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The use of ‘by’ + agent (= ‘doer’) after a passive 1. We use by only when we need to say who or what is responsible for a event: The window was broken last night. (We don’t know or want to say who or what did it.) The window was broken by a slate that fell off the roof. (We wish to give information.) 2. We often use by + agent with the passive of verbs like build, compare, damage, design, destroy, discover, invent, make and write to identify who or what is/was responsible: Who designed St Paul’s? – It was designed by Christopher Wren. The passive with verbs of ‘saying’ and ‘believing’: ‘It is said (that) …’ We need to be sure of our facts when we say: e.g. He was a spy in World War II. If we are not sure of our facts, we can express caution by saying: It is said (that) he was a spy in World War II./ He was said to be a spy in World War II. We can express caution in three ways, with: 1. It (+ passive + that-clause) with e.g. agree, believe, consider, decide, hope, know, say: It is said (that) there is plenty of oil off our own coast. 2. There (+ passive + to be) with e.g. allege, believe, fear, know, report, say, suppose, think: There is said to be plenty of oil our own coast. 3. Subject (not it) (+ passive + to-infinitive) with e.g. allege, believe, consider, know, say: Jane is said to know all there is to know about chimpanzees. C. form and use of the causative Form of the causative: ‘have something done’ 1. Note the difference between these two sentences: I had built a house. (past perfect tense = ‘I did it myself’ I had a house built. (the causative = ‘I arranged for it to be done’ 2. We form the causative with have + noun or pronoun object + past participle. We use the causative in different tense and with modals: I am having a house built. I had a house built. I have had a house built. I will have a house built. I must have a house built. I can’t have a house built. etc. The causative compared with the active and passive 1. We use the active to describe jobs we do ourselves or when we know who’s doing a job: I’m serving the car. Jack is servicing the car. 2. We use the passive to say that a job is being done for us, but we don’t know or don’t want to say who is doing it: The car is being serviced. (We’re focusing on the car) 3. We use the causative to stress the fact that we are ‘causing’ someone to do a job for us: I’m having the car serviced. I have had my car serviced. I’m going to have my hair cut. Not *I’m going to cut my hair* which means ‘I’m going to cut it myself’. We often use the causative with verbs that have to do with services: e.g. build, clean, decorate, develop (a film), mend, photocopy, press, print, repair, service. 80
‘Get’ in the causative: ‘get something done’ We sometimes use get in place of have in the causative to say something is urgent: Have that car repaired! (causative) Get that car repaired! (more urgent causative) 81
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The sentence A: Sentence word order
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Verb + object + ‘to’ + noun or
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Noun clause derived from questions
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3. In sentences like: Our new secre
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Adverbial clauses of purpose with
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t 2. We sometimes use the past part
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Apostrophe s(‘s) or compound noun
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E. Number (singular and plural) (1)
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3. We still have a few male and fem
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Articles A. The indefinite article:
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‘The’ to refer to things that a
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2. Zero for: countries (Turkey), st
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C. ‘It’ and ‘one/some/any/non
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2. Verbs such as get up, sit down,
Page 29 and 30: Quantity A. Quantifiers + countable
Page 31 and 32: ‘Not …any’, ‘no’ and ‘n
Page 33 and 34: ‘None of’ and ‘neither of’
Page 35 and 36: Adjectives A. Formation of adjectiv
Page 37 and 38: D. Adjectives after ‘be’, ‘se
Page 39 and 40: Adverbs A. Adverbs of manner Adverb
Page 41 and 42: ‘During’, in’ and ‘for’ 1
Page 43 and 44: F. Intensifiers ‘Very’, ‘too
Page 45 and 46: 2. If we begin a sentence with a
Page 47 and 48: B. Prepositions of movement and pos
Page 49 and 50: D. Particular prepositions, particl
Page 51 and 52: E. Particular prepositions, particl
Page 53 and 54: d. Please put these dishes away. (a
Page 55 and 56: 4. There are five groups of stative
Page 57 and 58: 4. Repeated actions with e.g. alway
Page 59 and 60: G. The simple future tense Some use
Page 61 and 62: The future-in-the-past Sometimes we
Page 63 and 64: Be, Have, Do A. ‘Be’ as a full
Page 65 and 66: There are some children at the door
Page 67 and 68: Compare: Have you/Do you have/Have
Page 69 and 70: - present form: He must be right. H
Page 71 and 72: 2. An ‘uncertain’ question may
Page 73 and 74: 4. We may use the past perfect of b
Page 75 and 76: 3. Had to shows that we couldn’t
Page 77 and 78: The form of ‘dare’ as a modal a
Page 79: The passive and the causative A. Ge
Page 83 and 84: I’ve seen no one/nobody. → I ha
Page 85 and 86: Parallel responses: ‘John can …
Page 87 and 88: G. Question-word questions (3): ‘
Page 89 and 90: 2. We use ever after all question-w
Page 91 and 92: B. Type 2 conditionals Type 2 condi
Page 93 and 94: Direct and indirect speech A. Direc
Page 95 and 96: Pronoun and adverb changes in indir
Page 97 and 98: The infinitive and the ‘-ing’ f
Page 99 and 100: ‘I know him to be an honest man
Page 101 and 102: ‘I can’t imagine my mother (‘
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The sentence

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