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2. We use which or that (in place of noun subjects and it) to refer to animals and things: That’s the cat which/that I photographed. Those are the cats which/that I photographed. That’s the photo which/that I took. Those are the photos which/that I took. However, we usually omit which and that. We say: That’s the cat I photographed. Those are the cats I photographed. That’s the photo I took. Those are the photos I took. ‘Who (m)’, ‘which’ or ‘that’ as the objects of prepositions The position of prepositions in relative clauses is very important. We can say: 1. He is the person to whom I wrote. (Never *to who*) (very formal) This is the pan in which I boiled the milk. (very formal) 2. He is the person who(m) I wrote to. This is the pan which I boiled the milk in. 3. However, we usually prefer to omit the relative and say: He is the person I wrote to. This is the pan I boiled the milk in. G. The complex sentence: ‘whose’; defining/non-defining clauses ‘Whose’ + noun in relative clauses 1. We use whose in place of possessive adjectives (my, your, his, etc.) to refer to people. Whose does not change when it refers to masculine, feminine, singular or plural: He’s the man/She’s the woman whose car was stolen. (Not *whose his car was stolen*) They’re the people whose cars wire stolen. (Not *whose their cars were stolen*) 2. We sometimes use whose in place of its to refer to things and animals: That’s the house whose windows were broken. (= the windows of which) 3. We can also use whose with prepositions: He’s the man from whose house the pictures were stolen. (formal) He’s the man whose house the pictures were stolen from. Defining and non-defining clauses 1. When we write relative clauses with who, which or whose, we have to decide whether to use comma ‘round the clauses’ or not. 2. In sentences like: I’ve never met anyone who can type as fast as you can. The magazine which arrived this morning is five days late. the relative clauses tell us which person or thing we mean. They give us essential information which we cannot omit. We call them defining clauses because they ‘define’ the person or thing they refer to. We never use commas in such sentences. We never use commas with that in relative clauses: I’ve just had a phone call from the people (that) we met during our holidays. The wallet (that) you lost has been found. 6
3. In sentences like: Our new secretary, who can type faster than anyone I have ever met, has completely reorganized our office. Time Magazine, which is available in every country in the world, is published every week. the relative clauses add ‘extra information’. If we take them out of the sentences, we won’t seriously change the meaning. We call these non-defining clauses (they do not ‘define’) and we use commas before and after them. 4. Sometimes we have to decide when the information is ‘essential’ or extra’ and we may or may not use commas. We must decide this for ourselves: He asked lots of questions (,) which were none of his business (,) and annoyed everybody. Sentences with two meanings The use or omission of commas round relative clauses can sometimes after the meaning: My wife, who is in Paris, will be returning tomorrow. Without commas, this could suggest that I have another wife who is (or other wives who are) somewhere else! H. The complex sentence: time, place, manner Adverbial clauses of time, place and manner Introduction to adverbial clauses of time, place and manner Suppose you want to write a paragraph like this: When we visited London, we went to the Tower. We saw the spot where so many famous people had lost their heads! We felt as if we had travelled back in time to another world! If we want to speak or write like this, we have to master adverbial clauses of time (answering When?), place (answering Where?) and manner (answering How?) Adverbial clauses of time (past reference) To say when something happened in the past, we use ‘joining words’ (or conjunctions) like when, after, as, as soon as, before, by the time (that), once, since, until/till, while: When we visited London, we went to the Tower. Adverbial clauses of time (future reference) When the time clause refers to the future, we normally use the simple present after: after, as soon as, before, by the time, directly, immediately, the moment, till, until and when: The Owens will move to a new flat when their baby is born. (Not *will be born*) Adverbial clauses of place To say where something happens or happened, we use conjunctions like where, wherever anywhere and everywhere: That dog follows me wherever I go. 7
Page 1 and 2: The sentence A: Sentence word order
Page 3 and 4: Verb + object + ‘to’ + noun or
Page 5: Noun clause derived from questions
Page 9 and 10: Adverbial clauses of purpose with
Page 11 and 12: t 2. We sometimes use the past part
Page 13 and 14: Apostrophe s(‘s) or compound noun
Page 15 and 16: E. Number (singular and plural) (1)
Page 17 and 18: 3. We still have a few male and fem
Page 19 and 20: Articles A. The indefinite article:
Page 21 and 22: ‘The’ to refer to things that a
Page 23 and 24: 2. Zero for: countries (Turkey), st
Page 25 and 26: C. ‘It’ and ‘one/some/any/non
Page 27 and 28: 2. Verbs such as get up, sit down,
Page 29 and 30: Quantity A. Quantifiers + countable
Page 31 and 32: ‘Not …any’, ‘no’ and ‘n
Page 33 and 34: ‘None of’ and ‘neither of’
Page 35 and 36: Adjectives A. Formation of adjectiv
Page 37 and 38: D. Adjectives after ‘be’, ‘se
Page 39 and 40: Adverbs A. Adverbs of manner Adverb
Page 41 and 42: ‘During’, in’ and ‘for’ 1
Page 43 and 44: F. Intensifiers ‘Very’, ‘too
Page 45 and 46: 2. If we begin a sentence with a
Page 47 and 48: B. Prepositions of movement and pos
Page 49 and 50: D. Particular prepositions, particl
Page 51 and 52: E. Particular prepositions, particl
Page 53 and 54: d. Please put these dishes away. (a
Page 55 and 56: 4. There are five groups of stative
Page 57 and 58:
4. Repeated actions with e.g. alway
Page 59 and 60:
G. The simple future tense Some use
Page 61 and 62:
The future-in-the-past Sometimes we
Page 63 and 64:
Be, Have, Do A. ‘Be’ as a full
Page 65 and 66:
There are some children at the door
Page 67 and 68:
Compare: Have you/Do you have/Have
Page 69 and 70:
- present form: He must be right. H
Page 71 and 72:
2. An ‘uncertain’ question may
Page 73 and 74:
4. We may use the past perfect of b
Page 75 and 76:
3. Had to shows that we couldn’t
Page 77 and 78:
The form of ‘dare’ as a modal a
Page 79 and 80:
The passive and the causative A. Ge
Page 81 and 82:
‘Get’ in the causative: ‘get
Page 83 and 84:
I’ve seen no one/nobody. → I ha
Page 85 and 86:
Parallel responses: ‘John can …
Page 87 and 88:
G. Question-word questions (3): ‘
Page 89 and 90:
2. We use ever after all question-w
Page 91 and 92:
B. Type 2 conditionals Type 2 condi
Page 93 and 94:
Direct and indirect speech A. Direc
Page 95 and 96:
Pronoun and adverb changes in indir
Page 97 and 98:
The infinitive and the ‘-ing’ f
Page 99 and 100:
‘I know him to be an honest man
Page 101 and 102:
‘I can’t imagine my mother (‘
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