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Two meanings of ‘too’ Too changes its meaning according to position: This coffee is too hot to drink at the moment. (= more than is desirable) This croissant is freshly-made and the coffee is hot, too. (= also) ‘Too’ and ‘not either’ We use too at the end of an affirmative sentence to mean also: Billy can already read and he can write, too. In the negative, we must use either in place of too: Billy can’t write yet and he can’t read, either. (Not *He can’t read, too.*) ‘Also’ and ‘as well’ 1. We use also and as well like too, that is in affirmative sentences. We replace them by either in negative sentences. We use as well only at the end of a clause or sentence: I bought this handbag and I bought these shoes to go with it, as well. 2. Also is more common in writing than in speech. It normally comes: - after be, have, can, etc.: Susan is an engineer. She is also a mother. - after the first auxiliary verb when there is one or more than one: I should have collected the letters from your office and I should also have posted them. - before the main verb: I play volley-ball and I also play tennis. H. Viewpoint adverbs, connecting adverbs and inversion Viewpoint adverbs We may express our ‘viewpoint’ in speech or in writing using adverbs like these: - (= I’m sure): clearly, definitely, honestly, naturally, obviously, really, strictly speaking. - (= I’m going to be brief): anyhow, briefly, in brief, in effect, in a few words, in short. - (= I’m expressing my opinion): as far as I’m concerned, frankly, in my opinion, I think. Connecting adverbs We can connect ideas in speech or writing using adverbs like these: - (= I’m adding something): in addition, again, apart from this, besides, moreover. - (= I’m comparing/contrasting): as compared to, equally, however, in reality. - (= I’m summarizing): all in all, and so on, essentially, in brief, in conclusion, in effect. Inversion after ‘negative adverbs’, etc. 1. Some adverbs like never and little have a ‘negative effect’ and we sometimes refer to them as ‘negative adverbs’. We can use them in the ordinary way: I have never seen so much protest against a government. Michael little realizes how important this meeting is. 44
2. If we begin a sentence with a ‘negative adverb’ we must follow with the word order we use in a Yes/No question. Beginning with a negative is very formal: Never have I seen so much protest against a government. Little does Michael realize how important this meeting is. 3. We use this kind of inversion, in formal style, after: - ‘negative adverbs: e.g. hardly, hardly ever, never, rarely, seldom. - phrases with only: e.g. only after, only then, only when (Only then did I learn …). - so + adjectives: So difficult was this problem, Einstein couldn’t solve it. 45
Page 1 and 2: The sentence A: Sentence word order
Page 3 and 4: Verb + object + ‘to’ + noun or
Page 5 and 6: Noun clause derived from questions
Page 7 and 8: 3. In sentences like: Our new secre
Page 9 and 10: Adverbial clauses of purpose with
Page 11 and 12: t 2. We sometimes use the past part
Page 13 and 14: Apostrophe s(‘s) or compound noun
Page 15 and 16: E. Number (singular and plural) (1)
Page 17 and 18: 3. We still have a few male and fem
Page 19 and 20: Articles A. The indefinite article:
Page 21 and 22: ‘The’ to refer to things that a
Page 23 and 24: 2. Zero for: countries (Turkey), st
Page 25 and 26: C. ‘It’ and ‘one/some/any/non
Page 27 and 28: 2. Verbs such as get up, sit down,
Page 29 and 30: Quantity A. Quantifiers + countable
Page 31 and 32: ‘Not …any’, ‘no’ and ‘n
Page 33 and 34: ‘None of’ and ‘neither of’
Page 35 and 36: Adjectives A. Formation of adjectiv
Page 37 and 38: D. Adjectives after ‘be’, ‘se
Page 39 and 40: Adverbs A. Adverbs of manner Adverb
Page 41 and 42: ‘During’, in’ and ‘for’ 1
Page 43: F. Intensifiers ‘Very’, ‘too
Page 47 and 48: B. Prepositions of movement and pos
Page 49 and 50: D. Particular prepositions, particl
Page 51 and 52: E. Particular prepositions, particl
Page 53 and 54: d. Please put these dishes away. (a
Page 55 and 56: 4. There are five groups of stative
Page 57 and 58: 4. Repeated actions with e.g. alway
Page 59 and 60: G. The simple future tense Some use
Page 61 and 62: The future-in-the-past Sometimes we
Page 63 and 64: Be, Have, Do A. ‘Be’ as a full
Page 65 and 66: There are some children at the door
Page 67 and 68: Compare: Have you/Do you have/Have
Page 69 and 70: - present form: He must be right. H
Page 71 and 72: 2. An ‘uncertain’ question may
Page 73 and 74: 4. We may use the past perfect of b
Page 75 and 76: 3. Had to shows that we couldn’t
Page 77 and 78: The form of ‘dare’ as a modal a
Page 79 and 80: The passive and the causative A. Ge
Page 81 and 82: ‘Get’ in the causative: ‘get
Page 83 and 84: I’ve seen no one/nobody. → I ha
Page 85 and 86: Parallel responses: ‘John can …
Page 87 and 88: G. Question-word questions (3): ‘
Page 89 and 90: 2. We use ever after all question-w
Page 91 and 92: B. Type 2 conditionals Type 2 condi
Page 93 and 94: Direct and indirect speech A. Direc
Page 95 and 96:
Pronoun and adverb changes in indir
Page 97 and 98:
The infinitive and the ‘-ing’ f
Page 99 and 100:
‘I know him to be an honest man
Page 101 and 102:
‘I can’t imagine my mother (‘
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