of land<br />
use and its relation to hydrology must be critically<br />
examined in the light of scientific evidence. Simplistic<br />
views have created a mindset which not only links<br />
degradation with less forest but also rehabilitation &<br />
conservation with more forest. Most of the people<br />
imply the inevitable link between the absence of<br />
forests and ‘degradation’ of water resources. Same<br />
is the situation about relation to forestry, agro forestry<br />
and various hydrological elements; even though<br />
claims by enthusiastic agro foresters and nonprofessional<br />
ecologists are often not valid. When<br />
scrutinized, many of the mother statements relating<br />
to forestry and the environmental processes are seen<br />
to be either exaggerated or untenable. It is highly<br />
relevant and crucial to know what can be attached<br />
to these statements for the proper management of<br />
water resources and land use. This article presents<br />
basic facts on limitations and efficacy of large water<br />
storage versus small dams & popularly known as<br />
rain water harvesting structures and suggests serious<br />
examination of mother statements about relation of<br />
forests and hydrologic elements - Whether Forests<br />
increase rainfall, Forests increase runoff, Forests<br />
regulate flows, Forests reduce erosion, Forests<br />
reduce floods, Forests ‘sterilize’ water supplies and<br />
improve water quality and Agro forestry systems<br />
489<br />
increase productivity?<br />
CAN SMALL DAMS & RWH REPLACE<br />
LARGE DAMS?<br />
The former captures rain in-situ and<br />
supplements/conserves soil moisture for a longer<br />
period, whereas the latter holds the run-off in<br />
storages of surface waters and make it available<br />
through canals for irrigation. The former has a crucial<br />
role in treatment of catchment area and noncommand<br />
areas of irrigation schemes. It recharges<br />
ground water for use in local drinking water needs.<br />
Also, it provides soil moisture to replace may be one<br />
or two irrigation watering, in kharif season. Its main<br />
role therefore is important for the vast rainfed areas<br />
of the country, which will not be irrigated through<br />
surface storages even in ultimate stage of<br />
development.<br />
Small dams and RWHS successfully operate<br />
within a narrow band of meteorological phenomena<br />
of intensity, duration, antecedent rainfall, potential<br />
evaporation, infiltration capacity dictated by<br />
topography, geology, slope, vegetative cover etc. Its<br />
contribution in increase in productivity of cropped<br />
land is rather limited. It is also essential that adequate<br />
investigations & foundation testing, detailed<br />
hydrologic analysis, hydraulic & structural designs,<br />
proper construction supervision are given needed<br />
attention even for small water projects, check dams<br />
and rain water harvesting structures. Large number<br />
of incidences have been noticed for washing away<br />
of too many check dams within a year or two due to<br />
structural, hydrologic, seismic and hydraulic failures.<br />
Both therefore are considered as<br />
complementary and not adversarial. Sediment<br />
generation is reduced in the former case. Erosion<br />
and deposition in downstream will continues due to<br />
hydraulic phenomena. Dams hold bed load of<br />
sediment in the designed pockets. Economic analysis<br />
on dams accounts for such siltation. Peak flood is<br />
reduced for local watersheds but does not have<br />
significant impact on generation of floods. Available<br />
data shows that when numerous small projects are<br />
constructed to substitute a single large storage project<br />
the cost per unit storage, relative submergence and<br />
relative evaporation losses are invariably many times<br />
more. Evaporation loss would obviously be more<br />
because of larger water spread. Claims that only<br />
small size (or some claim only large) of dams be<br />
adopted are wrong. Only small dams can not capture<br />
required quantity of water. In each basin, even if<br />
one wants, all dams can’t be of only large or only
small size. Each size has its advantages and<br />
deficiencies.<br />
MICRO WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT<br />
VERSUS LARGE DAMS?<br />
Another important point quite often missed is<br />
the need of large dams in Peninsular India even for<br />
minor irrigation purpose (covering lesser than 2000<br />
ha.) due to the limited capacity of the valleys on<br />
account of the topography and configuration. On<br />
the other hand, large barrages of lesser than 15 m<br />
height are required for diversion of voluminous<br />
discharge for irrigation of large tracts of land in Indo-<br />
Gangetic plains as well as rivers’ deltas. It needs to<br />
be appreciated that the dams upto a height of 100 m<br />
are needed even for the run -of- river projects having<br />
no live storage in Himalayan rivers. The steep<br />
gradients in the river beds and the large rolling<br />
boulders down the hills quickly fill up the storage<br />
capacity, quiet often even during the construction<br />
period. Apart from cost, the issues of mortality,<br />
reliability, dependability, submergence, displacement<br />
of inhabitants, loss of forest and cultivated land,<br />
adverse impacts, multiplier effects are to be<br />
considered while making the decision. A recent study<br />
of proposal to revive the old tanks of south India<br />
indicates that contrary to popular perception, it will<br />
be economically too expensive.<br />
The proposition that a series of small dams<br />
can make up one large dam is an abstraction<br />
which is not always physically practicable and<br />
cost effective. It may often turn out that series of<br />
small dams submerge a far larger area and<br />
displace much greater number to store less water<br />
as a factor of valley geometry. Again one type of<br />
techno-economically viable development can not<br />
be replaced usually by another for example to<br />
replace a single large reservoir with a few small<br />
reservoirs will need a large number of alternative<br />
sites which is rarely available in practice<br />
necessitating again a curtailment in the<br />
envisaged development. In different studies<br />
carried out by CWC, it has been conclusively<br />
proved that when more reservoirs are constructed<br />
to substitute a single large reservoir, the cost of<br />
storage creation and submergence are high. Also<br />
there cannot be a small reservoir on a large river<br />
and even if a less storage reservoir is constructed<br />
on a large river, it has to be provided with a large<br />
spilling arrangement to tackle the expected large<br />
size flood. Hence the issue can only be the major,<br />
medium and minor reservoirs, each being<br />
490<br />
complementary to the other.<br />
MEDIUM AND SMALL RIVER VALLEY<br />
PROJECTS<br />
It is a established fact that shallow storage<br />
causes proportionately greater loss of land area due<br />
to submergence. Shallower storage also means<br />
greater surface area and hence evaporation as per<br />
studies conducted in many river valleys by reputed<br />
scientific agencies. Further it is difficult to find large<br />
number of alternative sites for medium projects even<br />
if such an alternative is preferred over deeper<br />
storage. Small and medium projects have to be<br />
constructed generally in the upper reaches of hills,<br />
causing substantial loss of valuable forests.<br />
Construction of large dams, on the other hand, in the<br />
foothills involves submergence of large areas of<br />
cultivated lands per unit of storage. Of-course<br />
shortcoming is compensated in same ways.<br />
For this reason small and medium hydel projects<br />
are not only costlier than the large projects but they<br />
also submerge larger land areas for the equal amount<br />
of storage and in addition, they have increased<br />
evaporation losses. Steep gradients in the river beds,<br />
large rolling boulders and sedimentation problems<br />
further limit the efficacy of small and medium hydel<br />
projects. This became particularly evident in case<br />
of Ichhari and Maneri Bhali dams (60 metres and<br />
39 metres height respectively), both being run of the<br />
river projects. These were filled up to crest by<br />
sedimentation during construction, itself as planned.<br />
EFFECTIVENESS OF RAIN WATER<br />
HARVESTING<br />
Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting (RTRWH)<br />
is an ancient technique of providing domestic<br />
water supply and still in use, especially in<br />
tropical islands and semi arid rural areas. Many<br />
Ministries/Departments of State Governments<br />
have encouraged RTRWH with large scale<br />
subsidies. During last 20 years, under the hype<br />
of ‘traditional wisdom’ rain water collected from<br />
the roofs of entire country (
ut definitely they are not substitute for large dams<br />
and interlinking of river basins. RTRWH has<br />
assumed overriding priority due to unjustified<br />
hype created by several NGOs and self-styled<br />
environmentalists. RTRWH can hardly solve even<br />
fraction of the water requirement needs of the<br />
entire country. A family requires 300 cu m of<br />
waters per year of domestic use. In an area<br />
having rain fall 100 mm, the roof top size required<br />
would be 3600 m 2 . The roof top requirement for<br />
agriculture purpose would be eight times more<br />
than domestic use.<br />
SOCIAL & ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF<br />
FLOODS – HARDLY REPORTED BY<br />
MEDIA?<br />
Over 40 m.ha. of India experiences periodic<br />
floods. The average area affected by floods annually<br />
in India is about 7.5 m. ha of which crop area<br />
affected is about 3.5 m.ha. Floods have claimed on<br />
an average 1529 human lives and 94000 cattle ever<br />
year. Apart from loss of life and domestic property,<br />
the devastating effects of floods, sense of insecurity<br />
and fear in the minds of people living in the flood<br />
plains is enormous. The after effects of floods like<br />
the agony of survivors, spread of epidemics, non<br />
availability of essential commodities and medicines<br />
and loss of their dwellings make floods most feared<br />
natural disaster being faced by human kind. Crops<br />
grown in the flood plains suffer from congestion of<br />
water on the farmlands. Management of the surface<br />
water becomes a very tricky operation in the flood<br />
prone areas during periods of heavy rainfall. Floods<br />
also affect the vulnerable aquatic and wild life,<br />
forests, mangroves and precious bio-diversity in<br />
the flood plains. Large-scale damages to forests,<br />
crops & precious plants and deaths of aquatic<br />
and wildlife, migratory and native birds in various<br />
National Parks, Delta region, low altitude hilly<br />
areas and alluvial flood plains of Assam,<br />
Arunachal, Uttrakhand, U.P., Bihar, Orissa, West<br />
Bengal etc. are matter of serious concern but<br />
hardly reported by media. River Valley Projects<br />
moderate the magnitudes as well as frequencies of<br />
floods. While some projects are specially designed<br />
to provide flood cushion in the reservoirs along with<br />
other benefits, others also help in reducing the<br />
magnitude of floods with proper operation and control<br />
of gates.<br />
SOCIAL & ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF<br />
DROUGHTS – HARDLY REPORTED BY<br />
491<br />
MEDIA?<br />
Over 265 million people live in drought prone<br />
area of about 108 m. ha. (1/3 rd of the total area).<br />
Thus, more than 26% of total population of the<br />
country face the consequences of recurring<br />
droughts. During drought years, there is a<br />
marked tendency of intensive exploitation of<br />
ground water, resulting in abnormal lowering of<br />
ground water table thus accentuating the distress.<br />
Grave adverse impacts are borne by flora, fauna<br />
and domestic cattle and the very life itself fights<br />
against nature for its survival. Droughts affect<br />
rural life in several ways. This accentuates<br />
problems in cities in the form of mushrooming of<br />
slums and pressure on the existing civil amenities<br />
thereby adversely affecting urban life. River<br />
Valley Projects are designed to provide ‘carryover’<br />
storage in the reservoirs to help in<br />
mitigating the droughts.<br />
POWER MANAGEMENT - ARE WE<br />
HEADING FOR DARK DAYS?<br />
Thermal and hydro are the two major sources<br />
of powers. Thermal power production requires<br />
burning of fossil fuels, which seriously affect the<br />
environment adversely. Pollution caused by burning<br />
of fossil fuel to meet energy requirements is causing<br />
global concerns. Option lies in using the alternate<br />
non-polluting sources of energy like solar and<br />
hydropower. It is a matter of alarming concern that<br />
the share of hydropower in the total installed capacity<br />
in India has been declining in successive plans. In<br />
1962-63, hydro projects had a 50% share in the total<br />
installed capacity which has gradually declined to<br />
24% against ideal ratio of 40%. Such a dismal share<br />
of hydrothermal mix is adversely affecting the<br />
optimal utilisation of natural and financial resources<br />
besides resulting in failure of power grids. Economic<br />
rapid exhaustion of the exploitable sources and<br />
superiority of hydropower has been further enhanced<br />
in the recent years with the steep increases in the<br />
prices of fossil fuel. India has to import fossil fuel<br />
to meet the thermal power needs at a huge cost.<br />
Hydro power generation by constructing large and<br />
medium storage reservoir projects to use the head<br />
for water drop substantially helps in utilisation of<br />
water resources, 75% of which is presently draining<br />
down to the sea unutilised. Notwithstanding its<br />
inherent benefits and availability of vast potential in<br />
India, the pace of hydro development has so far been<br />
very slow. Major constraints for slow development<br />
of hydro potential are mainly obstacles by activists,
difficulties in investigations, R&R problems, delay<br />
in land acquisition, funds constraints and geological<br />
surprises. Policy on Hydropower Development may<br />
help in boosting the pace of hydro development in<br />
country.<br />
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF WATER<br />
STORAGE PROJECTS – BRIEF RESUME<br />
There are numerous incidental benefits from<br />
the construction of large and high dams such as<br />
improving environment, health, afforestation,<br />
fisheries development, tourism and recreational<br />
facilities, employment generation, development of<br />
agro-based industries, network of roads in catchment<br />
& command areas, development of land and<br />
improving general socio-economic standards.<br />
Numerous case studies prove that significant<br />
improvement occurs in food and nutritional level with<br />
higher per capita food availability and diversification<br />
of crop production, especially cash crops after<br />
introduction of irrigation. New employment<br />
opportunities generated by the intensification of<br />
agricultural and associated economic activities<br />
further improve financial conditions of people<br />
including landless labourers. As a multiplier effect,<br />
large river valley projects tremendously improve the<br />
health of rural population by significantly enhancing<br />
the education, health care, transportation facilities<br />
and the life styles particularly of women like Western<br />
U.P. and Punjab.<br />
Water resource development requires a<br />
judicious mix of large, medium or small reservoirs,<br />
which are location specific. Loss of forest area due<br />
to submergence is less than five per cent of the total<br />
forest area lost in the country in the last five decades.<br />
The loss of biomass through submergence is, far<br />
smaller than the biomass generated on account of<br />
the irrigation. A forest far superior to the original,<br />
sans the original bio-diversity, comes up after the<br />
creation of the reservoir. Adverse effects like water<br />
logging and salinity are being prevented through<br />
conjunctive use of groundwater, prevention of canal<br />
water leakage, reduction of seepage losses from<br />
water carrying bodies, implementation of adequate<br />
drainage and adoption of efficient irrigation methods.<br />
Reservoirs may create new conditions for<br />
growth of organisms, and ultimately, adjustments are<br />
made to, foster new eco-systems. Varieties of new<br />
organisms thrive on this new eco-lake system.<br />
Additional water made available for dry period of<br />
the year, when the environment tends to be harsh<br />
and makes the area inhospitable, supports the growth<br />
492<br />
of life around. Such projects provide a dependable<br />
source of drinking water. People from the irrigated<br />
areas enjoy better health and sanitation facilities, thus<br />
reducing the incidences of diseases. A very availability<br />
of water leads to improvement in the level of<br />
sanitation. The improved economic status also<br />
makes people health conscious and capable of<br />
availing of requisite health care. As per the UNICEF<br />
(1988) report, new water supply facilities sourced<br />
from large dams improved the sanitary conditions,<br />
which led to significant improvement in general<br />
health conditions. Vectoral risks can be reduced by<br />
removing sources of stagnant or slow-moving water<br />
and by ensuring continual maintenance of drains and<br />
canals.<br />
Substantial increase in numbers of tigers,<br />
panthers, elephants, cheetals and crocodiles have<br />
been observed in the famous Jim Corbett National<br />
Park with the availability of green fodder and clean<br />
water throughout the year improved climatic<br />
conditions and reduced risk of poaching on account<br />
of reservoir area on most of the sides of after<br />
construction of the Ramganga Multipurpose Dam<br />
Project. Rare species of birds flock there after the<br />
reservoir construction. Similar phenomenon of an<br />
increase in birds and wildlife has also been observed<br />
around Rihand and Matatila reservoirs, which were<br />
previously barren lands. Best tourist places area<br />
Ukai tourist resort, Periyar wild life sanctuary,<br />
Shalimar garden, Vrindavan garden, Pinjore garden,<br />
Kalindi-Kunj, Matatila Garden, Dhyaneshwar Udyan<br />
and Ramganga Udhyan, which are all bye products<br />
of river valley projects.<br />
REHABILITATION AND RESETTLEMENT<br />
Controversies concerning the rehabilitation of<br />
persons displaced by dams have muddied the entire<br />
debate on the utility of water resources projects and<br />
caused much harm to the national economy. As per<br />
assessment by Central Water Commission (CWC)<br />
through the review of data of 2784 dams, total<br />
project affected persons (PAPS) range between 6<br />
to 7 millions. Opponents of large dams blow up this<br />
figure up to 70 million by taking the average of the<br />
recent few mega dams and multiplying the same by<br />
4291 (total number of dams over 15m height). It<br />
has to be borne in mind that most of the high dams<br />
(by definition every dam having height of more than<br />
15m is classified as high dam by ICOLD mainly for<br />
safety concerns) did not displace persons, firstly due<br />
to very thin population in their submergence in earlier<br />
dams during construction, secondly very few dams
having the height greater than 50m would have the<br />
submergence impacts on the upstream habitation<br />
those days. Displacement of human settlements is<br />
indeed a painful necessity and must be handled with<br />
compassion, fairness and even generosity to ensure<br />
better quality of life than left behind by PAPs.<br />
Most of such PAPs reside in areas of extreme<br />
environmental fragility and largely deprived of<br />
nutritional food, potable water, health facilities and<br />
productive employment. Employment benefits of<br />
river valley projects have been widely experienced.<br />
Typically, 60 percent of the capital costs of a major<br />
irrigation projects payment to construction workers.<br />
Further sizeable recurring onfarm employment<br />
benefits are generated because labour use in irrigated<br />
farming is more than in unirrigated farming. Irrigation<br />
development in a tract stems out migration of job<br />
seekers from that tract to distant centers. Availability<br />
of water from Sardar Sarovar Project will benefit<br />
about 1.91 lakh of people residing in 124 villages in<br />
arid and drought-prone border areas of Jalore and<br />
Barmer Districts of Rajasthan, which have been<br />
suffering grave hardship and on account of scarcity<br />
of water, besides checking the advancement of Thar<br />
Desert. Voluntary migration in India has been highest<br />
from these areas due to scarcted water. National<br />
Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy has already<br />
been notified. Judgements of Supreme Court and<br />
Shanglu Committees Report have amply proved that<br />
liberal provisions and comprehensive plans for<br />
implementation are being implemented in recent<br />
water resources project (Sardar Sarovar, Tehri,<br />
Almatti, Narmada Sagar Dam) ensuring better<br />
conditions of PAPs after rehabilitation.<br />
MYTHS AND REALITIES ABOUT<br />
RELATIONS OF FOREST AND<br />
HYDROLOGIC ELEMENTS<br />
There are many beliefs about the role of land<br />
use and its relation to hydrology, which need to<br />
be examined in the light of scientific evidence.<br />
Simplistic views, have created a mindset which<br />
not only links degradation with less forest but<br />
rehabilitation and conservation with more forest;<br />
particularly because they imply the inevitable link<br />
between the absence of forests and ‘degradation’<br />
of water resources. This is also true in relation to<br />
forestry, agro forestry and hydrology, claims by<br />
enthusiastic agro foresters and foresters are<br />
often not supportable. When scrutinized, many<br />
of the mother statements relating to forestry and<br />
the environment are seen to be either exaggerated<br />
493<br />
or untenable. It is highly relevant to know what<br />
can be attached to these statements for the proper<br />
management of water resources and land use.<br />
The overwhelming hydrological evidence<br />
supports that forests are not generators of rainfall.<br />
In fact, afforestation has a limited impact in terms<br />
of changing hydrological conditions. Tributaries<br />
of the Brahmaputra come from more forested<br />
areas than the southern ones and yet create more<br />
floods. Afforestation will help the local economy<br />
but will not contain large floods in the Himalayan<br />
regions. Floods have been taking place in the<br />
Himalayan plains since time immemorial. The<br />
perceptions that deforestation in the Himalayan<br />
hill is a primary cause of devastating seasonal<br />
floods is totally wrong. It is believed that forests<br />
mitigate drought by storing water and releasing<br />
it over time through more even stream flows. We<br />
should also account for the loss due to evapotranspiration<br />
by the forest. The net water balance<br />
will vary in accordance with conditions and<br />
circumstances.<br />
Adverse effects of forests on water quality are<br />
more likely to be related to bad management<br />
practices than the presence of the forests<br />
themselves. There is little scientific evidence to show<br />
that enhanced productivity can be achieved in agro<br />
forestry systems. Enhanced productivity from agro<br />
forestry systems must be largely regarded as a myth.<br />
Many such misconceptions are routinely reinforced<br />
by the media and is all pervasive; it has become<br />
enshrined in some of our most influential<br />
environmental policy documents.<br />
Numerous scientific studies made<br />
worldwide and research by Centre for Science<br />
and Environment (CSE) & National Institute<br />
of Hydrology (NIH) in India are in contrast of<br />
seven ‘mother statements’ in relation to<br />
forests, productivity and hydrology. It is widely<br />
believed that deforestation causes floods by<br />
reducing infiltration and augmenting run-off. The<br />
following findings of India’s environment – a<br />
Citizen’s Report, 1991 on “Floods, Flood Plans<br />
and Environmental Myths”, prepared by the<br />
Centre for Science and Environment, are eye<br />
opening while considering the widely prevalent<br />
beliefs about relationship of forests with<br />
hydrological elements :-<br />
“Floods are nor new to the Indo-Gangetic<br />
plains. During the 3500 years of recorded human<br />
settlement in the Ganga basin alone, there have been<br />
many floods of gigantic proportions. Run off and silt
tend to move out of the Himalayan region in explosive<br />
ways. Landslides seem to be a major contributor of<br />
deposits of soil to the rivers. Himalaya rivers have<br />
constantly changed their course long before<br />
deforestation began. For example, archaeologists and<br />
scientists now believe that at the time of the Indus<br />
civilisation, Yamaha probably did not flow into the<br />
Ganga, nor Satluj flew into the Indus. Instead they<br />
flowed into the Ghagar, a small seasonal river that<br />
emerges from the Shivalik foothill in Chandigarh –<br />
to make it a mighty, perennial river that flowed<br />
straight into the Arabian Sea without joining the<br />
Indus-probably the much worshipped Saraswati of<br />
the Vedic times. The forests can tolerate minor and<br />
medium floods but the human society will have to<br />
learn to live with the major floods. Afforestation has<br />
a limited impact in terms of changing hydrological<br />
conditions. It is interesting to note that de-forestation<br />
as a cause of floods has come to be cited only<br />
recently. The District Gazetteer Of Poornia and<br />
Saharsa regions in the last century though concerned<br />
about the high silt load of the river Kosi, have never<br />
eluded to de-forestation as a contributor factor.<br />
Instead their recurrent occurrences was on the<br />
geological instability of the rivers’ upper catchment.<br />
To understand the problem of increasing floods in<br />
the Indo-Gangetic plains, it may be more instructive<br />
to study the logical changes that have taken place in<br />
the flood plains themselves. Natural factors contribute<br />
more to floods in Assam, than de-forestation or<br />
shifting cultivation. Tributaries of the Brahmaputra<br />
come from more forested areas than the southern<br />
ones and yet create more floods. Natural erosion<br />
processes in the Himalaya are so intense that they<br />
dwarf the changes posed by deforestation.<br />
Afforestation will help the local economy but will<br />
not large floods in the Himalayan regions”.<br />
‘The deep gorges of Himalayan rivers seem<br />
sufficient to transport excess rainwater. Surprisingly,<br />
this is not true. Floods have been taking place in the<br />
Himalayan plains since time immemorial. The<br />
breathtaking photograph of the landslide that blocked<br />
the Bhagirath showed a densely green hillside had<br />
come tumbling down. Was it the fragile Himalayan<br />
geology or deforestation that was the main trouble?<br />
While reviewing this report, the New York Times,<br />
New York, reported “So this report takes little known<br />
fact; the impact of environmental degradation on<br />
floods in densely populated Assam and the Indo-<br />
Gigantic plains”. So this report takes on a very big<br />
myth; that floods in the plains are forced by<br />
deforestation in the Himalayas. An Indian<br />
494<br />
environmentalist has touched off a furious debate<br />
by challenging the conventional view that<br />
deforestation in the Himalayan hill is a primary cause<br />
of devastating seasonal floods”.<br />
Late Dr. Anil Aggarwal, Director, Centre for<br />
Science and Environment in the introduction of<br />
the above report highlighted “In fact this report<br />
points out some of the environmental myths that<br />
cam crop up when we continue to deal with major<br />
problems which occur in different ecological<br />
settings. For instance, the report points out that<br />
floods in the plains below the vast Himalayan<br />
ranges may not be greatly exacerbated by deforestation.<br />
Floods are, in fact, and will remain<br />
an inherent feature of these plains where the<br />
Himalayan mountains are well cleared with a<br />
green covered area or are deforested and<br />
deprived. The Himalayan mountains constitute<br />
an extremely fragile geological system. They are<br />
the youngest mountains in the world and<br />
therefore, highly erodable. They are lashed by<br />
rain streams by an intensity that probably no other<br />
mountain system faces. Water and silt move out<br />
of the mountain in a flood and shifting of river<br />
courses is, therefore, inevitable. Deforestation<br />
can aggravate the problem but afforestation can<br />
not get rid of it.<br />
Once the soil is saturated, all excess water must<br />
run-off as rejected recharge or be lost to evaporation.<br />
Forests do increase residence time by intercepting<br />
rainfall and letting it down gradually, by absorbing it<br />
in humus and leaf litter and in facilitating infiltration<br />
through the root structure which too acts both as a<br />
passage and sponge, but once the sponge is full its<br />
retention capacity is exhausted. A cloud burst<br />
produces torrential rain of an order that no forest<br />
can absorb, resulting in severe flash floods such as<br />
many parts of the basins experience every year with<br />
regular frequency. To blame these floods on<br />
deforestation is mistaken. What forests do is to<br />
reduce erosion and consequent sedimentation.<br />
It is believed that forests mitigate drought<br />
by storing water and releasing it over time through<br />
more even stream flows. This is only related to<br />
the point of saturation storage. We also should<br />
account for the loss due to evapo-transpiration<br />
by the forest which drinks up water for its<br />
sustenance. Forest interception of rain can also<br />
enhance evaporation loss from leaves. The net<br />
water balance will vary in accordance with<br />
conditions and circumstances.<br />
Forests are also believed to create or induce
ain. There is no conducive evidence of this belief.<br />
This is not to denigrate soil conservation, watershed<br />
management and forests or afforestation in the<br />
slightest but to caution against being diverted too far<br />
along what could be false trails. We have to avoid<br />
large generalisations on limited data. Every one<br />
knows about large rainfall on the seas, which occupy<br />
much larger area than the land mass. There are no<br />
trees on the seas and still the average rainfall on sea<br />
is higher than average rainfall on land, which carries<br />
forests.<br />
After collecting worldwide research<br />
findings, renowned international expert Ian R.<br />
Calder in his book Blue ‘Revolution- Integrated<br />
Land and Water Resources Management’,<br />
Published by Earthscan, London, UK, 2005 has<br />
alarmed, ‘Clearly it is important to know what<br />
can be attached to meant mother statements about<br />
forest and water for the proper management of<br />
water resources and land use. Many forestry<br />
projects in developing countries are supported<br />
because of assumed environmental/hydrological<br />
benefits, whilst in many cases the hydrological<br />
benefits may at best be marginal and at worst<br />
negative. The evidence for and against each of<br />
these ‘mother statements’ is taken in turn and<br />
appraised; the need for further research is also<br />
assessed.’ Hence we must seriously examine-<br />
Whether Forests increase rainfall, Forests increase<br />
runoff, Forests regulate flows, Forests reduce<br />
erosion, Forests reduce floods, Forests ‘sterilize’<br />
water supplies and improve water quality and Agro<br />
forestry systems increase productivity ?<br />
MARKETING BOTTLED WATER<br />
Considerably more satisfaction and benefit<br />
can be obtained from the present water supply<br />
system, if managed efficiently. Costly systems are<br />
constructed, but for want of proper operation<br />
and maintenance, the benefits are not received<br />
by the people who have to incur considerable<br />
private costs and have to resort to alternate<br />
means or supplementary sources. Fast catching<br />
up practice of selling mineral water bottles at<br />
rates even more than milk and more than 1000<br />
times than the tap water in India is paradoxical.<br />
While half of our population is unable to afford<br />
even the absolute minimum needs to quench their<br />
thirst. Only water supply utilities should be<br />
allowed to bottle and market the bottled water to<br />
generate much-needed funds for modernization<br />
and proper maintenance of existing<br />
495<br />
infrastructure.<br />
INTER- LINKING OF RIVERS<br />
Although India receives some waters from the<br />
upstream countries, the precipitation is the main<br />
source of water availability, Which has a very uneven<br />
distribution, with an annual rain fall of more than<br />
10m in parts of Meghalaya to less than half a metre<br />
in semi arid parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. In arid<br />
regions it could be less than 10 cm. Much of the<br />
water is received in a few months of the monsoon,<br />
and that to within around 100 hours of the rainy days.<br />
As per International standard the limit of 1700 KL<br />
of water per person per year is considered<br />
satisfactory. If it falls below 1000 KL, it creates<br />
condition of stress. The requirement of agriculture<br />
for producing food alone is 700 KL. Other<br />
requirements like that of domestic use, industries,<br />
ecological requirement, hydro power etc. takes the<br />
requirement above 1000 KL. The chart below shows<br />
availability of water per capita in the main river<br />
basins of India.<br />
Most of the basins in India have availability<br />
below 1000 KL whereas in Brahmaputra availability<br />
is around 10000 KL and in Narmada, Mahanadi<br />
above 2000 KL. Ministry of Water Resources, had<br />
recognized need of interlinking of rivers (ILRI) and<br />
prepared a National Perspective Plan in 1980 after<br />
studying all major basins of the country. National<br />
Water Development (NWDA) Agency was set up<br />
in 1982, to work on preparation of feasibility reports.<br />
A Task Force was constituted in 2002 to develop<br />
consensus for ILR. Supreme Court also advised to<br />
prepare action plan and time schedule for completion<br />
of ILR so as to finish the project by end of the year<br />
2016. Thus, more than 25 years have passed, since<br />
need for Inter-basin transfer of water was recognized<br />
If effective actions are not taken quickly the country<br />
would face serious water crisis.<br />
Food requirement by 2050 is estimated as 450<br />
Million tons. If prompt actions are not taken, the<br />
country may have to face serious food crisis and<br />
may have to start importing food grains like realuheut<br />
(PL480) in 450 and 60. Similarly if hydro power is<br />
not developed fastly it would result not only in<br />
shortage of power particularly in peak noun but,<br />
the country will have to go for more expensive<br />
options, which will make our products create<br />
significant less competitive in international market<br />
Broad objectives for inter-basin transfers could<br />
be envisaged as equitable distribution of the available<br />
water resources, increased economic efficiency; self
sufficiency in food and energy; providing livelihood<br />
and employment opportunities in situ to avoid<br />
migration of population from rural to urban areas.<br />
The water resources of India are very unevenly<br />
distributed within the basins. National Commission<br />
for Integrated Water Development has shown that<br />
the per capita availability of waters varies widely<br />
from around 300 m.cu per person per year in basins<br />
like Sabarmati to very large quantities in the<br />
Brahmaputra, with a National average of about 2000<br />
m.cu per person per year. Very large disparities are<br />
also noticed in the per capita irrigated and rain fed<br />
land available to the rural population for derived lively<br />
hood from land. These disparities are likely to<br />
increase in future. Self sufficiency in food grains<br />
could again be an important driver for planning of<br />
inter-basin transfers.<br />
In order to be self sufficient in food, increased<br />
irrigation through long distance water transfers may<br />
be required. Investments in long distance water<br />
496<br />
transfers may be economically less efficient as<br />
compared to say industrial and other commercial<br />
investments. It may not be prudent to make<br />
investments to achieve complete food sufficiency<br />
through long distance transfer of water. Deficiency<br />
in any out put including food if it occurs can be met<br />
from imports, from those who can produce that out<br />
put more efficiently.<br />
There are instances where many smaller<br />
nations depend on import for meeting their food<br />
requirements. Countries like Japan, England, Saudi<br />
Arabia etc. depend on imports to meet a large part<br />
of their food requirements. How-ever many others<br />
feel that a nation of the size of India cannot afford<br />
to be not self sufficient in food requirements. The<br />
world trade in food grains is not large enough to meet<br />
the needs of a large country like India. World trade<br />
in rice for example is only 18 million tonnes at<br />
present. Large imports by India would affect the<br />
price stability. Also many of the nations who do not
chase food self sufficiency as a goal seem to occupy<br />
a more commanding position, politically and<br />
economically. Thus, the threat of use of food as a<br />
weapon may not be a deterrent to them. After<br />
consideration of these aspects, most decision makers<br />
feel that food self sufficiency should be an explicit<br />
objective of interlinking of rivers.<br />
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS<br />
OF INTER-LINKING OF RIVERS<br />
In India, the planners are familiar with the social<br />
and environmental concerns caused by small, medium<br />
and large in-basin projects. Few NGOs have<br />
expressed that inter-basin transfers may cause socioeconomic<br />
and environmental impacts much different<br />
from those caused by in-basin developments. The<br />
social and environmental concerns associated with<br />
these inter-basin transfers would mainly on account<br />
of the largeness of the totality of the measures in<br />
the region in which the system of links passes. Each<br />
individual storage dam such as the Ichampally, the<br />
Polavaram, the Manibhadra/ Tikarpara etc involved<br />
in the peninsular links would not be much different<br />
in its storage or in its displacement from the large<br />
reservoirs like Gandhisagar, Sardar Sarovar,<br />
Srisailam, Nagarjunasagar etc which are existing.<br />
Similarly, we already have experienced about large<br />
canals exceeding discharge capacities of 1000<br />
cumec and the link canals would be not of much<br />
larger magnitude through these would be of much<br />
larger links. The existing inter-basin transfers in India<br />
do not seem to have experienced any such problem.<br />
CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE<br />
DEVELOPMENT AS APPLIED TO WATER<br />
RESOURCES<br />
Short vs. long term considerations:- There are<br />
some fundamental dichotomies on the time<br />
framework for sustainability of water resources<br />
projects for practical application. For example, the<br />
life period of a small check dam, run-off river barrage<br />
and a large multi-purpose dam can not be considered<br />
to be similar. Accordingly, there should be<br />
considerable flexibility in terms of the type of projects<br />
being considered while applying the fundamental<br />
assumption behind the concept of sustainable<br />
development that it would be viable over the long<br />
term. Many times, sustainable development is<br />
referred vaguely to several generations. Further, we<br />
have to reconcile the short term expectations of the<br />
main users (farmers in an irrigation project) with the<br />
long term needs of the society.<br />
497<br />
Externalities : In most of the projects, the private<br />
costs or benefits do not equal to social costs or<br />
benefits. The internalisation of such costs has not<br />
been easy through taxes, subsidies and regulations<br />
due to main reasons of difficulties in calculations of<br />
precise value of externalities, forceful difference of<br />
considerable private advantages by powerful<br />
individuals and organisations, time gap between<br />
realisation of such costs and regulations to control<br />
such externalities in the developing countries.<br />
Risks and uncertainties : The water resources<br />
development is confronted with large scale risks and<br />
uncertainties due to highly complex environmental<br />
system. The existing knowledge and data base is<br />
inadequate to identify the parameters that could<br />
indicate the passage from sustainable to<br />
unsustainable stage. Further if, on already complex<br />
issues, additional factors such as potential climatic<br />
changes are superimposed; the degree of<br />
uncertainties increases tremendously in terms of<br />
detecting or predicting the transition process.<br />
Above concepts should be systematically<br />
analysed by multi-disciplinary experts for their<br />
scientific application in real life. Commonly used<br />
words ‘holistic approach’ and ‘sustainable’ are<br />
difficult to be understood in specific sense.<br />
TIRADE BY NON-PROFESSIONALS AND<br />
SELF SYLED ENVIRONMENTAL<br />
ACTIVISTS<br />
Even a layman can appreciate that in the<br />
situation of monsoonic weather in our country,<br />
storage of river flows during floods is unavoidable<br />
not only to meet the basic needs of bulging population<br />
for diverse uses but also to moderate the floods,<br />
droughts and poverty. Most of the people associated<br />
with environmental activism and press reporting in<br />
India have very little understanding of the complex<br />
multi-disciplinary environmental processes. Most of<br />
the personnel associated with the tirade against water<br />
storage projects have very little understanding of the<br />
‘dose-response functions’ of the complex<br />
environmental processes and are ignorant of intricate<br />
multi-disciplinary techniques of water resources<br />
development. An overview of the environmental<br />
impacts of the water resources development in India<br />
is of particular interest at the present stage of<br />
development. It is evident that large water storage<br />
projects are surely better alternatives wherever<br />
the parameters such as the volume of water flow,<br />
geological and topographical considerations and
egional requirements are satisfied. Historical<br />
records establish that dynamic nature of<br />
environmental effects, which seem adverse to the<br />
environment at the time of construction, generally<br />
tend to stabilise and become less unfavourable.<br />
In fact extensive green cover develop in<br />
submergence and irrigation commands. Large<br />
number of migratory bird and wild life starts<br />
developing after construction of large dams (case<br />
studies for Aswan, Ramganga, Rihand, Matatila,<br />
Indira Gandhi Nehar, Beas Sutluj Link, Bhakra<br />
and Hirakud projects).<br />
We should aim at minimising the adverse<br />
environmental effects through appropriate changes<br />
in projects design along with adopting environmental<br />
management plan. It is necessary to take a balanced<br />
view considering both direct and indirect benefits as<br />
well as cost together with positive and negative<br />
impacts on environment and socio-economic status<br />
of the society. The environmental impacts should<br />
be analysed not only ‘before and after’ but also ‘with<br />
and without’ of the proposed water resources project.<br />
Many of the NGOs believe in myths even; when<br />
though such myths are clearly contradicted by<br />
scientific facts. Multi-disciplinary teamwork, though<br />
advocated easily, is indeed a difficult task to<br />
accomplish, specially when the individual’s training<br />
is in the narrow disciplinary field of specialisation.<br />
Subjects of water resources management,<br />
environmental concerns and the process of planning<br />
and operation of various types of water projects<br />
should be rightly taught at different levels of<br />
education as well as to the experts of different<br />
disciplines.<br />
SUPREME COURT JUDGEMENT<br />
RELATED TO NARMADA PROJECT<br />
Following excerpts of Hon’ble Supreme Court<br />
in their judgement delivered on 18 th October, 2000<br />
for Narmada Project, in writ petition of Narmada<br />
Bachhao Andolan Vs. Government of India and<br />
Others are eye opening. (C.A. No. 6014/1994<br />
W.P.(C) Nos. 345/94 with 104/1997, S.L.P. (C) No.<br />
3608/1985 & T.C. (C) No. 35 of 19995 ).<br />
Dams and Environment -Supreme Court in its<br />
majority judgement stated ‘that in the present case,<br />
they were not concerned with the polluting industry,<br />
but a large dam. The dam is neither a nuclear<br />
establishment nor a polluting industry. The<br />
construction of a dam undoubtedly would result in<br />
the change of environment but it will not be correct<br />
498<br />
to presume that the contruction of a large dam like<br />
Sardar Sarovar will result in ecological disaster.’<br />
‘India has an experience over 40 years in the<br />
construction of dams. The experience does not<br />
show that the construction of a large dam is not<br />
cost effective or leads to ecological or<br />
environmental degradation. On the contrary, there<br />
has been ecological up-gradation with the<br />
construction of large dam. What is the impact on<br />
environment with the construction of a dam is well<br />
known in India and therefore, the ‘precautionary<br />
principle’ and the ‘polluter pays principle’ will have<br />
no application in the present case. So far, a number<br />
of such river valley projects have been undertaken<br />
in all parts of India. The petitioner has not been<br />
able to point out a single instance where the<br />
construction of a dam has, on the whole, had an<br />
adverse environmental impact. On the contrary,<br />
the environment has improved. That being so, there<br />
is no reason to suspect, with all the experience gained<br />
so far, that the position here will be any different<br />
and there will not be over all improvement and<br />
prosperity. It should not be forgotten that poverty is<br />
regarded as one of the causes of degradation of<br />
environment. With improved irrigation system, the<br />
people will prosper. The construction of Bhakra Dam<br />
is a shining example for all to see, how the backward<br />
area of erstwhile undivided Punjab has now become<br />
the granary of India with improved environment than<br />
what was before the completion of Bhakra Nangal<br />
Project. We are not convinced that the construction<br />
of dam will result in there being an adverse ecological<br />
impact. There is no reason to conclude that the<br />
Environmental Sub-group is not functioning<br />
effectively. The Group, which is headed by the<br />
Secretary, Ministry of Environment and Forests is a<br />
high powered body, which can not be belittled merely<br />
on the basis of conjectures or surmises.’<br />
Hon’ble Court was satisfied that substantial<br />
compliance of stipulated environmental<br />
safeguards was undertaken in SSD Project.<br />
Surprisingly, the Supreme Court noted that the<br />
Narmada Bacchao Andolan (NBA) had not even<br />
allowed surveys for demarcation for R&R of the<br />
PAFs and that the NBA’s efforts to stall SSDP<br />
through FMG had failed. The NBA’s plea that<br />
environmental clearance for Sardar Sarovar Dam<br />
Project had lapsed; was not agreed to by the<br />
Supreme Court. It was ruled that Narmada<br />
Bachhao Andolan (NBA) could not give a single<br />
example of the whole advese environmental<br />
impacts of even a single dam in India.
REPORTB OF WORLD COMMISION ON<br />
DAMS AND INDIA COUNTRY STUDY<br />
REPORT<br />
NBA and particularly Ms. Arun Dhatti Ray<br />
even dared to censor their lords for Ms. Ray was<br />
token imprisoned for a day ‘being a lady’. Later-on,<br />
Ms. Medha Patkar (main spirit behind NBA) became<br />
judge of World Commission on Dams (WCD) and<br />
her spokesperson Sh. Jain ( nominee of NBA in<br />
Govt. of India Committee) was appointed Vicechairman<br />
of WCD. Total reliance in INDIA<br />
COUNTRY STUDY REPORT (ICSR) was laid on<br />
the figures given by the NGOs especially regarding<br />
the displaced persons, submerged forests or the<br />
effective command; on the other hand, the<br />
government figures were stated to be unreliable<br />
inferring that such departments interpret and present<br />
the data to promote their own interests best. The<br />
achievement of water resources development of last<br />
50 years in India have been totally neglected in<br />
ICSD. Large beneficial environmental and social<br />
impacts of the Bhakra Dam, Hirakud Dam, Ukai<br />
Dam, Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, Pong Dam, Ramganga<br />
Dam and several other major dams were available<br />
in numerous publications. Tremendous environmental<br />
and social benefits of Brindavan Garden (Krishna<br />
Raj Sagar Dam), Ukai & Ramganga Gardens,<br />
Periyar wildlife resorts, Kalindi Kunj, as by-products<br />
of large dams and improved environmental and social<br />
conditions in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and<br />
western UP after the construction of large dams<br />
were left out in the study report. On the other hand,<br />
the three on-going projects namely, the Tehri, Indira<br />
Sagar and Sardar Sarovar Projects were cited,<br />
without associating the project authorities but laying<br />
total reliance on the views of activists fighting against<br />
these three projects.<br />
Thus ICSR was a true malafide play enacted<br />
under the shadow of the WCD. Surprisingly,<br />
against all norms of decency and law, the<br />
litigants and their prime supporters in Indian<br />
Supreme Court against the Sardar Sarovar and<br />
Tehri Dam Projects were either positioned as<br />
Commissioners of the World Commission on Dams<br />
or authors of India Country Study Report. Sh.<br />
Shekhar Singh, a lecturer in IIPA (petitioner<br />
against Tehri Dam) and Sh. Ramaswami R. Iyer (<br />
an IAAS officer who was connected with water<br />
for about 2 years only as Union Secretary Water<br />
Resources) were commissioned as authors of<br />
India Country Study Report (ICSR) for WCD.<br />
499<br />
WCD report was critically reviewed by 3 top<br />
International Professional Organisations<br />
International Commission on Large Dams<br />
(ICOLD), International Commission on Irrigation<br />
& Drainage (ICID), International Association of<br />
Hydropower Association (IHPPA). Their valuable<br />
observations were conveyed to prominent<br />
international organizations, professional bodies<br />
and Governments of various countries. They<br />
pointed out serious flaws & ambiguities in WCD<br />
Report and impracticability of the WCD<br />
recommendations.<br />
How can WCD recommendations regarding<br />
joint negotiations with the stake holders leading<br />
towards negotiated agreements at national and<br />
international levels, be accepted by India; in view<br />
of the massive programme for utilization of water,<br />
power and environmental resources; for<br />
accelerated economic development. Govt. of<br />
India had to very rightly reject the WCD Report<br />
since the report was not only being biased &<br />
ambiguous but also due to one-sided India<br />
Country Study Report wherein, the minor adverse<br />
environmental impacts of large dams were highly<br />
blown up and tremendous socio-economic and<br />
environmental benefits of even major dams like<br />
Bhakra, BSL, IGNP, Damodar, Ramganga,<br />
Nagarjunasagar, etc. were omitted.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
A series of smaller dams, even if feasible, would<br />
entail higher costs, greater submergence, far more<br />
displacement, greater evaporation losses, increased<br />
maintenance cost and far less benefits. Small dams<br />
are prone to fall in critical years of drought because<br />
they depend on tiny catchments. Moreover, a large<br />
dam site is a natural resource depending on the rock<br />
formation, geometry of valley, foundation-conditions<br />
and hydrological features. Medium and small water<br />
projects as well as water harvesting schemes cannot<br />
substitute the need of large water storages but can<br />
at best complement the larger projects. This, too,<br />
depends upon the hydrological, geological,<br />
topographical and regional limitations. A large dam<br />
site is a natural resource depending on rocks<br />
formation, geometry of valley, foundations and<br />
hydrological features. Catchment area treatment<br />
and watershed management are development<br />
projects in their own right and should be planned<br />
and executed as such independently without putting<br />
undue financial burden on water resources projects.<br />
At best, treatment of direct draining sub-watersheds
along the reservoir rim could be charged to the cost<br />
of the reservoir project.<br />
Supreme Court in their judgement in PIL filed<br />
by NBA expressed its deep concern that against the<br />
utilisable storage 690 cu. km. of surface water<br />
resources out of 1869 cu. km.; so far storage capacity<br />
of all dams in India is only 174 cu. km., which is<br />
incidentally less than the capacity of Kariba Dam in<br />
Zambia/Zimbabwe with capacity of 180.6 cu. km.<br />
and only 12 cu. km. more than the Aswan High Dam<br />
of Egypt. Supreme Court observed that the Public<br />
Interest Litigation (PIL) is ballooning and can’t<br />
be allowed to burst. The lords in majority<br />
judgment stated that that PILs cannot be<br />
allowed to degenerate into “Publicity Interest<br />
Litigation” nor “Private Inquisitiveness<br />
Litigation”. Supreme Court very clearly observed<br />
that with channelisation of development, ecology<br />
& environment gets enhanced and that biggest<br />
dam to smallest structures are water harvesting<br />
structures. Supreme Court ruled that “Dam is<br />
neither nuclear establishment nor an industry.<br />
Since long, India has derived benefits of river<br />
valley projects. High dam decision can’t be<br />
faulted. Large dams upgrade ecology”.<br />
Environment is either science or engineering,<br />
which can not be so well understood by novelists,<br />
journalists and self styled activists. Such persons<br />
repeatedly use media to create fantasies since they<br />
have excellent command on language, media<br />
relationship and have nothing else to do except whole<br />
hearted full time tirade against water storage<br />
projects, on many shifting grounds. In every sector<br />
other than water and power, specialists like<br />
doctors, surgeons, economists, space & atomic<br />
scientists etc. are considered competent but any<br />
‘Tom’, ‘Dick’ and ‘Harry’ claims to be expert to<br />
oppose large dams, hydel projects and inter-basin<br />
transfer of water projects. Supreme Court’s<br />
admission of PIL by NCCL against NBA and Prime<br />
Minister’s direction for vigilance inquiries due to<br />
siphoning of foreign funds and over 200 FIRs for<br />
stopping R&R works are now matter of media<br />
coverage.Adequate laws & Governing mechanism<br />
should be quickly evolved so that such non<br />
credible NGOs & self styled environmentalists<br />
are no longer allowed to create obstacles in<br />
national task of water and power supply for<br />
competing uses for such a vast humanity.<br />
Note- Views in the article do not belong to the Author’s<br />
Organisations. Valuable publications used for reference are<br />
cited below for further reading.<br />
� � �<br />
500<br />
REFERENCES<br />
• Abdul Kalam A.P.J. and Rajan Y.S. ‘2020- A Vision for<br />
the New Millenium’, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.<br />
• Calder R. Ian, “ Blue Revolution- Integrated Land and<br />
Water Resources Management”, Earthscan, London, UK, 2005.<br />
• Centre for Science and Environment, “Floods, Flood Plains<br />
and Environmental Myths-State of India’s Environment – A<br />
Citizens, Report”, Centre for Science and Environment, New<br />
Delhi 1991.<br />
• Central Water Commission, 2000 ‘River Valley Projects<br />
and Environment-Concerns and Management’, Publication No.<br />
61/2000, New Delhi.<br />
• Goel R.S.(Editor), (1993), ‘ Environmental Impacts of<br />
Water Resources Development’, M/S Tata McGraw Hill<br />
Publishing Company, New Delhi.<br />
• Goel R. S.(Editor), (2000), ‘Environment Impacts<br />
Assessment of Water Resources Projects – Concerns, Policy<br />
Issues, Perceptions and Scientific Analysis’ M/S Oxford & IBH<br />
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., ISBN-81-204-1422-5, New Delhi.<br />
• Goel R. S.(Editor), (2000), “Environmental Management<br />
in Hydropower and River Valley Projects – Techniques of<br />
Management, Policy Issues, Case Studies and Application of<br />
Scientific Tools’, ISBN-81-204-1423-3, M/S Oxford & IBH<br />
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.<br />
• Goel R.S., (2000) “The Unquiet Narmada - The<br />
Antagonism Against River Valley Projects Is Unjustified”, Invited<br />
Article Published in The Economic Times, New Delhi, Editorial<br />
Page, 31 st December 2000.<br />
• Goel R.S., 2003, Keynote Address, ‘India’s Hydropower<br />
Vision to 2030 – Environmental Issues’ National Seminar on<br />
India’s Energy Vision -2030 – Issues, Constraints and the way<br />
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