Full Document - faculty.ait.ac.th - Asian Institute of Technology

TECHNOLOGY, ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND 

ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES IN THE PULP 

AND PAPER INDUSTRY 

RAW MATERIAL 

PREPARATION 

PULPING 

Χ Chemical Pulping 

Alkaline 

- Kraft or sulfate √ 

- Soda pulping 

Acidic or sulfite 

Χ Mechanical 

- GWP - RMP 

- TMP - CTMP 

Χ Semi-chemical Pulping 

- Neutral sulfite 

BLEACHING 

PAPER MAKING 

220-300 kWh/t 

400-520 kWh/t 

Electricity 

Steam 

(180°C, 

12-13 GJ/t) 

Electricity 

Steam 

(5 GJ/t) 

Electricity 

Electricity 

Steam 

(5-6 GJ/t) 

Steam 

(8 GJ/t) 

Electricity 

Pulp & Paper Industry 

Energy Flow 

Effluents & Emissions 

Raw Materials 

(Conventional: Wood 

Others: Grass, 

Bagasse, Straw etc.) 

Chipper 

Debarked Wood / Woodchips 

Pulp Digester 

Crude Pulp 

Screening & 

Washing 

Fine Purified Pulp 

Thickening 

Unbleached Pulp 

Bleaching 

Bleached pulp 

Stock 

Preparation 

Paper Machine 

Drying & 

Finishing 

Finished Paper 

Products 

Waste paper 

(secondary 

intake) 

Refining 

Raw Materials 


Others: Grass, 

Bagasse, Straw etc.) 

Chipper 


Pulp Digester 

Crude Pulp 

Screening & 

Washing 

Thickening 


Bleaching Plant 


Stock 

Preparation 


Drying & 

Finishing 


Products 

School of Environment, R 

Asian Institut 

Bangkok 

Weak black liquor 

Sedimentation & 

Aerobic 

treatment 

Evaporator 

to pulp digester 


Chemical reuse 

Chemical 

recovery boiler 

Sludge, 

Bleach water 

Waste paper 

(secondary 

intake) 

Refining 

Heat emission 

White water, 

Fiber, Fillers, 

Broke, etc. 

Liquid clean-up, 

Broke, Coatings 

etc. 

to Treatment plants 

Evaporative emission 

Strong black liquor 

toCombustion 

School of Environment, Resources and Development 

Asian Institute of Technology 

Bangkok - Thailand 

ASIAN INSTITUTE 

OF TEC HN OLOGY 

19 5 9 

Condensat 

Gaseseous e 

emission 

Effluent 

Fiber & ink 

sludge 

to 

Anaerobic 

treatment

TECHNOLOGY, ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND 

ENVIRONMENTAL EXTERNALITIES IN THE PULP 

AND PAPER INDUSTRY 

RAW MATERIAL 

PREPARATION 

PULPING 


Alkaline 

- Kraft or sulfate √ 



Χ Mechanical 

- GWP - RMP 

- TMP - CTMP 



BLEACHING 

PAPER M AKING 

220-300 kWh/t 

400-520 kWh/t 

Electricity 

Steam 

(180°C, 

12-13 GJ/t) 

Electricity 

Steam 

(5 GJ/t) 

Electricity 

Electricity 

Steam 

(5-6 GJ/t) 

Steam 

(8 GJ/t) 

Electricity 

Pulp & Paper Industry 

Energy Flow 


Raw Materials 


Others: Grass, Bagasse, 

Straw etc.) 

Chipper 


Pulp Digester 

Crude Pulp 

Screening & 

Washing 


Thickening 




Stock 

Preparation 


Drying & 

Finishing 


Products 

Waste paper 

(secondary intake) 

Refining 


Brahmanand Mohanty 

Raw Materials 



Straw etc.) 


School of Environment, Resources and Development 


Bangkok - Thailand 

Chipper 

Pulp Digester 

Crude Pulp 

Screening & 

Washing 

Thickening 




Stock 

Preparation 


Drying & 

Finishing 


Products 


Evaporator 



Chemical 



Aerobic treatment 

Sludge, 


Waste paper 


Refining 

Heat emission 

White water, 


Broke, etc. 


Broke, Coatings etc. 




to Combustion 

Condensate 

Gaseseous emission 

Effluent 

Fiber & ink 

sludge 

to Anaerobic 

treatment

Technology, Energy Efficiency and Environmental Externalities 

in the Pulp and Paper Industry 

© Asian Institute of Technology, 1997 

Edited by Brahmanand Mohanty 

Published by School of Environment, Resources and Development 


P.O. Box 4, Pathumthani 12120 

Thailand 

e-mail: visu@ait.ac.th 

NOTICE 

Neither the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) nor the Asian 

Institute of Technology (AIT) makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assume any 

legal liability for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, appratus, 

product, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference 

herein to any trademark, or manufacturer, or otherwise does not constitute or imply its 

endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by Sida or AIT. 

ISBN 974 - 8256 - 72 - 3 

Printed in India by All India Press, Pondicherry.

FOREWORD 

The use of fossil fuels leads to the emission of so-called "Green House Gases (GHG)", a 

concept which comprises carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, sulfur oxides, etc. In recent years, 

a good deal of research has provided enough material to put forward the claim that a big 

increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would lead to a rise in 

the average global temperature, with negative consequences for the global climate. This 

claim has been confirmed by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 

Change (IPCC) in its second scientific assessment published in 1996. 

Global warming can have catastrophic impact on human and global security: island nations 

and low lying coastal regions would be permanently drowned by the rise in the level of the 

oceans brought on by the melting of polar ice; drought would become widespread; and 

desertification would expand and accelerate. Persistent famines, mass migrations and largescale 

conflict would be the result. Agriculture, food and water security, and international 

trade would come under severe strain. 

Until recently, industrialized countries have accounted for most of the emission of the 

GHG, in particular carbon dioxide, because their economic development has been very 

strongly based on the use of fossil fuels. However, the same dynamic has also led to a 

situation where the newly industrializing countries of Asia and Latin America (the strong 

South) are today contributing significantly to the emission of carbon dioxide. This tendency 

will spread to and encompass an increasing number of developing countries unless both 

the industrialized and the developing countries jointly agree on implementing the measures 

to halt and then reverse the global trend towards a rapid rise in the emission of carbon 

dioxide. That is the central purpose of the IPCC, which has succeeded in obtaining 

commitments from most of the industrialized countries to reduce their emissions of carbon 

dioxide. 

At the 1995 meeting in Berlin of the Conference of the Parties (CoP) to the United 

Nations Climate Convention, it was decided to initiate negotiations to strengthen the 

emission-reduction measures by the industrialized countries, as well as countries of Eastern 

Europe and the Former Soviet Union. The final negotiations are planned to take place at 

the December 1997 meeting in Kyoto of the CoP, which ought to result in legal 

instruments to ensure that the agreed measures are being fulfilled. 

The fossil fuel generated climate problem is very complex, with strong vested interests and 

special alliances. There is still considerable skepticism in the developing world about the 

need for measures to counter global warming, in particular in the strong South, which in no 

way wants to jeopardize its own rapid economic development. It is therefore imperative to 

find innovative solutions, both technical and institutional, to the climate problem, which 

are acceptable to both the North and the South. Meeting this challenge calls for inter alia 

research programs that tackle the technological, techno-economic and policy problems in

promoting the transition to decreasing use of fossil fuels, increasing energy efficiency and 

fuel substitution, and carbon recycling systems of energy production and use. 

The Asian Regional Research Programme on Energy, Environment and Climate 

(ARRPEEC) is part of this global effort, which Sida is very pleased to have initiated and is 

fully supporting. The ARRPEEC comprises technological, techno-economic and policy 

research on energy efficiency, fuel substitution and carbon recycling in the principal 

economic sectors of East, Southeast and South Asian countries. 

M R Bhagavan 

Senior Research Adviser, Department for Research Cooperation 

Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Sida

PREFACE 

Industries have always played a crucial role in the socio-economic development of a 

country. They have contributed primarily to increased prosperity, greater employment and 

livelihood opportunities. On the other hand, industries are accused of accelerating the 

consumption of scarce fossil fuels and of polluting the local, regional, and global 

environment by releasing solid, liquid and gaseous pollutants to their surroundings. 

Experiences gained worldwide have shown that these impacts of industries on resource use 

and the environment can be contained through more efficient production processes and 

adoption of cleaner technologies and procedures. Thus, fossil fuel consumption can be cut 

down drastically and waste generation can be avoided or minimized to the lowest possible 

level. Regulatory regimes introduced in several countries have led the industries to adopt 

appropriate measures. Some countries have adopted economic instruments to reflect the 

true cost of goods and services by internalizing the environmental costs of their input, 

production, use, recycling and disposal. 

The improvement of production system through the use of technologies and processes that 

utilize resources more efficiently and achieve “more with less” is an important pathway 

towards the long-term sustenance of industries. It is in this context that a research project 

was undertaken by the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), with the support of the 

Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). The project entitled 

“Development of Energy Efficient and Environmentally Sound Industrial Technologies in 

Asia” was launched with the specific objective to enhance the synergy among selected 

Asian developing countries in their efforts to grasp the mechanism and various aspects 

related to the adoption and propagation of energy efficient and environmentally sound 

technologies. Three energy intensive and environmentally polluting industrial sub-sectors 

(cement, iron & steel, and pulp & paper) and four Asian countries of varying sizes, political 

systems and stages of development (China, India, Philippines, Sri Lanka) were selected in 

the framework of this study. To enhance in-country capacity building in the subject matter, 

collaboration was sought from reputed national institutes who nominated experts to 

actively participate in the execution of the project. 

The activities undertaken in the first phase of the project were the following: 

- Evaluation of the status of technologies in selected energy intensive and 

environmentally polluting industries; 

- Identification of potential areas for energy conservation and pollution abatement 

in these industries; 

- Analysis of the technological development of energy intensive and polluting 

industries in relation with the national regulatory measures; 

- Identification of major barriers to efficiency improvements and pollution 

abatement in the industrial sector.

Based on the initial guidelines prepared at AIT under the leadership of Dr. X. Chen, 

discussions were held with the experts from the national research institutes (NRIs) of the 

four participating countries. The outcomes of these meetings were used as a basis for the 

preparation of country reports which were presented at two project workshops held at 

Manila in May 1995 and at Bangkok in November 1995. On the basis of the reports 

submitted, cross-country comparison reports were prepared at AIT and additional relevant 

information was sought from the NRIs to bridge some of the gaps found in their 

respective reports. This is the third of the four volumes of documents which have resulted 

from this interactive research work between AIT and the NRIs. 

This volume on “Technology, energy efficiency and environmental externalities in the pulp 

and paper industry” covers a description of the paper manufacturing process, and the 

energy and environmental aspects associated with it. Then there is a cross-country 

comparison of the pulp and paper sector in the four countries, followed by individual 

country reports prepared by the four NRIs. The first five chapters were prepared by Dr. B. 

Mohanty and Dr. Uwe Stoll with the assistance of research associates figuring in the Project 

Team. 

Sincere thanks are extended to all the members of the Project Team including the 

supporting staff, past and present, for their active participation and contribution to the 

project. The enthusiasm and dynamism of Dr. X. Chen during the execution of the first 

phase and the understanding and leadership provided by Dr. C. Visvanathan in the crucial 

completion period of the project are acknowledged here. The project would have never 

seen the light of the day without the support of Sida. Finally, appreciations are due to two 

individuals who have actually conceived the Asian Regional Research Programme on 

Energy, Environment and Climate (ARRPEEC) and provided constant support and 

encouragement to this specific project under the overall program: Dr. M.R. Bhagawan, 

Senior Research Adviser at Sida, and Dr. S.C. Bhattacharya, Professor at AIT. 

Brahmanand Mohanty 


June, 1997

PROJECT TEAM 

Faculty Members (Asian Institute of Technology - School of Environment, 

Resources and Development) 

- Dr. Xavier Chen, Energy Program (Until February 1996) 

- Dr. Brahmanand Mohanty, Energy Program 

- Dr. Uwe Stoll, Environmental Engineering Program (Until January 1996) 

- Dr. C. Visvanathan, Environmental Engineering Program (From January 1996) 

Research Associates (Asian Institute of Technology - School of Environment, 

Resources and Development) 

- Ms. Nahid Amin 

- Ms. Lilita B. Bacareza 

- Mr. Z. Khandkar 

- Mr. Aung Naing Oo 

- Mr. K. Parameshwaran 

National Research Institutes 

- Institute for Techno-Economics and Energy System Analysis, Tsinghua 

University, Beijing, China (Prof. Qiu Daxiong) 

- Energy Management Centre, Ministry of Power, New Delhi, India (Mr. S. 

Ramaswamy) 

- Department of Energy, Manila, Philippines (Mr. C.T. Tupas) 

- Energy Conservation Fund, Ministry of Irrigation, Power and Energy, Colombo, 

Sri Lanka (Mr. U. Daranagama) 

Research Fellows 

- Dr. Wu Xiaobo, School of Management, Zhejiang University, China (January- 

June 1996) 

- Ms. Wang Yanjia, Tsinghua University, China (May-November 1996) 

- Mr. Anil Kumar Aneja, Thapar Corporate R&D Centre, India (May-November 

1996) 

- Ms. Marisol Portal, National Power Corporation, Philippines (May-November 

1996) 

- Mr. Gamini Senanayake, Industrial Services Bureau of North Western Province, 

Sri Lanka (May-November 1996)

CONTENTS 

FOREWARD 

PREFACE 

PROJECT TEAM 

1. GENERAL........................................................................................................................................ 1 

2. PRODUCTION PROCESSES ......................................................................................................... 2 

2.1 PULPING PROCESSES .................................................................................................................................................2 

2.1.1 Sulfite pulping process .............................................................................................................................................4 

2.1.2 Kraft (sulfate) pulping process..................................................................................................................................4 

2.1.3 Semi-chemical pulping process..................................................................................................................................5 

2.1.4 Mechanical pulping process......................................................................................................................................6 

2.2 CHEMICAL PROCESSING LINE ..................................................................................................................................6 

2.3 FIBER PROCESSING LINE ...........................................................................................................................................9 

2.4 BLEACHING OF PULP .................................................................................................................................................9 

2.5 CHEMICAL PLANT ................................................................................................................................................... 11 

2.6 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF PAPER ............................................................................................................... 11 

3. ENERGY ISSUES IN PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY...............................................................13 

3.1 TYPICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS ................................................................................................... 13 

3.2 ENERGY EFFICIENT MEASURES........................................................................................................................... 15 

3.2.1 Short term measures............................................................................................................................................. 15 

3.2.2 Medium term measures......................................................................................................................................... 15 

3.2.3 Long term measures ............................................................................................................................................. 17 

3.3 NEW ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR PAPERMAKING .................................................................. 19 

3.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON ENERGY ISSUES ................................................................................................... 20 

4. SOURCES OF POLLUTION AND ITS MANAGEMENT.......................................................... 22 

4.1 SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF POLLUTANTS ......................................................................................... 22 

4.1.1 Sources of wastewater generated ............................................................................................................................ 22 

4.1.2 Characteristics of wastewater generated ................................................................................................................. 23 

4.1.3 Sources and characteristics of gaseous emissions..................................................................................................... 25 

4.1.4 Sources and characteristics of solid wastes ............................................................................................................. 25 

4.2 CURRENT POLLUTION ABATEMENT STRATEGIES AND TECHNOLOGIES..................................................... 25 

4.2.1 Water pollution control......................................................................................................................................... 25 

4.2.2 Solid waste disposal.............................................................................................................................................. 29 

4.3 POSSIBILITIES FOR APPLICATION OF ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR POLLUTION CONTROL ....... 29 

4.3.1 Anaerobic treatment of wastes .............................................................................................................................. 29 

4.3.2 Membrane technology ........................................................................................................................................... 29 

4.3.3 Dissolved air floatation for fiber recovery............................................................................................................... 30 

4.3.4 Ozone bleaching ................................................................................................................................................... 30 

4.3.5 Modified continuous cooking process (MCC)........................................................................................................ 31 

4.3.6 DARS in soda pulping of bagasse ....................................................................................................................... 32 

4.3.7 Dry forming of paper web..................................................................................................................................... 32

4.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON POLLUTION MANAGEMENT................................................................................... 

5. CROSS COUNTRY REPORT ON THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY................................ 34 

5.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................................... 34 

5.2 OVERVIEW OF THE INDUSTRY.............................................................................................................................. 34 

5.2.1 Role in the national economy ................................................................................................................................ 34 

5.2.2 Share in total energy consumption......................................................................................................................... 34 

5.2.3 Production trends ................................................................................................................................................. 35 

5.2.4 Mills and their capacities...................................................................................................................................... 36 

5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARAMETERS AFFECTING ENERGY EFFICIENCY ............................................. 38 

5.3.1 Raw material mix................................................................................................................................................ 39 

5.3.2 Level of waste paper utilization ............................................................................................................................ 39 

5.3.3 Energy consumption by type.................................................................................................................................. 39 

5.3.4 Awareness about energy conservation .................................................................................................................... 40 

5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARAMETERS AFFECTING POLLUTION ABATEMENT MEASURES..................... 41 

5.4.1 Causes of pollution............................................................................................................................................... 42 

5.4.2 Current water pollution control strategies .............................................................................................................. 42 

5.4.3 Current air pollution control strategies .................................................................................................................. 44 

5.4.4 Current solid waste control strategies..................................................................................................................... 44 

5.4.5 Comparison of effluent and emission characteristics............................................................................................... 44 

5.5 POTENTIAL FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT .................................................................................. 46 

5.5.1 Structure of the industry ....................................................................................................................................... 46 

5.5.2 Raw materials...................................................................................................................................................... 46 

5.5.3 Potential for energy conservation............................................................................................................................ 46 

5.6 POTENTIAL FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT......................................................................................................... 46 

5.7 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................................ 49 

6. PROFILE OF THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY IN SELECTED ASIAN 

COUNTRIES…………………………………………………………………………………………….50 

6.1 COUNTRY REPORT: CHINA.................................................................................................................................... 50 

6.1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................... 50 

6.1.2 Technological trajectory of China’s paper industry................................................................................................. 54 

6.1.3 Evolution of energy efficiency in Chinese pulp & paper industry ........................................................................... 61 

6.1.4 Environmental externalities of the pulp & paper industry in China..................................................................... 67 

6.1.5 Potential for energy efficiency improvement and pollution abatement through technological changes.......................... 70 

6.1.6 Status of application of new technologies................................................................................................................ 75 

6.1.7 Conclusions.......................................................................................................................................................... 77 

6.2 COUNTRY REPORT: INDIA............................................................................................................................ 79 

6.2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................... 79 

6.2.2 Technological trajectory of the Indian paper industry ............................................................................................. 79 

6.2.3 Evolution of energy efficiency in Indian pulp and paper industry ........................................................................... 87 

6.2.4 Environmental externalities of technological development in the pulp and paper industry....................................... 89 

6.2.5 Potential for energy efficiency improvement and pollution abatement through technological change........................... 93 

6.2.6 Status of the application of new technologies.......................................................................................................... 99 

6.3 COUNTRY REPORT: PHILIPPINES............................................................................................................ 100 

6.3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................ 100 

6.3.2 Technological trajectory of the paper industry in the Philippines........................................................................... 100 

6.3.3 Evolution of energy efficiency in the pulp and paper industry of the Philippines.................................................... 106

6.3.4 Environmental externalities of the pulp and paper industry of the Philippines..................................................... 109 

6.3.5 Potential for energy efficiency improvement and pollution abatement through technological changes........................ 111 

6.3.6 Status of application of new technologies.............................................................................................................. 113 

6.3.7 Concluding remarks ........................................................................................................................................... 114 

6.4 COUNTRY REPORT: SRI LANKA................................................................................................................ 115 

6.4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................ 115 

6.4.2 Technological trajectory of the Sri Lankan pulp and paper industry.................................................................... 115 

6.4.3 Evolution of energy efficiency in the pulp and paper industry of Sri Lanka ......................................................... 117 

6.4.4 Environmental externalities in the pulp and paper industry of Sri Lanka.......................................................... 117 

6.4.5 Potential for energy efficiency improvement and pollution abatement through technological changes........................ 118 

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY ..........................................................................................................................120

General 1 

1. GENERAL 

With paper being an essential commodity of today’s society, the pulp and paper industry 

has been growing rapidly all over the world. The industry rates among the highest energy 

consumers in many countries. Theoretically, the pulp and paper industry should not 

require any purchased energy, because waste materials generated can be re-used as fuels. 

However, most pulp and paper mills normally purchase 20-50% of their total energy, 

mostly as electricity. Although the specific energy consumption values of paper products 

have been decreasing steadily, there is still potential for energy saving by employing 

advanced technologies and by modifying the current energy use practices. One of the 

distinguishing characteristics of the pulp and paper industry is the enormous generation of 

wastes. Therefore, an integrated approach towards energy and environment could be highly 

beneficial for the future betterment of the industry. 

Environmental pollution caused by industries is closely related to the technologies used and 

to the pattern of energy consumption by the technologies. The key to the success of 

pollution abatement in industrial sector will depend on the approach of regulations, 

promotion of new technologies in the production and waste minimization activities (clean 

technologies), and improvement of industrial energy efficiency. Energy efficiency 

improvement and environmental pollution reduction can only be achieved by either retrofit 

measures (modification of the existing technology and equipment) or by installation of 

clean technologies, or both. 

This document describes the production processes and technologies in use (Sec. 2), the 

energy saving opportunities and potential in light of both the existing and new technologies 

(Sec. 3), as well as the issues of sources of pollution and pollution abatement measures 

including the possibilities for pollution abatement in the pulp and paper industry in future 

(Sec. 4). It also provides a cross country comparison of the sector (Sec. 5) followed by 

individual country reports on the pulp and paper industry of four Asian industrializing 

nations (Sec. 6).

2 Technology, Energy Efficiency and Environmental Externalities in the Pulp and Paper Industry 

2. PRODUCTION PROCESSES 

Raw materials primarily considered for commercial scale production of pulp and paper 

include pine, bamboo, rubber wood, mixed tropical hardwood, bagasse, Burma grass and 

rice straw. These raw materials consist mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. 

Cellulose and hemicellulose are polysaccharides as starch. Target of the pulping process is 

to crack and remove this matrix and separate out the pure cellulose as a natural and 

resistant raw product. Lignin, hemicellulose and the extracts are separated by cooking in a 

digester. Lignin becomes dissolved by sulfonization, hemicellulose gets hydrolyzed and the 

extracts get partly dissolved under acidic conditions. In the ensuing procedural steps 

(bleaching process), the remaining lignin gets oxidized, both in acidic and alkaline phase, 

whereas the hemicellulose and extracts get dissolved mainly in the alkaline phase. 

Only about 40% of the raw material input is represented in the solid yield. The 

environmental problem with the pulp and paper industry is evidently the other 60%, which 

is the liquid by-product and has to be treated further. General flowchart of the pulp and 

paper making process is given in Figure 2.1. The pulp may be broadly classified as follows: 

- High quality pulp 

- Sulfite pulp (SP) 

- Kraft / Sulfate pulp (KP) 

- Low quality pulp (wood fibric) 

- Semichemical pulp (SCP) 

- Ground or Mechanical pulp (GP) 

2.1 Pulping Processes 

The main manufacturing processes of pulp production are: 

- Sulfite Pulping (SP): chemical pulping, acidic process, cooks the chips with acid 

sulfite solution at a high temperature for half a day. 

- Kraft or Sulfate Pulping (KP): chemical pulping, alkaline process, cooks the chips 

with caustic soda and sodium sulfate at a high temperature (160°C) for several 

hours. Bleached Kraft pulp can be processed into papers of high grade. 

- Semichemical Pulping (SCP): combination of chemical and mechanical pulping processes. 

- Ground or Mechanical Pulping (GP): involves mechanical grinding of wood, 

generates less pollution. However, this process is not suitable for products with 

quality requirements, because of less durability and poor color.

Production Processes 3 

RAW MATERIAL 

PREPARATION 

PULPING 


Alkaline 

- Kraft or sulfate√ 



Χ Mechanical 

- GWP - RMP 

- TMP - CTMP 



BLEACHING 

PAPER MAKING 

Process Flow (including 

Raw Materials & By-Products) 

Steam / Hot water 

Chemicals 

- Alkaline sulfate liquor (Kraft) 

- Acid sulfite liquor (Acidic) 

- Neutral sulfite liquor 

(Semi-chemical) 

White water 

(Reuse water), 

or Fresh water 


Chemicals 

White water or 

Fresh water 

Fillers, Dye, 

Alum, Starch 

White water or 

Fresh water 

Fresh water or 

White water 

Steam 

Coating 

Chemicals 

Raw Materials 



Straw etc.) 

Chipper 


Pulp Digester 

Crude Pulp 

Screening & 

Washing 



Chemical 


Thickening 




Stock 

Preparation 


Drying & 

Finishing 


Products 

Wood wastes, barks etc. 

to Waste Boiler 


Evaporator 



Waste paper 


Refining 


Strong black liquor to Combustion 

Condensate 

to Anaerobic 

treatment 

Electricity 

Steam 

(180°C, 

12-13 GJ/t) 

Electricity 

220-300 kWh/t 

400-520 kWh/t 

Steam 

(5 GJ/t) 

Electricity 

Electricity 

Steam 

(5-6 GJ/t) 

Steam 

(8 GJ/t) 

Electricity 

Energy Flow 

Raw Materials 



Straw etc.) 


Pulp Digester 

Crude Pulp 

Screening & 

Washing 


Thickening 



Stock 

Preparation 


Drying & 

Finishing 


Products 

Figure 2.1. Process flow chart of the pulp and paper industry 

Chipper 


Waste paper 


Refining 



Raw Materials 



Straw etc.) 

Chipper 


Pulp Digester 

Crude Pulp 

Screening & 

Washing 



Chemical 


Thickening 




Stock 

Preparation 


Drying & 

Finishing 


Products 


Evaporator 



Sludge, 


Waste paper 


Refining 

Heat emission 

White water, 


Broke, etc. 


Broke, Coatings etc. 




to Combustion 

to Anaerobic 

Condensate treatment 

Gaseseous emission 

Effluent 

Fiber & ink 

sludge


It is estimated that the proportion of pulp produced in the world using these major processes 

are: 75% chemical pulp (mostly Kraft), 20% mechanical pulp, and the remaining 5% other 

pulps (RAO et al, 1995). 

2.1.1 Sulfite pulping process 

The fiber binding lignin is softened and dissolved to a considerable extent in a solution 

- 

containing dissolved SO2, hydrogensulfite (bisulfite) ion (HSO3 ), or sulfite ions, producing acid 

- 

sulfite or bisulfite chemical pulps. The HSO3 reacts in the digester with the phenolic group on 

the lignin, forming sulfonic acids. 

The yield varies from 45 to 65% depending on the cooking degree, usually the yield is about 

50% for standard non-bleached pulps. If the pulp is bleached, another 4 to 5% of the original 

wood may be lost in the process. This sulfite method is one of two major wood-pulping 

processes. The cellulose fiber obtained from the sulfite process is less strong compared to the 

Kraft process. 

2.1.2 Kraft (sulfate) pulping process 

The soda process has been largely replaced by the sulfate or (Kraft) process. This process 

includes not only NaOH, but also Na 2S in the cooking liquor. The presence of caustic soda in 

the cooking liquor makes this pulping process suitable for use with all wood species. Sodium 

sulfate plays a buffering role that allows digestion to be possible at lower pH, thus reducing 

damage to the fibers and producing pulp with high strength property. In water solution, the 

sulfide ion (S 2- ) hydrolyzes to form hydroxide ions (OH - ) and hydrogen sulfide ions (HS - ) 

according to the formula : 

S 2-- + H 2 O → HS - + OH - 

The initial high concentration of NaOH (hence OH - ions) forces the equilibrium to the left, 

according to Le Chatelier’s principle. The net result being that delignification occurs at a more 

steady rate and HS - can also react with the lignin to enhance its solubility. The residual liquor is 

very dark, and is called the “Black liquor”. The flowchart of Kraft or sulfate process is shown in 

Figure 2.2. 

As another alkaline pulping process, soda pulping process is used in which the cooking liquor is 

sodium hydroxide, obtained by adding a mixture of soda ash (Na 2CO 3) and lime [Ca(OH) 2] to 

the digester. The digestion phase is in operation for about 10 hours under high pressure and 

temperature. The digestion decomposes or separates the binding, non-cellulose materials such 

as lignin and resins, from the fibers and consequently, weakens them. This method is rarely 

used at present and has been largely replaced by the Kraft pulping process.


Wood Chios 

Water 

Pulp to Bleach 

Plant 

Evaporator 

Evaporator 

Condensates 

Digester 

Brownstack 

Washers 

Weak Black 

Liquor 

NaOH / 

Na 2 S 

Na 2 SO 4 + 

organics 

Strong 

Black Liquor 

Make-Up Caustic 

(NaOH) 

2.1.3 Semi-chemical pulping process 

White Liquor 

Storage 

White Liquor 

Clarifier 

Recovery 

Boiler 

Slaker and 

Caustizers 

Green Liquor 

Clarifier 

Smelt 

Lime 

Mud 

Washer 

Make- Up Saltcake ( Na 2 SO 4 ) 

Na 2 S / Na 2 CO 3 

Smelt 

Dissolving 

Tank 

Lime Mud 

Thickener 

Lime Kiln 

Figure 2.2. Kraft (sulfate) pulping process 

Weak Wash 

Water 

Dregs 

Washer 

In this process, hardwood and soft wood pulp is obtained by a series of chemical and 

mechanical wood treatments, none of which by itself is sufficient to make fibers separate 

readily. Unlike chemical pulping, this process enables more of the lignin and hemicellulose 

constituents of wood to be retained in the pulp and thus the pulp yield is often very high (about 

75-80%, based on dried wood). The process involves cooking of chips (hardwood) for 10-20 

minutes at a temperature of 175-185 0 C with an aqueous solution of sodium sulfite and sodium 

carbonate. The amount of pulping chemical required is about 9-19% Na 2CO 3 and 4-7% SO 2 per 

ton of dried wood. The pulp is defiberized mechanically in disc refiners and washed by a 

counter-current method on rotary drums (Kleppe and Rogers, 1970). 

Lime 

Stone


2.1.4 Mechanical pulping process 

Mechanical pulp is produced by grinding or shredding raw materials to free fibers. In addition, 

heat under pressure may be applied to assist the process. It consists of two principal physical 

methods of producing ground wood pulp. The older technology involves grinding the logs and 

stone grinding on large grind stones, whereas the modern technology employs chip refining or 

refined ground-wood. Bleaching may be done by adding a small amount of sodium peroxide 

and/or hydrogen sulfite. Mechanical pulping provides low grade pulps with high color and 

relatively short fibers, but produces a high yield, converting about 95% of the wood into pulp; 

minimal on-site air pollution is produced and relatively low water loads are generated 

(Anonymous 1981). The modern mechanical pulping process is illustrated in Figure 2.3. 

2.2 Chemical processing line 

Recovery of pulping chemicals is, in fact, limited to sodium and magnesium-based liquors, since 

calcium cannot be recovered economically and there is only limited experience on recovery of 

ammonia (Anonymous, 1982). In the chemical processing, high-efficiency recovery of chemicals 

is achieved. Maximum recovery of the chemicals may result in a relatively cleaner effluent in 

which chemical toxicants are no longer a significant factor as far as stream pollution is 

concerned. 

In the sulfite pulping process, magnesium bisulfite is recovered. Dissolved wood substances are 

99% in the weak black liquor obtained from cooking after pulp separation. This weak black 

liquor has about 13% of dry solids (DS). After evaporation, the weak black liquor is converted 

to a strong liquor containing about 45% of DS. The black liquor from the evaporation plant is 

led to the recovery boiler. This liquor is further evaporated in a cascade evaporator in the 

recovery boiler up to 60% total solids before being burnt in the boiler. Ash from gas cleaning 

consists mainly of magnesium oxide. It gets hydrolyzed to magnesium hydroxide which, in turn, 

is used for flue gas cleaning. Final product is magnesium bisulfite solution to which SO 2 and 

MgO are added for its reuse in the cooking process. 

The treatment of black liquor from Kraft mills involves evaporation and incineration in order to 

recover the chemicals and to utilize the heating value of the dissolved wood substance. During 

the recovery process, Na 2SO 4 (with or without added sulfur) is added to make up the relatively 

small proportion of chemicals lost in various steps of the process, and to form the green liquor. 

The chemical compounds in this green liquor are converted to desired cooking chemicals by the 

addition of lime so as to form the white liquor and a lime-mud consisting chiefly of CaCO 3. The 

white liquor is returned to the pulping operation as the cooking liquor. Lime mud is calcined to 

form CaO which is reused by converting other green liquor to white liquor. By-product 

recovery of turpentine, resin and fatty acids also aids in reducing the strength of Kraft pulp 

waste water.


Sewer 

Water 

White Water 

Tank 

Saveall 

Wood 

Grinder Room 

Storage 

Grinder 

Coarse Screen 

Fine Screen 

Centrifugal 

Cleaners 

Deckers 

Storage 



Paper 

2 % Consistency 

0.6 - 0.8 % Consistency 

Sewer 

Figure 2.3. Flow chart of the mechanical pulping process 

Refiners 

Water


Special Issues Related to Chemical Processing Line 

A. Chemical recovery of black liquor from rice straw pulping 

Rice straw contains 8-14 % of silica (SiO2). For chemical pulp produced from rice straw, about 

half of this silica gets dissolved in the black liquor. This causes problems in all stages of the 

chemical recovery process. 

For a pulp mill that depends on non-wood fiber, silica must be eliminated from black liquor to 

produce pulp economically and to meet environmental restrictions. The chemical recovery in 

this application is relatively new and there is only limited information and experience today. 

Following is an example of such a recovery method: 

Investigations on desilication of rice straw black liquor started in the 1970s and a pilot plant was 

started in 1985 (UNEP IE/PAC, 1992). In the proposed chemicals recovery and desilication 

process, black liquor coming from the washing unit is filtered in a drum-filter. The out-flowing 

black liquor is fed through a buffering tank to the four-effect evaporator plant. For low 

concentrations, evaporation takes place in three long-tube falling film evaporators. Higher 

concentrations are attained in a forced circulation evaporator, which pre-concentrates the black 

liquor to a DS content of between 8 and 14% - the optimum for effective desilication. The 

forced-circulation stage further concentrates the desilicated black liquor. 

Next, a stream of pre-concentrated black liquor is fed to a draft-tube reactor equipped with 

stirrer and foam breaker, where it is brought into intimate contact with a continuous stream of 

flue gas from the power station stack. Here, soluble sodium silicates are converted into sodium 

carbonate and largely insoluble SiO 2. This two-phase mixture is routed through an intermediate 

tank to a decanter which separates the precipitates from the clean liquor. For final clarification, 

the liquor is passed through a separator ,where the residual insoluble particles are removed. 

Subsequently, this desilicated black liquor is then burned in the conventional way. The optimum 

pH value is between 9 and 10. The corresponding specific flue gas rate at a CO 2 concentration 

of 6-8% is in the range of 50 to 150 m 3 gas (at NTP) per m 3 of black liquor. Irrespective of the 

silica content of the incoming black liquor, which typically is of the order of 1% (by weight), 

total silica contents of 0.05% by weight were attained downstream of the separator. The silica 

extracted from the black liquor, together with some alkali and organic matter, forms a sludge 

which is discharged from the decanter at a DS content of 30-40%, and burnt in a fuel-oil-fired 

incinerator. Elution of the alkali from the ash with water, followed by filtering and drying, yields 

almost white silica granulates, which can be used as a filler in paper making.


B. Use of black liquor as fertilizers 

Potassium fertilizer 

A potassium alkaline sulfite process can be used to produce the chemical pulp. The pulping 

black liquor as well as bleaching effluent of alkaline or neutral sulfite may be collected and 

evaporated to obtain a salable liquid fertilizer product, (UNEP IE/PAC, 1992). Solid 

organo-potassium fertilizer can also be prepared (ANONYMOUS , 1982). 

Ammonia fertilizer 

Another new process of ammonium bisulfite straw pulp has been popularized in many small 

size paper mills. By this process, its wastewater can be directly used for farm irrigation as 

ammonia fertilizer (WANG YANJIA, 1995). 

2.3 Fiber processing line 

The fiber processing line employs washing of the fibers and separation of contaminants from 

the raw fibers in a cascaded counter-current process to produce the concentrated pulp. The 

remaining liquid is called the weak black liquor. 

2.4 Bleaching of pulp 

Chemical pulping, especially the Kraft process, produces dark colored pulp owing to a number 

of factors, among which are: remaining lignin, wood components which make paper turn yellow 

and brittle, and resinous bark as well as knot particles which leave tiny dark spots on the paper. 

In order to obtain white and strong paper, these constituents should be removed further by 

bleaching operations. Bleaching is a successive process involving multiple steps (normally 4-6) 

consisting of several oxidation stages (one or two alkaline). It utilizes various chemical agents, 

such as chlorine, sodium hydroxide, sodium hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide. Sulfite pulp 

needs less bleaching agents than sulfate pulp. 

According to S DERGREN (1993), there are two types of bleaching sequences: conventional 

and modern bleaching processes (Figure 2.4). The conventional bleaching technique consists of 

six stages in which chlorine gas is the dominating delignifying agent whereas chlorine dioxide is 

used only in the final bleaching stage. The amount of chlorine in the first bleaching stage is 

about 50 to 70 kg per ton of pulp. The modern bleaching technique has been developed since 

the mid 1970’s in Sweden. It aims to avoid the discharge of chlorinated organic matter from the 

bleaching plant. In modern bleaching technology, oxygen delignification is used; the charge of 

chlorine in the first bleaching stage has gradually been reduced by the introduction of low 

multiple chlorination and by a gradual substitution of chlorine by chlorine dioxide to totally 

eliminate the use of elemental chlorine as the bleaching agent.


Figure 2.4 Scheme of conventional and modern bleaching sequence


2.5 Chemical Plant 

Many pulp and paper mills have their own chemical plants where caustic soda and chlorine are 

produced through electrolysis in diaphragm cells, and calcium hypochlorite is produced from 

lime, H 2O, and Cl 2. 

2.6 Manufacturing Process of Paper 

In this process the pulp is converted into paper. The first stage of paper making operation is the 

stock preparation. The fibers to be included in the stock are heated and mixed. Different 

chemicals and fillers such as aluminum sulfate, clay and starch are also added to the pulp stock 

for enhancement of certain properties of the paper or board. The stock is then pumped to the 

paper machine system where it is screened and finally brought to the paper-forming machine 

itself. In the paper machine, the pulp sheet is dewatered on a fine mesh wire, pressed in several 

roll presses and air-dried in a semi-heated pulp dryer section. The paper making process is 

illustrated in Figure 2.5. 

Figure 2.5 Overall paper making process


Recovery processes in the paper mill attempt to recover the washed out fibers and fillers. These 

processes are based on sedimentation and floatation principles. Conical or other sedimentation 

tanks are used to separate the suspended solid. Floatation devices are revolving, cylindrical, 

perforated screens or filters to remove the suspended solid in the form of a mat which is 

subsequently scraped off the drum and returned to the paper making stock system. 

The use of wastepaper as a raw material for paper production is being emphasized nowadays. 

This process requires the de-inking of the waste paper. The de-inking process has two main 

steps (the flotation process and the washing process) and employs various equipment, like pulp 

shredder, drum screen, high density cleaner, floatater (closed injection floatater, Sweetmark 

floatater, and Lamort floatater), pressurized screen and washer. 

When waste newsprint paper is stored for a short period, the ink carrier on the wastepaper is 

not sufficiently dried. However, it is absorbed by the fiber only. Under the action of chemical 

reagents and under conditions of suitable temperature and consistency, the carrier is saponified. 

The ink is dispersed easily and the pigment is also released easily. The pigment, which consists 

of carbon black, usually forms good particles under the treatment of pulp shredder. If waste 

paper has been stored for a long time, the ink carriers are solidified due to drying and aging. In 

this case, an increased quantity and density of de-inking chemical (such as NaOH) must be 

added and reaction temperature and reaction time should be increased so that the ink can be 

saponified. Shredding of the wastepaper and putting it in the de-inking chemical are done in 

high density pulp shredder, in which the waste newsprint paper is soaked, osmosed, absorbed 

and expanded by the solution of de-inking chemicals. The main chemicals used in de-inking 

process are NaOH and formic acid (HCOOH).

Energy Issues in the Pulp and Paper Industry 13 

3. ENERGY ISSUES IN PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY 

3.1 Typical Energy Consumption Patterns 

The primary energy sources used in the pulp and paper industry are thermal energy in the 

form of steam and mechanical energy converted from electricity. The thermal energy 

accounts for about 70-80% of the total primary energy and is mainly used in pulping and 

drying processes. The process steam is generated from waste raw materials, concentrated 

black liquor and other fuels such as coal, fuel oil and gas. In the pulp and paper mills, onsite 

electricity generation typically ranges from 0-60% of the total power consumption. 

The energy consumption of a pulp and paper mill depends on the raw materials used, type 

of pulping process and the degree and type of final products. The typical specific energy 

consumption values of different paper-making processes are shown in Figure 3.1. 

GJ/ton of Paper Products 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Acid Sulfite 

4% 

25% 

17.5% 

8.5% 

45% 

Kraft 

4% 

24.5% 

17% 

15.5% 

39% 

Semi- 

Chemical 

3.5% 

24% 

16.5% 

10.5% 

45.5% 

Groundwood 

3.5% 

25.5% 

17.5% 

3.5% 

50% 

Pulping Bleaching Paperforming Drying and finishing Others 

Thermomechanical 

Figure 3.1 Typical energy consumption of paper-making processes 

26.5% 

From Figure 3.1, it can be seen that the highest energy consumer in a pulp and paper mill is 

the pulping process. The average specific energy consumption of pulping process is low in 

industrialized countries because of the higher percentage of waste-paper pulp in total pulp 

produced. The specific energy consumption of waste-paper pulp is about 3 times less than 

that of wood pulp. 

3.5% 

18% 

4% 

48%


The average specific electricity consumption of pulp and paper industry is 1000-1300 kWh 

per ton of paper products. The percentage of total electrical power consumed in different 

stages of a typical paper manufacturing process is shown in Figure 3.2. 

11% 

22% 

13% 

12% 

2% 

Paperforming Pulping Chemical plant 

Boiler house Water treatment Others 

Figure 3.2 Breakdown of electricity consumption in an integrated mill 

The temperature level of process steam of a pulp and paper mill is normally below 200°C. 

The typical specific steam requirement is 8-12 tons per ton of paper products. The 

breakdown of process steam is given in Figure 3.3. 

5% 

21% 

33% 

Pulping Bleaching 

Hot watermaking Drying 

Others 

1% 

40% 

40% 

Figure 3.3 Breakdown of process steam in an integrated mill


3.2 Energy Efficient Measures 

As mentioned earlier, the overall energy requirement of a pulp and paper mill can be 

theoretically met by waste materials and concentrated black liquor. Therefore, the 

objectives of energy conservation measures in the pulp and paper industry are to reduce the 

purchased energy and to recover as much energy from the internal waste fuels as possible. 

3.2.1 Short term measures 

The immediate actions which can be taken without substantial investment to achieve a 

certain level of energy savings in pulp and paper industry are: 

- inspection to encourage conservation activity 

- excess air and flue gas temperature control 

- recovery of heat from boiler blowdown 

- proper insulation of steam lines 

- power factor improvement of electric motors 

- ensuring an efficient washing (to minimize the dilution of black liquor) 

- recovery of heat from extracted black liquor after cooking 

- recovery of heat from condensate of drying process (about 5% of fuel can be 

saved) 

3.2.2 Medium term measures 

The medium term measures include modifications in processes and materials, recovery of 

waste heat and self power generation with moderate to large investments. 

3.2.2.1 Measures on processed materials 

(i) Higher percentage of waste-paper pulp 

The recycling of more waste paper in pulping can lead to not only energy saving but also 

conservation of forest and environment. An increase in the percentage of waste-paper pulp 

by 10% can save about 6.5% of energy required for pulping process. 

(ii) Recovery of chemicals 

The amount of chemicals recovered in pulping process has an effect on the overall specific 

energy consumption of the pulp and paper industry. Although the chemical recovery rate is 

usually high in the larger mills (over 90%), that of medium and small mills are low, typically 

50-70%. Therefore, proper chemical recovery systems should be installed in the pulp and 

paper mills.


The recovery of chemical products by a membrane process, particularly using mineral 

membrane through ultrafiltration, can result in higher recovery rate and less pollution. 

Although the membrane process consumes electricity required by the pumps to pressurize 

the liquid and to circulate it, cogenerated electricity (elaborated later) can support the case 

for ultrafiltration. 

3.2.2.2 Self energy production 

(i) Cogeneration 

Cogeneration is a promising technology for better utilization of energy sources if process 

steam demand is high. Therefore, the pulp and paper industry has a high potential for 

application of cogeneration. For the high pressure steam systems (60-80 bar), it is possible 

to generate excess electricity by as much as 600 kWh per ton of paper, which could be sold 

to the grid. 

The generation of surplus electricity is of no interest to the industry if the regulation in the 

country does not permit the selling of this electricity to the grid. As a consequence of such 

a case, the upper limit is an electrical-match process: the maximum amount of electricity 

generated is the same as that needed by the factory. The pay-back period of cogeneration 

system is around 3-5 years. 

(ii) Methanogenesis 

The technology of methane generation from organic wastes through anaerobic digestion 

permits at the same time energy recovery and reduction in environmental pollution. The 

methanogenesis can compete with other waste treatment processes because of its potential 

for energy production. As an example, the anaerobic digestion process can produce energy 

of the order of 6.4 GJ per ton of paper and the pay-back period is about 4 years. 

3.2.2.3 Modifications in the sub-processes 

(i) Conversion of batch to continuous digester 

Up to 40% of steam consumption can be saved by converting the pulping process from 

batch to continuous. The continuous pulping can also offer steady recovery of heat from 

the outgoing materials of the digester. 

(ii) Mechanical vapor compression 

Large amounts of energy (in the form of steam) are required for concentration of black 

liquor from 10 to 60% before firing in a heat recovery boiler. This is achieved 

conventionally in a multi-effect evaporator where the vapors from last effect are finally 

condensed in a surface condenser. Energy thus transferred to cooling water cannot 

normally be put to useful purpose, especially in the hot tropical climate, due to its lower 

heat content.


The use of mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) is suitable for partial concentration (up 

to about 23%) of black liquor by replacing the first stages of multi-effect evaporators. The 

energy demand of black liquor concentration process can be reduced by 70-80% by 

practically replacing the direct distillation with MVR. The installation of MVR would be 

economically more attractive with the availability of cogenerated electricity. The pay-back 

period of MVR installation is site specific and varies from 1.5 to 6 years. 

(iii) Vacuum pump in paperforming 

The replacement of vacuum pump in paperforming can save about 25% of electricity 

consumed. 

(iv) Change in pressing 

The use of longer nips or hot press which is heated by waste streams can save the steam 

consumption of drying process by 15-20%. 

3.2.2.4 Waste heat recovery 

(i) Heat pump hot water system 

In the drying process, the water contained in the paper is evaporated and is normally 

rejected to the atmosphere. The energy content of evaporated water can be recovered by a 

heat pump to produce hot water for washing of the pulp. This system can save about 1.3 

MJ per ton of paper. 

(ii) Flash steam recovery in drying process 

The typical pressure of steam used in the drying process is 3-4 bar. The condensate coming 

from the dryers is returned to the condensate tank where some amount is flashed into the 

environment. The flash steam can be recovered for further use in the processes by one of 

the following systems: 

- absorption heat transformer (energy saved = 200 MJ/ton of paper) 

- vapor compression heat pump (energy saved = 600 MJ/ton of paper) 

- ejecto-compressor (energy saved = 600 MJ/ton of paper) 

3.2.3 Long term measures 

The long term measures include better site arrangement of the industry, excess power 

generation for the grid, adaptation of the new emerging processes and computerization of 

the manufacturing processes.


(i) Interconnected factories: sugar mills and pulp mills 

The sugar industry, due to its generation of bagasse, is a very important source of raw 

material for pulping. By employing cogeneration, a well-designed sugar plant is normally 

able to produce its electricity while a considerable amount of excess bagasse still remains. 

This bagasse can be burnt in order to produce electricity if its buy-back by the grid is 

permitted. But bagasse can be used for pulping too. The coupling of a paper mill and a 

sugar plant is therefore interesting. 

There are several modes of coupling the two plants. Some possibilities are: 

- The sugar plant produces its electricity and sells excess bagasse to the pulp plant. 

The latter produces electricity through cogeneration and combustion of black 

liquor. 

- Several sugar plants providing extra bagasse to one pulp plant; the sugar mills and 

the pulp mill are completely independent as far as energy use is concerned. 

- A pool is formed in order to manage the energy usage jointly by the sugar and 

pulp mills with any surplus electricity eventually sold back to the grid. 

This kind of management is very attractive from the point of view of appropriate use of 

raw material and energy, and regional development, but several constraints must be taken 

into account: 

- Seasonal working conditions of the sugar industry 

- Competition between the buy-back rate of electricity by the grid (if allowed) 

and the benefit of producing paper (with additional investment) 

- Technical problems related to pulping from bagasse, etc. 

(ii) Excess power generation 

The pulp and paper industry offers the practice of industrial cogeneration since the 

demand of process steam is high. Since decentralization of power sector is beneficial both 

at the macro and micro levels, excess power generation from the pulp and paper industry 

should be a long term objective for better utilization of energy sources. 

(iii) Adaptation of new emerging processes 

The pulp and paper industry is one of the most pollution producers in the industrial sector. 

New pulping processes are still emerging (mentioned in the following section) as clean 

technologies. Therefore adaptation of new emerging processes will enhance the integrated 

approach to energy and environment.


(iv) Computerization 

Like other industries, computer-control of processes in the pulp and paper industry can 

result in a better management of all the resources. The computerization will lead to the 

reduction in fuel cost, chemicals, electrical charge and personnel services, etc., and 

guarantee a better quality pulp. 

As an example, the pay-back period of the computer-controlled system in a Kraft pulp mill 

with a capacity of 300 tons of pulp per day was estimated as less than 6 years. 

3.3 New Energy Efficient Technologies for Papermaking 

Among the new emerging processes, ozonation, BG-TAG-LAMORT process and 

organocell process are the three most promising options. 

(i) Ozonation 

Ozone has a very high oxidizing and disinfecting power. Its use in water treatment is well 

established and is gradually increasing. The development of integrating an ozonizing stage 

into the bleaching sequences in the pulp and paper industry, however, is new and has been 

driven by environmental, economic and energy-related considerations. Energy requirement 

for ozone production has been consistently reduced during the last ten years. Only 10 

kWh is now needed for the production of 1 kg of ozone instead of the 20 kWh required in 

the past. 

Ozone is an oxide but it is a clean one. It can be used anytime there is a requirement of an 

oxidizer. Its uses for the pulp industry can be through at least three options: 

- by replacing chlorine as an environmentally safe bleaching agent in the chemical 

process. The reaction can be carried out at room temperature and atmospheric 

pressure; 1% of ozone increases the brightness of the pulp from 45 up to 75 ISO 

in a single stage. 

- by reacting with lignin in the thermomechanical process and modifying its 

structure. About 2% of ozone appears to be able to keep a high yield of the 

thermomechanical process (around 90%) providing a strength comparable to that 

of the chemical pulp. 

- in the pollution abatement process, a specific quality of ozone for oxidizing at 

different levels can be used for classical type of water treatment, but it can also 

contribute to help in rapid flocculation or the deterioration of microorganisms, 

for example.


An oxygen recycled process is also available, permitting considerable decrease in oxygen 

requirement. Oxygen process, however, requires to be carried out at high pressure and 

temperature. 

(ii) BG-TAG-LAMORT process 

One of the main sources of pollution of the pulp industry lies in the cooking process as it 

needs chemical agents and a large quantity of water. The BG-TAG-LAMORT process 

uses a dry cooker to avoid this problem. The raw material is soaked in a minimum amount 

of solution, so that the volume of black liquor is reduced and its concentration is high. The 

volume of water required can in fact be reduced 5 folds. The black liquor can be 

transferred directly to the furnace of a boiler for combustion. 

This process is particularly suitable for small and medium size production plants and is well 

suited for raw materials such as bagasse. A plant producing 60,000 t/year of pulp costs 

about 80 million US dollars. The process is based on a 50 t/day module. 

(iii) Organocell process 

The objective is the same as for the other processes: reducing the pollution as a result of 

the presence of sulfur in wastes. 

The organocell process extracts the lignin by alcohol, and sodium hydroxide. The 

advantage is a non-degradation of lignin. The interest lies in the possibility of using lignin 

for producing chemical products such as polymers and derivatives. This process can be 

seen in the light of a new biomass chemistry. The energy consumption is at the level of 

solvent regeneration. 

3.4 Concluding Remarks on Energy Issues 

The management practices to obtain better energy efficiency in the pulp and paper industry 

are illustrated in Figure 3.4. 

The regular energy conservation practices such as insulation maintenance of steam lines, 

excess air control, checking of steam leakage, etc., can save certain amount of energy 

consumption, since the pulp and paper industry consumes a large amount of steam. The 

temperature levels of processes are normally below 200°C. Therefore, application of 

thermal upgrading systems can offer significant energy savings, especially in the large mills. 

The higher recovery rate of chemicals and materials is also an important issue in the pulp 

and paper industry for the preservation of resources. Since the full utilization of internal 

energy sources is the major goal for higher energy efficiency, cogeneration and methane 

production would be beneficial both at the plant and macro levels.


Fuel 

(external + internal) 

Cogeneration 

Membrane 

Seperation 

Management Practices Benefits 

To 

Grid 

Thermal 

Upgrading 

Electricity 

Effluent 

Methane 

Production 

Ozonation 

- Rational use of 

energy sources 

- Energy recovery 

- Depollution 

- Fibre recovery 

- Water 

recycling 

- Depollution 

- Chemical saving 

- Energy recovery 

- Water saving 

- Depollution 

- Energy Saving 

Figure 3.4. Management practices for better energy efficiency


4. SOURCES OF POLLUTION AND ITS MANAGEMENT 

4.1 Sources and Characteristics of Pollutants 

The major environmental problems in the pulp and paper industry come from the 

production of pulp. Different methods are used for pulp production. The specific 

environmental effects vary depending upon the pulping process used. Mechanical pulping 

requires relatively small quantities of water for chipping and milling of the fibers and this 

water is only slightly polluted. On the other hand, chemical pulping requires large quantities 

of water and causes severe water pollution. The use of chemical pulping is, therefore, 

restricted to areas where a large receiving water body is available to absorb the 

contaminants remaining after the treatment of wastewater. 

Water-, air-, solid- and indirect pollutants are generated from the different processes. 

Suspended solids and dissolved organic substances (including lignin) that are not readily 

biodegradable are the major pollutants. Most air pollution problems are related to sulfur 

and sulfur dioxide and other sulfur compounds. 

4.1.1 Sources of wastewater generated 

The sources and characteristics of wastewater in the pulp and paper industry are as follows: 

(i) Chipping 

Wastewater from the chipping process contains coarse materials, i.e. barks and chips. 

(ii) Black liquor 

Black liquor is the wastewater from the digestion and the rinsing process. 

(iii) Evaporator condensate 

The condensate from the evaporator in the chemical recovery process contains odorous 

alkyl sulfides, which is treated by steam stripping before being transferred to the treatment 

plant. This wastewater is rich in acetate and methanol and is usually treated with other 

wastewater. 

(iv) Wastewater from bleaching 

The most problematic wastewater generated in bleached Kraft pulp (BKP) production is 

from the bleaching process, especially in the initial bleaching stages. It contains 

hard-biodegradable organics (such as lignin and hemicellulose), chlorinated organics and 

dioxin, and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) compounds. Furthermore, 

it is highly colored with brown substances. The effluents not only have negative impact on 

plant and animal life in the receiving areas, but are also “persistent”, i.e., they bio-degrade 

very slowly.

Sources of Pollution and its Management in the Pulp and Paper Industry 23 

(v) White water 

Wastewater from the paper making process contains fine fibers and other solids such as 

fillers. The excess white water after fiber recovery is treated by coagulation/flocculation 

process and is discharged to the treatment plant. 

4.1.2 Characteristics of wastewater generated 

The wastewater of pulp and paper effluents may contain dissolved organic compounds and 

chemicals used in the process, fibers, fillers and additives, color, bark, ash and lime sludge. 

The dissolved compounds originate in pulping process, suspended solids are present in 

effluents from practically all stages and parts of the industry. The suspended matter 

consists generally of fibers and bark residue, ash lime and clay. Dissolved organic 

substances include lignin, carbohydrates, organic acids and alcohol which, with the 

exception of lignin, are readily biodegradable. 

Conventional parameters to quantify the pollution load are biochemical oxygen demand 

(BOD 5), dry solids (DS) and pH. Toxic pollutants present are pentachlorophenol (PCP), 

trichlorophenol (TCP), zinc, chloroform, bleach plant derivatives, PCB-1 2 4 2, other 

pollutants, ammonia, color, resin, and acids. 

The effluent characteristics of different bleached Kraft pulp mills in Sweden and Finland 

are shown in Table 4.1. 

Table 4.1. Effluent from bleached Kraft pulp mills prior to external treatment 

Type of wood and Technology 

Soft wood 

BOD7 kg/t 

COD 

kg/t 

SS 

kg/t 

TOCl 

kg/t 

Technology in Finland & Sweden 1970 

Technology in Finland 1988 

Technology in Sweden 1988 

Hard wood 

55 

24 

19 

190 

85 

65 

15 

11 

8 

>6 

5 

3.5 

Technology in Finland & Sweden 1970 

Technology in Finland 1988 

Technology in Sweden 1988 

60 

25 

25 

180 

75 

75 

28 

12 

9 

4 

2.5 

2.5 

Source: Adapted from BONSOR et al, 1988 

The characteristic of de-inking wastewater from paper industry where waste paper is used 

as raw material is given in Table 4.2.


Table 4.2. Characteristics of de-inking wastewater from waste paper mill 

Country Flow rate 

m 3 TSS BOD COD Product 

/ t kg / t kg / t kg / t 

Philippine paper mill 26 10.0 5.0 Newsprint 

German paper mill 10.5 4.7 10.5 Carton 

German paper mill 4.2 5.9 13.4 Testliner paper 

Source: Adapted from C. T. Tupas, 1995 

Characteristics of combined effluent of pulp and paper mills, and distribution of pollution 

load from different sections of pulp and paper mills are shown in Table 4.3. 

Table 4.3. Characteristics of combined effluent of pulp and paper mills and 

distribution of pollution load from different sections of a mill 

Item Small mill 

Large mill 

(Sastry et al.) 

(Subrahmanyam et al.) 

Produces 20 tons of paper Produces 2000 tons of paper 

Flow per day 

Color 

pH 

Total solids, mg /l 

Suspended solids mg /l 

COD mg /l 

BOD mg /l 

COD/BOD ratio 

Flow % 

Small 

Large 

BOD % 

Small 

Large 

Suspended Solid % 

Small 

Large 

per day 

330 m 3 / t 

- 

8.2-8.5 

- 

900-2000 

4300-5780 

680-1250 

3.9-5 

Item Digester 

section 

45.5 

9.75 

66 

32.5 

60 

3 


section 

16.2 

27.8 

18.4 

32.5 

14.5 

1.35 

per day 

222 m 3 / t 

7800 units 

8.5-9.5 

4410 

3300 

716 

155 

4.6 

Paper mill 

section 

10.8 

16.7 

2 

1.43 

7.75 

3.4


4.1.3 Sources and characteristics of gaseous emissions 

Gaseous emissions of concern are the discharges of those components considered as air 

pollutants and odorous components. These pollutants of the pulping industry, especially 

from chemical pulping, are hydrogen sulfides, organic sulfide, SO x and NO x. 

The release of sulfur containing gases during Kraft digestion and burning of black liquor 

generates H 2S, a highly malodorous gas, SO 2, and various methyl derivatives such as methyl 

mercaptan (CH 3SH), dimethyl sulfide (CH 3) 2S, and dimethyl disulfide (CH 3-S-S-CH 3) . 

Odorous components as phenols and turpenes are liberated from all other pulping 

processes. 

4.1.4 Sources and characteristics of solid wastes 

The pulp and paper industry produces solid wastes which, depending on the pulping 

process and the chemical processing, consist of waste water sludge, ash, bark, woodwaste 

and paper. These wastes have high pollution potential and should be disposed of in 

controlled landfills to avoid leaching of the sub-soil. 

4.2 Current Pollution Abatement Strategies and Technologies 

4.2.1 Water pollution control 

Pulp and paper mill wastes are treated by the following processes: 

- Recovery processes. 

- Sedimentation and floatation to remove suspended matter. 

- Chemical precipitation to remove color and suspended and colloidal particulate 

matter. 

- Biological treatment to remove oxygen demanding matter/dissolved organic 

matter. 

The treatment of waste water may consist of all or a combination of some of these 

processes. 

(i) Recovery processes 

The recovery of the process chemicals and fibers reduces the pollution load to a great 

extent. Where the economy permits, the color bearing ‘black liquor’ is treated for the 

recovery of chemicals. However, in this process the lignin is destroyed. The lignin may be 

recovered from the black liquor by precipitation and by acidulation with either carbon 

dioxide or sulfuric acid. These recovered lignins have got various uses in other industries. 

The alkali lignins of Kraft process may be used as a dispersing agent in various 

suspensions. Lignins may be used as raw materials for various other substances, e.g. 

dimethyl sulfur oxide, which is used as spinning solvent for polyacrylonitrile fibers. 

Activated carbon may also be manufactured from the lignin recovered from black liquors.


The fibers in the white water from the paper mills are recovered either by sedimentation or 

by floatation using forced air in the tank. 

The recovery of lime from the lime mud can be achieved by the process of calcination. 

(ii) Chemical treatment for color removal 

The chemical coagulation for the removal of color is found to be uneconomical. Attempts 

have been made to recover color from the waste using the lime sludge; the results are not 

at all encouraging. “Massive Lime Treatment” process, developed by the National Council for 

Stream Improvement in the USA is said to be capable of removing about 90% of color and 

40 to 60% of BOD from the waste. In this process, the entire quantity of lime, normally 

required for the re-causticization of green liquor into white liquor, is allowed to react with 

the colored waste effluent first. The color is absorbed by the lime, and the sludge after 

settling is used in recausticizing the green liquor. The treatment of green liquor with 

colored lime sludge results in the formation of dark brown liquor, containing both desired 

cooking chemicals and color-producing components, like lignin. The lignin-bearing liquor 

is used as digested liquid, and then is destroyed along with the fresh lignins in the 

subsequent operations of concentration and incineration in the process of chemical 

recovery. 

In a study conducted by NEERI, it has been observed that acidic activated carbon can 

remove up to 94% of the color from the pulp mill waste. However, pH of the waste is 

required to be reduced to 3.0 before this activated carbon treatment. 

(iii) Physical treatment for clarification 

Mechanically cleaned circular clarifiers alone are capable of 70-80% removal of the 

suspended solids from the combined mill effluent. About 95 to 99% removal of settleable 

solids can be accomplished in the clarifiers. However, the BOD reduction is comparatively 

small and of the order of 25-40% only. A surface loading in the order of 30 to 31 

m 3 /m 2 /day is found to be adequate for up to 79% removal of suspended solids and 52% 

removal of COD at a detention time of 30 minutes. 

The primary sludge produced in the clarifiers can be thickened to such a consistency in the 

clarifier itself that it can be easily dewatered mechanically. 

(iv) Biological treatment of the waste 

Considerable reduction of BOD from the waste can be accomplished in both conventional 

and low cost biological treatment processes. Some are also effective in the reduction of 

color from the waste.


If sufficient area is available, the waste stabilization ponds offer the cheapest means for 

treatment. Depth of these ponds vary from 0.9 m to 1.5 m; the detention period may vary 

from 12 to 30 days. A minimum of 85% removal of BOD is achievable, with a loading rate 

of up to 56 kg/hectare/day. 

Aerated lagoons are the improved forms of the stabilization ponds. They can be adopted to 

upgrade the performance of already present quiescent stabilization ponds that have become 

inadequate because of the increased loading or more stringent receiving water criteria. The 

mechanical surface aerators are the most satisfactory oxygen transfer device. BOD 

reduction up to 50 to 95% can be achieved in the aerated lagoons by varying nutrients feed, 

air supply and detention time (3 to 20 days), at the loading range of 670 to 1340 kg of BOD 

per hectare per day. Aerated lagoons are employed, either when the effluent BOD is 

moderate (where a partial chemical recovery from the black liquor is practiced), or as a 

polishing device. In one particular case, a detention period of 5 days was found adequate 

for 90% BOD removal; the system rate constant was found to be 0.21/day. It may be 

noted that the pulp and paper mill waste does not contain necessary nutrients for the 

bacterial growth, and hence nitrogen and phosphorous are to be added into the lagoons in 

the form of urea or ammonia and phosphoric acid in a BOD:N:P ratio of 100:5:1. The 

nutrient addition is not necessary when a detention period of more than 10-15 days are 

provided. 

Segregated strong waste or combined wastes may be well treated in Anaerobic lagoons with 

nutrient supplement. A BOD loading of 0.048 kg/m 3 /day and a detention time of 20 days 

were found to be adequate for 72.5% removal of BOD in a particular case. In another case, 

77.5% removal of BOD was reported at a detention time of 6-8 days and a loading of 0.017 

kg of BOD/m 3 /day. Aerated lagoons may be employed after the anaerobic lagoons where 

a high effluent quality is required. The system rate constant in the aerated lagoons, 

preceded by the anaerobic lagoons may be taken as 0.15-0.17 per day. A detention period 

of 7 days in these aerated lagoons are adequate. 

Activated sludge process is the most satisfactory and sophisticated system for the effluent 

treatment. Instead of porous diffusers, the surface aerators are often suggested as the 

oxygen transfer device in the aeration tanks treating pulp and paper mill effluent. It is 

reported that about 80 to 90% BOD removal can be achieved with a loading rate of 0.2 to 

0.3 kg of BOD per kg of MLSS for a detention time of 3 to 9 hours, MLSS concentration 

of 2000-4000 mg/l, recirculation ratio of 0.3-0.5, and a nutrient supplement at the 

BOD:N:P ratio of 100:5:1. 

While designing the secondary settling tank in an activated sludge process, it should be 

borne in mind that a large portion of the fine fibers is not biodegradable and also does not 

settle easily. Flow diagram for the treatment of waste from a typical pulp mill is given in 

Figure 4.1.


Black 

Liquor 

Other 

Waste 

Lime 

Lime 

treatment 

Clarifier 

Calcium Hypochloride 

Grift Cham Clarifier 

Cooling 

Tower 

Nutrients 

BOD reduction 87% 

Detention Time 1.5 days 

Anaerobic 

Lagoon 

Stabilization 

Tank 

Aerated 

Lagoon 

Colour reduction=70% 

BOD reduction=40-50% 

Detention time=4 Hrs 

Detention Time 

= 3 Days 

Aerated 

Lagoon 

Figure 4.1 Flow diagram of wastewater treatment of a typical pulp mill 

Effluent 

Trickling filter has got a limited use in the treatment of the pulp and paper mill effluent, 

due to the greater chances of clogging of the media with fibrous material. Also the trickling 

filter system is not capable of providing a high degree of treatment even with the new 

plastic media. With greater specific surface area, the BOD removal is found to be only 40- 

50%. 

(vi) Land treatment method 

Some types of soil are capable of removing color from the waste. The waste is stored and 

allowed to be absorbed in such a soil. The capability of the soil in removing the color 

depends on the cation exchange capacity of the soil. In addition to cation exchange 

capacity, the soil should be sufficiently permeable to accept the entire volume of waste. 

(vii) Disposal of waste by irrigation 

The pulp mill effluent may be utilized for irrigation. No adverse effect on crops are 

reported for crops like maize, paddy, jowar and kenaf. Yields almost identical to those with 

conventional irrigation practices are reported for wheat and sugarcane (RAO & DATTA, 

1987).


4.2.2 Solid waste disposal 

Application of incineration furnace for heat/energy recovery from combustion of fibers, 

barks, wood residues, other organic materials and wastewater sludge is practiced today but 

still needs more attention. 

4.3 Possibilities for Application of Alternative Technologies for Pollution Control 

Since it is impossible to completely eliminate the waste coming out of the production 

process, it is always necessary to have some sort of end-of-the-pipe treatment to meet the 

stringent environmental discharge regulations. There have been numerous developments 

towards cleaner production opportunities in the industry. In this section some of the recent 

technological developments on both end-of-the-pipe treatment and production process 

modification as well as raw material changes for waste reduction are discussed. 

4.3.1 Anaerobic treatment of wastes 

In recent years, the trend in the industry has changed from resource-destroying aerobic to 

resource-conserving anaerobic wastewater treatment. By anaerobic treatment, a 

combination of energy-efficient wastewater purification and energy recovery in the form of 

biogas production can be achieved. Such a full-scale application of anaerobic process is 

widespread in the developed countries. Originally, conventional anaerobic treatment in an 

economic manner required highly concentrated wastewater. The development of anaerobic 

process-technology during recent years has drastically reduced this requirement. 

Pulp and paper industries discharge large quantities of fibers and different types of sludge. 

These wastes correspond to large quantities of energy consumed by the treatment and 

disposal process and large amounts of potential energy stored in the materials. Because of 

the savings in processing energy and the recovery of potential energy, the demand for using 

anaerobic treatment of these wastes has greatly increased. 

4.3.2 Membrane technology 

Several membrane processes (reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and ultrafiltration) have 

recently been developed to treat the wastewater. Electrodialysis procedures have been 

successfully used to treat bisulfite spent liquor generated in a sulfite pulping process. In 

electrodialysis process, an imposed electric current is used to cause selective movement of 

charged ions. A traditional electrodialysis system can be modified for this particular 

application by placing sulfurous acid (H 2SO 3) in several compartments and the spent liquor 

(containing large amounts of lignosulfonic acid sodium salt and small amounts of nonionizable 

sugars) in another set of compartments. The compartments and membranes are 

arranged such that the sodium and bisulfite ions combine in a third set of compartments, 

forming sodium bisulfite (NaHSO 3). This NaHSO 3 can be recycled as cooking liquor. In


addition, the remaining mixture of sugars and lignosulfonic acid can be sold as plywood 

adhesives. One difficulty with the process is high power requirement. 

The greater amount of dilute wastes, arising primarily from the washing of pulp for further 

lignin removal, also constitutes a serious waste problem. Typically, this wastewater may 

contain about 1% dissolved solids. These dilute streams can be treated by a combination of 

ultra-filtration followed by reverse osmosis, or by just the reverse osmosis step. The 

purified water can be returned to the system; the small-volume concentrated wastes can 

then be treated as digester wastes. 

4.3.3 Dissolved air floatation for fiber recovery 

This process is based on the fact that, addition of air to the waste stream could enhance the 

natural propensity of the fibers to float, thereby separating them from the water. Initially, 

polymeric flocculating agents are added, causing the suspended fibers to coagulate together 

into flocs. The stream is then mixed with water in which air has been dissolved under 

pressure. When the pressure is released, air comes out of solution as small bubbles which 

attach themselves to the flocs, bringing them to the surface from where they can be readily 

skimmed off. The success of the technology is due to: 

- its versatility and ease of operation. 

- the economic returns associated with fiber recovery. 

- substantially reduced residence times, which removes the possibility of any 

organic material becoming contaminated by microorganisms, and speedy recirculation, 

thereby limiting the loss of process heat. 

- levels of clarification superior to what can be achieved with traditional methods. 

4.3.4 Ozone bleaching 

The 5-stage bleaching sequence (CEDED process) is the most common and one of the 

most economical bleaching processes for the pulp. For each stage, the dissolved organics 

and the inorganic bleaching chemicals must be washed out of the pulp before entering the 

next stage. Although the amount of wash water and the resulting effluent could be 

minimized by reuse of the washings as wash water for the prior stage in a counter-current 

feedback fashion, eventually it is necessary to sewer all the washings for treatment in the 

plant’s effluent treatment system. The result is a high BOD, high COD, high color and 

highly chlorinated solution of organics, which are formed principally from the reaction of 

chlorine with pulp. 

The replacement manufacturing process is a 4-stage bleaching sequence, using oxygen with 

caustic as the bleaching agents in the first stage (O), followed by ozone treatment in the 

second stage (Z), caustic extraction augmented by oxygen in the third stage (EO), and a 

final chlorine dioxide stage (D). Since there is no use in the O, Z, or EO stages of 

chemicals that are incompatible with recycle and recovery in the mill’s existing pulping


liquor closed-cycle system, virtually all of the washings from these three stages are 

recovered without sewering. The only significant effluent from the bleach plant is the small 

amount of contaminated washings coming out of the final chlorine dioxide stage. This 

process is successfully used in the USA. 

Since essentially all the caustic used in the oxygen stage treatment of the OZ(EO)D 

bleaching is recovered and recycled back to the cooking liquor closed recycle system, one is 

able to use it as the caustic for the oxygen stage when caustic makeup is needed for the 

cooking liquor cycle, disposing of the cost for purchasing additional caustic. However, 

when no caustic make-up is required, one can oxidize with oxygen the product from the 

cooking liquor recycle (white liquor) and use the oxidized white liquor for the alkali 

requirement. This results in an extra load (regeneration load of about 5% more cooking 

liquor for the pine pulp) on the cooking liquor recycle equipment’s capacity. 

The recovery and recycle of organic and inorganic solids, purged in the bleach plant 

effluents, give about 7% more solids than normal for pine pulp production. While it is true 

that this is an extra use of recovery capacity, it also results in extra solids which may be 

used as fuel for producing steam in the recovery boiler. About 6% more steam per ton of 

pine pulp can be produced. 

4.3.5 Modified continuous cooking process (MCC) 

MCC adapts the principles of extended delignification to continuous pulping and rectifies 

the drawbacks of a conventional, continuous Kraft cook. The effective alkali concentration 

through the duration of cooking is evened out by decreasing it at the beginning of cooking 

and increasing it at the end. In a conventional cooking, the high bulk lignin concentration 

at the end hinders diffusion of dissolved lignin out of the chips, causing re-precipitation. 

The MCC process has been accomplished through the modification of 2-vessel Kamyr 

continuous digesters to allow both the introduction of white liquor at several points and 

counter-current flow of the liquor during the final cooking phase. Moreover, a 

nonchlorine fiber line which is used in the mill, consists of a digester for mediumconsistency 

cooking and a medium consistency oxygen-delignification stage, followed by an 

efficient post-oxygen washing stage with pressure diffuser and a wash press. Kappa 

number reductions of 8 units for softwood and 4 to 5 units for hardwood have been 

accomplished without loss of strength properties. About 20-25% less total active chlorine 

is needed to bleach the pulp to about 90% ISO brightness compared to the conventional 

Kraft pulp. 

The MCC fiber line can be regarded as one of the most advanced in the world today, 

meeting current and future requirements for the environment while still producing fully 

competitive pulp. It is possible to produce bleached pulp without using chlorine, achieving 

brightness even above 90% ISO, the level required for the most demanding market pulps.


4.3.6 DARS in soda pulping of bagasse 

The basic principle of the DARS process involves the production of sodium ferrite by 

auto-causticization of sodium carbonate with ferric oxide and subsequently to obtain 

sodium hydroxide by hydrolyzing the sodium ferrite. Silica is an undesirable element in all 

the spent liquors from pulping of agricultural residues. Extensive studies on the effect of 

silica impurity in the recovery loop revealed that only a minor proportion of silica passes 

into white liquor during ferrite auto-causticization process. This is an advantage of the 

process and, unlike conventional recovery, it may not be necessary to go for additional 

stages of desilication of spent liquor prior to recovery operation. 

Among the benefits of the process are operational flexibility, compact and simple 

operation, less space requirement, most economic use of fuel by way of minimized quantity 

of high cost fuels, non-requirement of a high degree of process automation. Unlike the 

smelt in conventional recovery, the combustion product is solid, so the process is safe. 

4.3.7 Dry forming of paper web 

The dry forming method can, in principle, be divided into the following phases: defibration 

of raw materials, forming, binder application, curing, and finishing. 

The main raw material, mostly wood pulp, is defiberized in a hammer mill. After this, the 

fibers are transported by means of a fan to the forming section. Each former consists of 

two perforated drums rotating inside the forming head. The fibers circulate horizontally 

between the drums. The accepted fiber material is formed onto the moving forming wire 

by suction. After forming, the web is led through heated compactor and embosser rolls. 

In the third phase, a binder solution is sprayed onto the web. The application is made 

separately on both sides of the web, each application being followed by thorough-drying. 

Full strength is achieved during the curing as the binder is cross-linked. The curing is also 

performed in a through-dryer. To improve the final properties, the web is led through a 

finishing calendar. 

In the dry forming process, the fresh water demand is only 0.8 liters per kilogram of 

produced material (air dry). It is totally used to dilute the binder. The dry forming process 

creates neither waste water nor effluent gases. 

Dry formed materials have unique absorption and wet strength properties. They are nonabrasive, 

soft, and feel like textile. The products are suitable for different kinds of toweling 

and wiping, in health-care, hygiene and for table settings. The process is non-polluting, 

there are no waste water problems, and the mill can be located either close to consumers in 

an urban location or near the sources of raw materials.


4.4 Concluding Remarks on Pollution Management 

The most significant environmental issue is the use of chlorine in bleaching. Industrial 

developments demonstrate that totally chlorine-free bleaching is feasible for many pulp and 

paper products, but it cannot produce certain grades of paper. Implementation of cleaner 

production process and pollution prevention measures can provide both economic and 

environmental benefits. Wherever feasible, use of a total wastewater recycling system along 

with a total chlorine-free pulp bleaching system is, therefore, recommended. As a 

minimum, total elemental chlorine-free pulp bleaching system may be employed. 

Sulfur oxide emissions are scrubbed with slightly alkaline solutions. Electrostatic 

precipitators are used to control the release of particulate matter to the atmosphere. 

Effluent treatment typically includes neutralization, primary treatment to remove 

suspended solids, and biological/secondary treatment to reduce BOD 5 and toxicity. 

Flocculation to assist in the removal of suspended solids is also sometimes necessary. 

Biological treatment systems, such as activated sludge and anaerobic treatment, can reduce 

BOD 5 by over 95 percent. Tertiary treatment may be performed to remove toxicity, color, 

and coliform. Solid waste treatment steps include de-watering and combustion in an 

incinerator, bark boiler, or a utility boiler along with fossil fuels. If a mechanical clarifier is 

used in primary treatment, the sludge is dewatered and may be incinerated; otherwise it is 

land filled. 

The uses of ozone for partial degradation of lignin, solvent, or dry cooking result from 

another consideration of how to achieve a “clean process”. The future of the pulp and 

paper industry rests with an objective of avoiding or reducing the waste instead of treating 

it. Therefore, the adoption of emerging clean technologies along with the computerization 

of processes will guarantee a cleaner and highly energy efficient pulp and paper industry in 

the future.


5. CROSS COUNTRY REPORT ON THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY 

5.1 Introduction 

The pulp and paper industry has been growing very rapidly in the developing countries. As an 

essential commodity for the society and the consumption of paper being normally parallel with the 

economic growth of a particular country, the production of paper products are expected to increase 

in the future, especially in the developing countries. The pulp and paper industry is capital, energy 

and pollution intensive; however, the profits from this industry are usually marginal. Therefore, 

many developing countries have avoided investment risks and have been importing the pulp and 

high quality paper products. Along with the rapid industrialization, the developing countries have 

been trying to increase their domestic productions to meet the higher share of national demands. 

Considering the competitiveness with the outside world, the energy consumption which is one of 

the major inputs to the pulp and paper industry has become an important issue in the developing 

countries. 

This section presents a comparative study of the pulp and paper industries of China, India, the 

Philippines and Sri Lanka. The production trends and the role of the industry are presented for each 

country. A comparison has been done in order to understand the major causes of inefficiency in 

energy use and pollution abatement in the industry. The possible improvements are identified and 

the potential for the introduction of energy efficient and environmentally sound technologies is 

assessed. 

5.2 Overview of the industry 

To have an overview of the pulp and paper industries of the countries under study, comparisons 

have been made on the role of the industry in each country, shares in industrial and total national 

energy consumption, production trends and number of mills and their capacities. 

5.2.1 Role in the national economy 

In 1993, the Chinese pulp and paper industry accounted for 1.54% of the total industrial sector’s 

gross output value. 

5.2.2 Share in total energy consumption 

In China, the pulp and paper industry is the largest energy consumer among all light industries. In 

1992, the energy consumption of Chinese pulp and paper industry accounted for 3.25% and 1.74% 

of total industrial and national energy consumptions, respectively. 

In India, the pulp and paper industry is ranked as the sixth largest energy consumer in the country.

Cross Country Comparison of the Pulp and Paper Industry35 

In 1992, the Philippines’ pulp and paper industry accounted for 8.45% of industrial sector’s energy 

consumption and 2.5% of total national energy consumption. 

5.2.3 Production trends 

Among the countries under this study, China ranked as the world’s third largest paper and paper 

board producer in 1992 after USA and Japan. The trends of pulp and paper and paper board 

productions are shown in Figure 5.1. 

Million Tons 

Thousand Tons 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

Pulp Production 

1980 1985 1990 1992 

China 

India 

Philippines' Paper & Paper Board Production 

0 

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 

Million Tons 

Thousand Tons 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

China 

India 

Paper & Paper Board Production 

1980 1985 1990 1992 

Sri Lankan Pulp and Paper & Paper Board Production 

Pulp 

Paper Products 

1980 1990 1992 

Figure 5.1 Production trends of pulp, paper & paper board 

The pulp and paper industry is growing very rapidly in China with an average growth rate in paper 

and paper board production of about 14% in the last decade, the highest value in the world. 

However, China is still importing pulp and paper products to meet the national demand. In 1992, 

net imported paper and paper board was 2.34 million tons and commercial pulp was 0.6 million 

tons. With low per capita consumption of 16.7 kg per year (world average per capital consumption is 

45.3 kg per year), the demand and production of paper products are expected to increase in China.


From Figure 5.1, it can be seen that Indian pulp and paper and paper board production had a 

significant increase in the last decade. The pulp production remained nearly constant from 1990 to 

1992 while the paper products had been increasing along with the increase in imported commercial 

pulp. 

In Philippines, the production of paper and paper board was greatly fluctuating in the last decade 

and has been achieving significant growth since 1985. Sri Lankan paper industry has become more 

dependent on the imported commercial pulp. 

5.2.4 Mills and their capacities 

The average plant capacity of the pulp and paper industries in the countries under study are shown 

in Figure 5.2. 

'000 Tons per year 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

2.5 

10.166 

China India Philippines Sri Lanka 

Figure 5.2 Average plant capacity (paper and paper board production) 

At the end of 1992, there were 11,940 enterprises in Chinese pulp and paper industry. The pulp and 

paper board capacity of the biggest mill is 150,000 tons per year. The breakdown of the Chinese mill 

by annual plant capacity is given in Figure 5.3. Therefore, the small mills dominate in China, 

contributing to about 57% of the total production. 

In India, there are 325 mills, 26 integrated mills and 297 small paper mills in the pulp and paper 

industry. The number of small mills has been increasing more rapidly than the large mills so that 

average plant capacity has decreased from 12,222 tons of paper products in 1980 to 10,166 tons in 

1992. With the increasing paper demand and shortage of forest based raw material, the Government 

of India has formulated a policy of promoting small mills based on straw and bagasse. 

15 

25.5


88% 

>30,000 10,000-30,000


5.3 Characteristics of the Parameters Affecting Energy Efficiency 

The specific energy consumption of the pulp and paper industry depends on the following: 

- Raw material mix 

- Share of imported pulp 

- Pulping process mix 

- Share of waste-paper pulp 

- Level of black liquor recovery 

- Share of cogenerated electricity 

- Product mix, etc. 

The overall specific energy consumption of the pulp and paper industries of the selected countries 

and world average are given in Figure 5.5. 

GJ/Ton of Paper Products 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

China India Philippines Japan World 

Average 

Figure 5.5 Specific energy consumption of the pulp and paper industry 

It can be seen that the specific energy consumption of Indian pulp and paper industry is significantly 

too high. In comparison with Japan, the Chinese pulp and paper industry consumes more than 

double the energy to produce the same amount of paper products. The low specific energy 

consumption of the industry in the Philippines is due to the high share of imported pulp. The trends 

of specific energy consumption in China and India are given in Figure 5.6. 

One can observe a gradual reduction of specific energy consumption of the order of 5.33% in China 

in the last decade. However, the specific energy consumption of Indian pulp and paper industry did 

not reduce significantly in the last decade; it has only started decreasing since 1990. 

In order to understand the major causes of the inefficiency in energy use, some parameters affecting 

the energy efficiency are compared in this section.


GJ/Ton of Paper Products 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

China 

India 

1980 1981 1984 1985 1990 1992 

Figure 5.6 Trends of specific energy consumption in China and India 

5.3.1 Raw material mix 

The major difference between the developing countries and the industrialized countries in raw 

material mix is the share of wood pulp in paper making. The share of wood pulp in national total is 

given in Figure 5.7. The higher the share of wood pulp, the lower is the overall specific energy 

consumption of the pulp and paper industry. 

In China, straw-material-made pulp holds a dominant share in the mix, accounting for 63% of the 

total pulp. In India, bamboo pulp accounted for 43.42% and bagasse and straw pulp together had a 

share of 33.38% of the total pulp produced. 

5.3.2 Level of waste paper utilization 

Greater level of waste paper utilization in pulping leads to resources conservation, energy saving and 

environmental protection. Developing countries however tend to use lower percentage of waste 

paper in comparison with the developed countries. The level of waste paper utilization is shown in 

Figure 5.8 for selected countries. This is found to be quite low in China and India, leading to the 

higher specific energy consumption of the industry. 

5.3.3 Energy consumption by type 

The breakdown of specific energy consumption by type is given in Table 5.1. The major steam 

consumers in the pulp and paper industry are digesters and dryers. It can be seen in this table that 

the specific steam consumption of Indian pulp and paper mills is too high, reflecting the inefficiency 

of digesters and dryers. The higher steam consumption in digesters is due to the non-wood pulping. 

The high electricity consumption can be reduced by replacing/modifying outdated paper-making 

machines which are the major electricity consumers.


% of Total Pulp 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

23.9 23.2 

47.63 

23.03 

95.1 

99.3 99.1 

China India Philippines Sri Lanka Japan US France 

Figure 5.7 Share of wood pulp in selected countries 

% of Total Pulp 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

22.5 

29 

51.2 

52.57 

China Philippines Japan 

* % of total installed capacity 

Figure 5.8 Level of waste paper utilization 

Table 5.1 Specific energy consumption by type 

China India Philippines Developed 

Countries 

Steam Consumption (Tons/ton paper) N/A 10-16 6-7 4-6.5 

Electricity Consumption (kWh/ton Paper) 1100-1800 1200-1700 1000-1100 500-1100 

5.3.4 

5.3.5 Awareness about energy conservation 

With increasing energy cost and international competitiveness, some energy conservation measures 

that have been undertaken in the selected countries are summarized in Table 5.2. 

50 

48


Table 5.2 Energy conservation measures undertaken in different countries 

Country Energy Conservation Measures 

China - Holding energy management training workshops 

- Improving efficiency of boilers and condensate recovery 

- Enhancing thermal insulation performance 

- Popularizing energy saving electrical appliances 

- Increasing level of chemicals recovery 

- Conversion of cylindrical to Fourdrinier paper machines 

- Conversion of batch to continuous digesters 

- Installation of on-line moisture monitoring and control systems 

- Installation of efficient press 

- Installation of jump-proof energy-saving pumps 

- Employment of heat pump in dryer section 

- Enhancing black liquor recovery 

- Installation of computer-controlled cooking 

- Practicing cogeneration 

India - Installation of condensate recovery systems 


- Conversion of cylindrical to Fourdrinier paper machines 

- Enhancing chemical recovery 

- Installation of falling film type evaporators 

- Employing process automation 

- Replacement of disc chippers by drum chippers 

- Conversion of pneumatic conveyors to mechanical types 

- Conversion of spreader stoker to fluidized bed combustion boilers 

Philippines - Installation of computerized moisture control system 

- Taking energy audits 

- Installation of cogeneration systems 

- Power factor improvements 

Therefore, it can be seen that some advanced energy efficient technologies have been already 

installed in the developing countries. However, the dissemination rate of these technologies is very 

limited in comparison with the industrialized countries. 

5.4 Characteristics of the parameters affecting pollution abatement measures 

There is great potential for resources recovery in this industry through pollution abatement 

measures. But less attention was paid in this direction mainly due to limited dissemination of those 

technologies and high capital share for the industry which is categorized as small scale in these 

developing countries. However, some local environmental regulations and public awareness due to 

growing industrialization in the region has forced the industries to introduce some pollution


abatement programs. The obsolete machinery and technologies generally in use in this region further 

weaken the already deteriorated environment. The type and quantity of pollutants produced vary 

from industry to industry depending on the process employed. 

5.4.1 Causes of pollution 

The causes of pollution from pulp and paper industries in the countries studied are attributed to the 

following: 

- Type of raw material in use (predominantly agro-residue based industry) 

- Type of fuel in use to meet energy demand 

- Obsolete technology and machinery in use 

- Lower production capacities of the mills, using inferior technical equipment 

- No strict enforcement of environmental regulations 

- thinking that it is an extra expenditure without any return 

- A marginal profit making industry 

As shown in the Figure 5.7, the share of wood pulp in the countries under study is about one fourth 

of the production except in the Philippines where it is nearly 50%. But in developed countries the 

share is almost 100% which implies that more research and development are under way to eliminate 

pollution problem by wood pulping. The agro-residue based raw materials cause more pollution 

problems than the wood. In India, China and Sri Lanka straw dominates the share of the raw 

material for pulping. Among all the non-woody raw materials, straw poses the most serious 

environmental pollution problem because of the difficulties in chemical recovery from black liquor 

due to its high silica content. The use of waste paper as raw material reduces both energy 

consumption and pollution problems. As seen in Figure 5.8 the utilization levels of waste paper in 

Sri Lanka and Philippines are the same as the industrialized countries (about 50% of the pulp 

production), whereas it is only 25% of total pulp production in India and China. 

5.4.2 Current water pollution control strategies 

As pulp and paper is a serious water polluting industry, some measures are under way to abate 

pollution problems whose potential for improvements is very high. Current practices to abate water 

pollution in these countries are reported as below. 

5.4.2.1 In China 

During the period of 1980 to 1988 

- BOD discharge decreased by 33% 

- Suspended solids decreased by 36% 

- Alkali recovery increase at the rate of 5.3% 

These reductions were achieved by 

- Integrated exploitation of digested wastewater


- White water recycling 

- Fiber recovery 

- Alkali recovery 

However those developments are mainly reported for the large and medium scale pulp and paper 

industries. In 1990, alkali recovery rate in the wood pulp mills is reported as more than 60% whereas 

the recovery rate in straw pulp mill is around 6%. This should be mainly because of the high silica 

content in the black liquor of rice straw for which there have been limited technological 

developments. 

In 1989 - 1990: 

- 13% of the total discharged wastewater met the local regulatory standards 

- for the first time a regulation was set up for wastewater disposal 

- no regulation related to air pollution existed 

- average alkali recovery percentage 34% 

- average alkali recovery rate in large scale enterprise was 80 -90% 

- average alkali recovery rate in medium scale enterprise was 75 - 80% 

- wastewater treated and recycling ratio was 30 - 50% 

5.4.2.2 In India 

- small mills generate more pollutants due to the absence of chemical recovery system 

- Production process control to reduce wastewater volume and pollutants 

- Wastewater treatment technologies to reduce the pollution strength 

- Use of oxygen and peroxide as bleaching agents 

- Chemical recovery 

During the period of 1985 to 1993 

- Alkali recovery per year increased from 285,000 to 455,000 tons 

- Wastewater treated and recycled per year increased from 1520 to 520 million m 3 

- Material recovery and recycling per year increased from 1,520,000 to 2,550,000 tons 

5.4.2.3 In Philippines 

- Most of the old mills only have filters for fiber recovery 

- Chemical recovery is practiced to certain extent 

In Sri Lanka, of the only two pulp and paper mills, one has no chemical recovery facilities. Though 

the second plant has the facility, it was never commissioned because of the higher silica content in 

the black liquor. As a remedial measure, raw material for pulping was changed to waste paper from 

rice straw.


5.4.3 Current air pollution control strategies 

The major sources of air pollution are burning of fuels for power generation and dedusting of raw 

materials. Since air pollution in this industry is not serious as water pollution, much less attention is 

paid in this area. To give an example, no air emission regulations were enacted in China until 1990. 

But in India, the air pollution act was enacted in 1981; cyclones and Electrostatic precipitators are 

mainly used as air pollution control equipment whose share of 20% in 1960 increased to 60% in 

1992. 

5.4.4 Current solid waste control strategies 

In all these countries, solid wastes generated from the process itself and secondary wastes derived 

from pollution control measures such as dust collection equipment and wastewater treatment, are 

dumped at landfill sites without any pretreatment. In some plants the solid waste which can be used 

as fuel is recycled to replace the boiler fuels. 

5.4.5 Comparison of effluent and emission characteristics 

In general, the information provided in the country reports are quite diverse and use different basis. 

As some of them are given for per ton production basis whereas others in ambient standards, it is 

not possible to make any comparison in some cases. For the purpose of comparison it is preferable 

to have the amount of pollutant released per ton of product than in ambient standards. It is mainly 

because the allowable limit of pollutant discharge to the surrounding in different countries depends 

on the geographical location, climatic condition and overall intensity of pollutants released from all 

other sources. 

A comparison of fresh water consumption, quantity and characteristics of wastewater with German 

standards is presented in Table 5.3. Even though a number of parameters are tabulated, most of 

them cannot be compared due to the limitation of data availability. Also, as seen from Table 5.3, no 

data are available for the Philippines and Sri Lanka, may be due to the minor share of these 

industries in their national economy. 

A similar comparison for air emission are shown in Table 5.4. As said earlier the comparison was 

not possible in most of the cases because of non-availability of data from any of the countries under 

study. It implies that none of the countries pays any attention to air pollution abatement.


Table 5.3 Quantity and characteristics of wastewater released 

Parameters 

Water consumption 

Germany * China India Philippine 

s 

Sri Lanka 

(ton/ton bleached pulp produced) 70 - 130 

(ton/ton paper produced) 

Wastewater discharged 

220 30 

(ton/ton bleached pulp produced) 7 - 12 

(ton/ton paper produced) 

PH 

70-380** 

Suspended solids (mg/l) 

Settleable solids (ml/l) 

DS (mg/l) 

50 151*** 10*** 

BOD5 (kg/ton pulp) 

5 

10-270 

(kg/ton paper) 

1-6 

COD (kg/ton pulp) 

70 

50-1100** 

(kg/ton paper) 

Oil and Grease (mg/l) 

Total N (mg/l) 

3-12 150 

5 

Wastewater reuse rate (%) 

Treatment rate of wastewater (%) 

Proportion reaching discharge 

standards (%) 

68.6 90-95 

Hydro carbons (kg/ton pulp) 1.0 

(kg/ton paper) 0.01-0.04 

* The German regulatory standard; BOD & COD based on 24 hour sample 

** Depending on the raw material; waste paper lowest & rice straw etc. high 

*** in kg/ton paper 

Table 5.4 Quantity and characteristics of air pollutants released 

Parameters German China* Indi Philippine 

y 

a s 

Dust discharged (TSP) (mg/m3) 30 260,000 

SO2 (mg/m3) 100 270,000 

NOx (mg/m3) 500 

CO (mg/m3) Organics (mg/m 

100 

3) 

Treatment rate of waste gas (%) 

Rate of treated waste gas discharged 

which meet standards (%) 

* in tons 

Sri 

Lanka


5.5 Potential for Energy Efficiency Improvement 

5.5.1 Structure of the industry 

One of the major reasons for the high specific energy consumption in China and India is the small 

scale of the mills. Taking macro economic consideration into account, the expansion of small mills 

based on non-wood materials might be suitable for some countries. In such a case, the expansion of 

small mills should be planned ensuring that they incorporate energy efficient technologies and 

chemical recovery systems. 

In the case of India, the capital utilization factor is too low, therefore, closure of inefficient small 

mills would improve the overall energy efficiency of the industry. 

Finally, the future expansion of the industry should be based on the large-scale mills so that 

cogeneration facilities and thermal upgrading systems can be employed economically. 

5.5.2 Raw materials 

The specific energy consumption of the pulp and paper industry can be reduced by increasing the 

share of wood pulp. However, this is a question of macro economics and the concern for the 

preservation of forest resources. The current level of waste paper recycling in the developing 

countries is lower than that in industrialized countries. Therefore, increasing the share of recycled 

paper could improve the overall energy efficiency of the industry. 

5.5.3 Potential for energy conservation 

The potential for major energy conservation in the countries under this study is summarized in 

Table 5.5. 

5.6 Potential for pollution abatement 

Use of non-wood raw materials are identified as one of the major source of pollutant in this region. 

Due to the economic level and availability of non-wood raw material in plenty, it is impossible to 

eliminate its use. Since in developed countries wood covers almost all the raw material requirements, 

the developing countries which use non-wood products as raw material must have their own 

research and development facilities to develop environmentally sound technologies. As a serious 

water polluting industry, its future expansion in this region should be well planned to abate pollution 

load on the environment. As seen earlier, the pollution abatement measures in these countries are in 

their infancy. So as a first step, records should be maintained about pollution loads and water 

consumption.


Table 5.5 Potential for energy conservation # 

Energy Conservation Measures China India Philippines Sri 

Lanka 

Short Term Measures 

- Management practices 

- Boiler efficiency improvement 

- Insulation improvement 

- Power factor improvement 

Medium Term Measures 

- Chemical recovery 

- Condensate recovery 

- Cogeneration 

- Methanogenesis 


- Mechanical vapor compression of black 

liquor 

- Vacuum pump installation 

- Installation of efficient press 

- Heat pump hot water system 

- Flash steam recovery in dryers 

- Process automation 

Long Term Measures 

- Interconnected factories (with sugar mills) 

- Excess power generation 

- Adaptation of new pulping processes 

- Computerization 

** 

**** 1 

*** 

*** 

*** 3 

*** 

*** 5 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 7 

**** 

**** 

**** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

*** 2 

**** 

**** 

**** 4 

**** 

**** 6 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 8 

**** 

**** 

*** 9 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

*** 

**** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

** 

**** 

*** 

**** 

# For each energy conservation measure, the relative scope of application is shown by the number of 

asterisks. For instance, the measure of connecting with sugar mills has a higher scope in India, where the 

share of bagasse-pulp is significant, than in China where straw-pulp is more important. 

**** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

- 

**** 

*** 

**** 

1 Most of the Chinese mills have boiler efficiencies below 60% 

2 Boiler efficiency in small mills is 50-60%, however, most of the medium and large mills 

employ fluidized boilers with an efficiency of 70-80% 

3 Alkali recovery rate in China was 36.66% of total consumption in 1988 

4 Nearly all agro-based paper mills have no chemical recovery system 

5 Almost all mills have cogeneration systems but they could meet only 10.5% of electricity 

demand 

6 Only 40% of Indian large mills have cogeneration facilities 

7 Dryness of wet paper from paper machine is about 30% in China 

8 Dryness of wet paper from paper machine is 35-38% (50% in developed countries) 

9 About 25% of Indian mills have installed electronic automation systems


The source reduction and waste minimization measures rather than end of pipe treatment not only 

lead to cost saving in waste treatment but also save the depleting natural resources. Recovering and 

recycling of fibers seems to be the most promising of all the measures. Larger the mill, lesser is the 

specific treatment cost, both in terms of capital as well as operation and maintenance costs. But due 

to the nature of the industry and availability of raw materials, it is difficult to control the growth of 

the small scale industries in this region. Therefore, the optimum level of mill capacity should be 

estimated on the basis of various considerations to plan the future expansion of the industry. 

The potentials for major pollution abatement options based on the available technologies are 

summarized in the Table 5.6. 

Table 5.6 Potentials for pollution abatement measures # 

Pollution Abatement Measures China India Philippines Sri Lanka 

Short Term Measures 

- Management practices 

- Good house keeping 

- Operating at optimized parameters 

- Full capacity utilization 

- Prevention of leakage, spills, overflows et. 

- Resource recovery and recycling 

- Improving water recycle utilization ratio (e.g. white 

water recycling for washing of pulp) 

- Implementation of environmental regulations 

strictly 

Medium Term Measures 

- Improved chemical recovery 

- Substitution for Chlorine with ozone, oxygen and 

hydrogen peroxide in bleaching 

- Increased rate of waste paper utilization 

- Removal of silica before evaporation process (for 

rice straw) 

- Efficient air pollution control equipment 

- Advance wastewater treatment 

Long Term Measures 

- Prohibiting new small scale mill development 

wherever possible 

- Process monitoring and control by expert system 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

*** 

***** 

**** **** **** **** 

# 

For each pollution abatement measure, the relative scope of application is shown by number of 

asterisks as in Table 5.5. 

**** 

**** 

**** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

*** 

**** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

**** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

*** 

**** 

**** 

**** 

***


5.7 Conclusion 

The energy saving potential in the pulp and paper industry for the European Community as a whole 

was estimated as 20-30% of the current energy consumed. Therefore, the potential of energy saving 

in the developing countries where outdated technologies dominate, could be substantially higher. 

Since the industry generates waste materials which can be used as fuel, self-power generation in 

cogeneration mode could be one of the most promising measures to improve the overall energy 

efficiency of the industry. Major energy savings could also accrue from the application of thermal 

upgrading systems. 

The pulp and paper industry is a favorable candidate for excess power generation and supply to the 

grid. Therefore, encouragement from the governmental institutions by means of regulations and 

incentives would not only improve the energy efficiency of the industry but also be economically 

beneficial to the country. To achieve better energy efficiency in the pulp and paper industry, the type 

of useful support the government institutions can extend are setting target for dissemination of each 

promising energy efficient technology, spreading knowledge about new technologies, organizing 

energy conferences and workshops, and encouraging research and development activities. 

Energy efficient and environmentally sound pulping processes have been mainly developed for 

wood pulp which currently accounts for 90% of the world’s pulp. Therefore, for countries like 

China and India where non-wood pulps dominate, it is necessary to carry out research work on 

energy efficient and environmentally sound pulping for non-wood materials. For countries where 

limited or no energy conservation measures have been undertaken, installation of measuring 

equipment in the processes and data acquisition could help to plan and take actions in improving 

energy efficiency and reducing pollution from the industry. 

As this industry is an important water polluter, serious consideration should be given to recycle and 

reuse the water within the plant as much as possible. Due to the chemical content of pulp washing 

water, it is toxic for aquatic lives; therefore improved chemical recovery methods should be 

practiced to recover as much chemicals as possible, which does not only reduce the pollution load 

but also the amount of chemical required for the process. Burning fuels for power generation and in 

the boilers is a source of air pollution. Any measure taken for energy efficiency improvement 

ultimately leads to reduction in air pollution loads.


6. PROFILE OF THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY IN SELECTED ASIAN 

COUNTRIES 

This section evaluates the current status and technological trajectory of the pulp and paper industry 

in four Asian countries, namely China, India, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. 

6.1 COUNTRY REPORT: CHINA 

6.1.1 Introduction 

The pulp and paper industry is one of the most energy-intensive and polluting industries in China. 

In 1993, it accounted for 9.8% of the total industrial waste water discharge and 38.2% of the total 

BOD discharge from the industrial sector. Serious environmental pollution becomes increasingly 

unacceptable as it harms the health of local residents and destroys the local ecology. The Chinese 

government has been trying to tighten environmental regulations in order to reduce the pollution 

level from paper mills. Implementation of these regulations, however, has encountered numerous 

difficulties due to the complexities of the industry. 

Low energy efficiency and high environmental pollution from the pulp and paper industry are not 

only caused by the backwardness of technological facilities, they are also consequences of the 

industry’s organization in terms of plant distribution and ownership. Problems in the industry 

should therefore by analyzed in a systematic manner to take into consideration various interactive 

factors that determine energy efficiency and environmental pollution. 

The objective of this section is to find out the determining factors and major causes of 

environmental pollution in the pulp and paper industry. In what follows, an analysis of the 

evolution of energy efficiency and environmental pollution in relation to its technological evolution 

is presented. Firstly, the technological trajectory of the pulp and paper industry is laid out, and 

secondly, an analysis of the evolution of energy efficiency and assessment of the environmental 

externalities is done. Then the potential for energy efficiency improvement and pollution 

abatement through technological changes is analyzed. Finally, the status of the application of new 

technologies is presented and some recommendations for further studies are proposed. 

6.1.1.1 Evolution of China’s pulp and paper industry 

It is well known that the ancient paper making technology was one of the four famous ancient 

inventions of China. It is also acknowledged that China's ancient paper making technology had 

played a great role in the global paper making industry, and in the progress and dissemination of 

human science and culture across countries in the history of human development.

Profile of the Pulp and Paper Industry in Selected Asian Countries 51 

The sole process used in the pulp and paper mills in China, however, was the simple manual 

operation method. Not until 1884, when Shanghai Huazhang Paper Mill was put into operation in 

East China, was the machine-made paper production technology introduced. The technology was 

invented in Europe in the year 1799. The country’s pulp and paper industry developed slowly due 

to various internal as well as external reasons. By 1949, the national machine-made paper and 

paperboard production was only 108 thousand tons compared to the manual production of 120 

thousand tons. 

Generally, the features of Old China's paper making industry can be summarized as follows: 

- From the point of view of paper making, manually operated paper production 

accounted for two thirds, while machine-made paper production accounted for only 

one-third of the total paper output. 

- From the point of view of paper consumption, domestic mechanical paper production 

met just less than one third of the national demand. The rest was met by imports. 

- As for the local distribution of the industry across China, mechanized paper making 

plants were found mainly in a few coastal provinces, while manually operated paper 

making mills were located mainly in several southern provinces abundant in bamboo 

resources. 

- As far as mechanical paper making technology is concerned, most key machine 

components needed for the industry were imported from abroad because of the severe 

lack of industrial infrastructure. 

6.1.1.2 Major achievements in China’s pulp and paper industry 

Since P.R. China was founded in 1949, a drastic change has occurred in its booming pulp and 

paper industry. By the year 1992, China's pulp production, paper & paperboard production and 

national paper & paperboard consumption ranked third in the world, after USA and Japan. 

China's current pulp and paper industry has developed since 1952, when its total mechanical paper 

& paperboard output was only 372,000 tons, to 17.25 million tons by the year 1992 with a 

consistent annual growth rate of 10%. Particularly during the last decade, the average growth of 

paper & paperboard production reached 14%, a high value in the history of world paper industry. 

Its gross output in 1993 reached 61.12 billion Yuan, or 1.54% of the total industry gross output 

value. Its net output of 15.1 billion Yuan accounted for 1.18% of the national industry value. 

Table 6.1.1 shows the contribution of China's pulp, paper & paperboard production to the world 

total. Table 6.1.2 gives the situation of paper production and consumption in the world and in the 

country as well.


Table 6.1.1 Status of China's mechanical pulp, paper & paperboard productions 

Year 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 

Share of pulp production in the 

world output, % 

4.5 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.68 5.91 

Ranked position worldwide 7 7 7 7 6 5 

Share of the world paper & 

paperboard production, % 

4.7 4.9 5.3 5.6 5.70 5.75 

Ranked position worldwide 

Sources: [1,2,3,10] 

6 5 4 4 4 4 

Table 6.1.2 Global paper industry production and consumption in 1990 

Item Number of 

Factories 

Production 

capacity 

(10 3 ton) 

Per capita 

consumption 

(kg) 

Superficial 

consumption 

(10 3 ton) 

Production 

(10 3 ton) 

(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) 

China 250* 176* 15500 11000 12.6 14429 9838 13719 9500 

World 4372 1352 266253 183503 44.8 237107 160577 238781 160649 

China’s share in 5.7 13 5.8 6.0 ~6.09 5.98 ~ 5.70 ~ 5.91 

the world (%) 

Notes: (1) Paper & paperboard; (2) Pulp 

6.13 5.75 

* The factories counted here refer only to those with a capacity of more than 30,000 

ton/year. 

Source: [10] 

Figures 6.1.1 and 6.1.2 show China's pulp, paper & paperboard production. 

Though a considerable achievement has been made in China's Pulp & Paper Industry since 1949, 

there still exists a strong impetus to boost China's pulp & paper industry to meet its immense 

market demand for paper consumption by more than 1.2 billion people. It can be seen from Table 

6.1.2 that the 1990 average paper & paperboard consumption per capita in China was still only a 

quarter of world average level. China's paper & paperboard consumption accounted only for 6% 

of the world’s total volume, while its population accounted for some 20% of the global 

population. In 1992, net imports of paper & paperboard reached 2.34 million tons, and imported 

commercial pulp also reached 600,000 ton to fill the gap between domestic production and 

demand. Self-sufficiency rate for paper demand has decreased recently in line with China's 

escalating economic development. It is predicted by other relevant research that China’s economy 

will maintain current aggressive growth trend in a foreseeable period. By the turn of the century, 

its growth rate will be maintained at 7-9%. According to a synchronous growth principle of paper 

& paperboard consumption with GDP, the growth rate of domestic paper demand will also be 

maintained at 7-9%. This means that the market demand for paper in 2000 will reach 331 million 

tons.


Production 10,000 tonne 

Production 10,000 tonne 

1800 

1600 

1400 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 

total 

manual 

mechanical 

0 

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 

Figure 6.1.1 Production of paper & paperboard in China since 1949 

1000 

900 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 

Figure 6.1.2 Machine-made pulp production in China since 1949


Though paper & paperboard consumption of China was at number 3 in the world in 1992, its 

average consumption per capita was only 16.7 kg per person, or less than one half of the world 

average value of 45.3 kg per person. If this indicator for China is to reach one half of the world 

average level by 2000, a production increment of more than 10 million tons from 1992's 17.25 

million tons will then be required. 

Considering therefore the impossibility of too much dependence on imports to meet the domestic 

paper market demand, China’s pulp and paper industry in the foreseeable future calls for a fast and 

sustainable development. 

6.1.2 Technological trajectory of China’s paper industry 

6.1.2.1 Pulp and paper production and development 

In 1949, machine-made paper output accounted only for 47% of total volume. By 1985, the share 

of mechanical paper to the total output rose to 97.9%. Manually operated paper production (less 

than 366,000 tons, the peak volume in 1932) is reserved for some special kinds of traditional 

papers such as the most famous Xuanzi. Figure 6.1.3 illustrates the evolution of China's mechanical 

paper making capability. 

Production Capacity million ton 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 

Figure 6.1.3 Production capacities of China's paper & paperboard


Before 1949, the types of mechanical papers were only several dozens, with some common kinds 

for printing, writing, packaging, etc. The key reason for this was the severe lack of mechanical 

manufacturing capability. Along with the rapid growth of mechanical pulp and paper production 

capacity, the number of types of various paper & paperboard has also increased to a great extent. 

Within the first five-year planning period, for instance, newly-added types of paper reached 79, 

including paper sack, condenser paper, blue print base paper, pictorial paper, fax paper, etc. By the 

end of 1985, the total number of paper & paperboard products in China increased to more than 

five hundred, a number which could meet all sectoral basic demands. The types of pulp also 

increased simultaneously with the increased demand for diverse kinds of paper products during the 

same period. The share of various paper & paperboard products in China in 1992 is shown in 

Table 6.1.3. 

Table 6.1.3 Composition of types of paper and paperboard in China in 1992 

Type Press & 

printing 

Writing 

paper 

Packin 

g paper 

Industrial 

paper 

Paperboard Living 

& 

other 

Share(%) 25 10.6 11 3.0 42 8.4 

The quality of the different paper & paperboard products has also been improving gradually. By 

1985, six products were honored as the State Golden Quality Products, 46 products as State Silver 

Quality Products and other 176 products as Light Industry Excellent Quality Products. For 

example, a paper for computer use made by the Shandong Paper Mill General, is regarded to be of 

good quality from all major technical performance indicators, and is reckoned to catch up with 

and/or exceed international levels of paper of the same kind. Another example is the Chinesemade 

toilet papers which held a 90% share of the market in the Hong Kong area in 1986. 

The much increased number of product types as well as the much improved quality of paper 

product embody the rise of the technical level in the Chinese paper industry. 

6.1.2.2 Development of pulp & paper enterprises 

In the context of China, pulp and paper mills can be classified into three categories in terms of 

their capacity of production: large mills with a capacity of more than 30,000 tons/year; medium 

size mills with a capacity of 10,000 to 30,000 tons/year; and small mills with a capacity of less then 

10,000 tons/year. 

In 1949, there were only little more than 100 mills across the country. By the end of 1992, 

however, the number of paper mills increased to more than 9,000 [13]. From Chinese statistics 

[11], the number of total enterprises was 11,940. The production of the biggest scale paper mill 

increased from 30,000 to more than 150,000 tons/year. Among them, 1665 paper mills belonged 

to the China Light Industry Commission (CLIC, i.e., the former Light Industry Ministry of China)


with an average enterprise scale of around 4700 tons/year. The other mills belonged to the 

agriculture, forest or rural township systems with an average enterprise scale of only 1842 

tons/year. Thus, the national average paper mill capacity was only about 2500 tons/year. In 

comparison, the average pulp mill capacity in some industrialized countries is 170,000 tons/year, 

with the average output being 61 thousand tons per unit paper and paperboard mill. The large 

number of dispersed paper making enterprises with smaller capacities is considered to be the main 

reason for bad scale-benefit, low management level, lagging behind technical level as well as severe 

environmental pollution. 

In most cases, China’s paper enterprises are integrated pulp and paper mills, while those which 

solely produce commercial pulp number a few. Only a minority of paper mills located in urban 

areas use commercial pulp or waste paper for production. 

88% 

large scale medium scale 

small scale 

2% 

10% 

57% 

28% 

large scale medium scale small scale 

Figure 6.1.4 Composition of paper mills and their contribution to the total production 

Not all paper enterprises belong to the China Light Industry Commission (CLIC) or the 

professional management ministry for light industrial products such as paper, sugar, glass, wine, 

etc. The agricultural sector (including rural township and reclamation systems), forest sector and 

military systems have their own paper mills. In township paper mills, the dominant process is 

either the lime-based yellow strawboard production or packaging-paper production by recovery of 

waste paper. Most mills belonging to the forest system mainly use timber materials to produce 

unbleached pulp and/or paperboard. Those belonging to the agricultural reclamation and military 

systems are usually straw-based integrated mills. This complex mix creates a barrier for the 

professional management of the pulp and paper industry. 

15%


6.1.2.3 Technological progress in China’s pulp and paper industry 

a. Technological events 

In the course of the paper industry’s technological development, two aspects were equally focused 

and combined. One, it deeply depended on domestic R&D capability and diffusion of domestic 

advanced experiences and technologies. Second, much efforts were placed on introducing foreign 

advanced technologies and equipment as well as learning and digesting internationally advanced 

expertise. Some important milestones in the progress of the paper making technology in China can 

be briefly depicted as follows: 

- During the 1950s, a series of Fourdrinier paper machines and auxiliary facilities, each 

with a capacity of 50 tons/day, were designed and manufactured by domestic R&D 

experts for some key expansion projects. 

- In 1957, the first ejection furnace made in China for alkali recovery was installed in 

Jiamusi Paper Mill. 

- In the meantime, some large capacity paper making machines of 100, 150, or 200 

tons/day capacity were imported. Log-milling machines of international standards were 

also imported. 

- Around 1970, some key imported foreign equipment included continuous digester of 

straw pulp, pressurized pulp bleaching machines, ejection furnaces for alkali recovery, 

150 tons/day heat wood-chip milling machines, etc. 

- Some domestically developed technologies, such as on-line moisture control system, 

paper fold-pressing technology & mill pulp making were popularized in national paper 

mills. 

- Alkali recovery capability from pulp making black liquor increased from a trifle in 1957 

to 362,200 ton/year in 1988 or 36.66% of the total alkali consumption for the year. In 

Qingzhou Paper Mill, Nanping Paper Mill and Jiamusi Paper Mill, production-needed 

alkali can approximately be provided by their alkali recovery systems. Electrostatic 

precipitators were also disseminated to large and medium size paper mills, which proved 

beneficial both for alkali recovery and for dust prevention. Figure 6.1.5 illustrates the 

growth curve of alkali recovery from 1979. 

- The capability of integrated exploitation of sulfite pulp wastewater for production of 

some by-products was also boosted


- Since 1968, the new process of utilizing ammonium bisulfite straw pulp has been 

popularized in many small paper mills in Shandong, Sichuan and other provinces. Using 

this process, wastewater can be directly used for farm irrigation. 

- Since 1978, new systems for loop or cycle utilization of clean water in paper mills were 

created, e.g. tilt-plate precipitating method in Tianjing Paper Mill, tilt-tube precipitating 

method in Shanghai Vanguard Paper Mill, and air buoyancy method in Suzhou Huashen 

Paper Mill. 

1000 ton 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

Capacity 

Production 

0 

1979 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 

Year 

Figure 6.1.5 Growth curves of alkali recovery from 1979 to 1988 

b. Technological advances with imported foreign technologies, facilities and equipment 

Since the early 1980s, the scale of technology import has been increasing step by step so as to 

narrow the technical gap between the paper industry of China and the developed countries. From 

1980 to 1988, about US$ 300 million had been spent to update the pulp and papermaking 

technologies and equipment in the country. It is also estimated that more than US$ 1 billion had 

been spent for importing technologies and equipment from 1989 to 1995. The technology 

processes adopted together with the import of equipment are listed below: 

- Technological transformation, upgrading and/or overhauling in some state-owned key 

enterprises: 150 t/d paper machine transformation at the Qinzhou Paper Mill, combined 

with the installation of advanced equipment from Beloit Corp. (the project proved to be 

very successful and brought about 50% increment in production capacity, better quality 

of paper sack product and new type of elastic paper sack); 200 t/d paper machine 

transformation at the Jiamusi Paper Mill; 100 t/d paper machine transformations at the


Yueyang and Liujiang Paper Mills; and Nanpin No. 1 paper machine transformations 

which was a typical case of optimum adoption of imported equipment to match with the 

local situation. 

- Installation of new and advanced technology and equipment, including exhausted heat 

recovery equipment from Sweden for a 150 t/d TMP production line at Jilin Pulp & 

Paper Mill, enabling it to produce CTMP and make newsprint paper; 60 t/d 

sulfofication CMP line imported from Finland at the Shiyan Pulp and Paper Mill; 

horizontal continuous digesters of Sunds Defibration Corp. of Sweden installed at 

Jiaozuo, Dezhou, Fuzhou and Jihe, etc.; the first set of Swedish Kamyr’s Vertical 

Continuous Digester installed at Yibin Paper Mill; plank-style membrane vaporizer and 

concentrator from Finland Ahlstrom Corp. installed at the Jiamusi and Liujiang paper 

mills; white silt kiln imported from the same corporation for Jilin Paper Mill; horizontal 

belt-style vacuum washer for spent sulfite liquor (so-called red liquor) from English 

Black Clawson Corp. installed at Kaisan Pulp Mill and Guangzhou Paper Mill; de-inking 

equipment of the same corporation at Beijing’s No. 1 Paper Mill; nearly 50 sets of 

constant moisture-control systems for paper making from Measurex Corp. and Accupay 

Corp. of USA and Lippka Corp. of Germany, etc., which can stabilize paper moisture 

and paper mass; coated paper machine and coating material process line imported from 

France and Germany at Shanghai Jiangnan Pulp & Paper Mill. Besides the abovementioned 

state-of-art technological equipment from the industrialized countries, a 

number of second-hand paper machines and paperboard machines were also purchased 

at costs of about one fifth to one tenth that of the brand-new ones. 

c. Recent developments in the domestic production process and equipment 

Some dominant home-developed technological advances since 1990 include: 

- Large-size alkali recovery furnaces with capacities of 200 and 300 t/d have been built at 

Jiamusi and Jilin paper mills, respectively. Furthermore, a set of alkali recovery furnace 

with the biggest pulp-dealing capacity of 1000 t/d was exported to Indonesia. 

- Small-size whole system equipment of 30 t/d CTMP capacity has been successfully 

manufactured in Shanghai and put into operation in Fujian Province. 

- Several sets of locally made horizontal-tube continuous digester of 50 t/d straw pulp 

making capacity have been made and put into operation in China, after importing and 

adapting relative technologies from Swedish Sunds Corp. 

- New jam-proof energy-saving pump for pulp transport was designed successfully with an 

energy conservation benefit of 20% compared to conventional pumps. These pumps


were installed at a dozen paper mills, proving additional compact, low-noise and little 

oscillation features. 

- Locally made new vacuum pulp washers with 35 m 2 area were used at some newly built 

paper projects. 

- As an advancement in the black liquor vaporization system, a whole set of plate-style 

membrane vaporizer systems (with 50% higher efficiency than the old ones and bigger 

load) have been commissioned at the Qinzhou Pulp & Paper Mill. 

- Small-size domestic-made waste paper disposing and de-inking systems have been put 

into operation at Xingshi Paper Mill. 

- High intensity press and polyester dry net for replacement of conventional dry canvas in 

the process of papermaking. 

- Heat pump systems for the paper machine’s dryer section were used at Minfen Pulp & 

Paper Group, Tianjing Paper Mill and Qiqihar Pulp & Paper Mill. Their operations 

showed that specific steam consumptions per ton of paper were reduced by 29.4%, 

28.3% and 36.6%, respectively. The heat pump-based technology can substitute 

conventional two- or three-stage cascade system, making full use of steam thermal 

energy and available energy to remove condensate smoothly. 

During the last four decades, China’s researchers in the paper field have made many more 

achievements, including the development of new types of raw materials for pulp making, 

development of new types of paper & paperboard, retrofitting or improvement of pulping 

processes, R&D for some key equipment, integrated utilization of digested wastewater, 

development and utilization of emulsion materials, filling materials and other chemical agents in 

the paper producing processes, as well as some basic academic researches in universities and 

research institutes. As for wastewater pollution abatement, eight key achievements have also been 

made concerning chemical agents recovery, sulfite pulping wastewater integrated exploitation, biochemical 

treatment of pulping wastewater, etc. 

6.1.2.4 Two prominent technological characteristics 

In the mixes of pulp production, there exists an eminent characteristic for China's paper industry, 

i.e., straw-material-made pulp holds a dominant share in the mix (grass-straw pulp 63%), while 

wood pulp accounted for as low as 26% in the mix. It is well known that using wood as a pulping 

raw material is better than using straw from the point of view of pulp production efficiency, 

environmental protection, or from wood material's economical utilization. At present, wood 

material accounts for more than 90% of the global pulp production.


Another problem existing in China’s paper industry is the very low level of waste paper recycling. 

In 1988, waste-paper pulp (including imported waste paper) accounted for 22.5% only, while the 

same indicators for Japan and European Union were 50% and 48%, respectively. A higher 

percentage of waste paper pulp in the total pulp production is beneficial for resource conservation, 

energy savings and environmental protection. 

Generally, China’s pulp & paper industry has made a great technological achievement, though 

some problems should be solved when facing the next century. 

6.1.3 Evolution of energy efficiency in Chinese pulp & paper industry 

6.1.3.1 General situation of energy consumption 

The pulp & paper industry of China is the biggest energy consuming industry among all light 

industries. Table 6.1.4 shows the overall energy consumption of the industry, while Table 6.1.5 

and Figure 6.1.6 show the unit energy consumption of its major products. Table 6.1.6 shows the 

unit energy consumption for 870 paper mills belonging to the CLIC from 1985 to 1990. 

Table 6.1.4 Overall energy consumption by the industry from 1985 to 1992 

Indicator Coal 

Electricity 

Total 

10,000 ton billion kWh 10,000 toe 

Year 1985 1990 1992 1985 1990 1992 1985 1990 1992 

Data 

Share in 

1251 1640 1787 8.09 11.98 13.97 847.5 1109 1240 

national total 

% 

Source: [11] 

1.53 1.55 1.57 1.96 1.92 1.84 1.69 2.13 1.74 

Table 6.1.5 Unit product energy consumption in the paper industry 

Item Unit 1980 1985 1988 1989 1990 

Electricity consumption for wood KWh/to 1522 1588 1560 1566 

pulp 

n 

SOE consumption for total pulp toe/ton 0.419 0.406 0.445 

Electricity for newsprint KWh/to 

n 

556 565 568 583 

SOE for paper & paperboard toe/ton 0.99 0.60 0.57 

Integrated energy consumption toe/ton 1.257 0.910 0.805 

Source: [6,12], both SOE and oe are standard oil equivalent


Table 6.1.6 Specific energy consumption of major products for 870 paper mills of CLIC 

Indicator Unit 1985 1988 1989 1990 

Integrated 

consumption 

specific energy toe/t 1.07 1.01 1.01 

Mechanical wood pulp kWh/t 1522 1588 1560 1566 

Newsprint 

Source: [1, 3] 

kWh/t 556 565 568 583 

Though integrated unit energy consumption has decreased in recent years, the unit electricity 

consumption for mechanical wood pulp and newsprint increased on the contrary. 

For the same paper & paperboard products, specific energy consumption values of non-CLIC 

paper mills are generally higher than that of CLIC ones, except for the township case. The reason 

for the very low specific energy consumption of the latter is the low quality of its products and the 

simple, crude equipment being employed. Table 6.1.7 gives a comparison of the unit energy 

consumption of paper mills among various sectors. 

ton ce/ton(paper & paperboard) 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

1981 1984 1985 

Year 

1990 1992 

Figure 6.1.6 Integrated energy consumption of the paper industry in China 

Table 6.1.7 Specific energy consumption by various owners (1990) 

Item National CLIC Agricultural system Forest Military 

total Reclamation Township system system 

Production, Mt 13.72 7.71 0.38 5.23 0.10 0.30 

Energy consumption (103 toe) 

Specific energy consumption 

11086 7330 377 2982 99 299 

of paper & paper board, toe/t 

Source: [1] 

0.805 0.949 0.995 0.569 0.995 0.995


From 1985 to 1990, energy consumption per 10,000 Yuan gross output volume (in 1980 fixed 

price) of paper industry within CLIC system decreased from 3.93 toe/10,000 Yuan to 3.01 

toe/10,000 Yuan. The energy consumption elasticity was 0.28, and the annual average energy 

saving rate was 5.33% during the period. It should be noted that the decrease of energy 

consumption cannot be fully attributed to direct energy conservation via technology or process 

advances. Two aspects can be highlighted for the decrease. One is the change in product mix and 

the emergence of new high value-added paper products. The other is the change in raw material 

mix, i.e., growth of imported commercial pulp and waste paper as secondary fibrous raw material. 

These two factors enable the paper industry to augment its production and output without any 

proportional increase in energy demand. 

6.1.3.2 Major endeavors for the progress in energy efficiency 

From the above tables and Figure 6.1.6, it can be seen that the integrated energy consumption 

indicator decreased by 42.7% from 1981 to 1992 with an average annual reduction rate of 5.2%. 

Therefore, much energy conservation was obtained throughout this period. The main causes can 

be attributed to the following: 

- Enhancement of enterprise energy management from all aspects including setting up a 

national energy conservation network, holding energy management/saving training 

workshops, issuing rated energy consumption norms for special paper products in 

August 1985 (four grades for a paper product: Testing Norm, Average Advanced Norm, 

Domestic Professional Advanced Norm and International Advanced Norm). 

- Retrofitting some old and low efficiency boilers, remolding a batch of oil-fired boilers 

into coal-fired boilers (under the stringent oil energy supply situation) and improving 

technical skills of operators. 

- Enhancement of thermal insulating performance of steam tubes and digester equipment. 

- Popularizing and disseminating some energy saving equipment such as Electric Loci 

Vacuum Fans, Pan mills and double-paned mills, speed-adjustable electrical fans, 

electricity-saving appliances, etc.. 

- By 1991, more than sixty large scale pulp & paper mill cogeneration plants were installed 

with a total power capacity of 473 MW. Of these, 422 MW capacity belonged to thirty 

key enterprises. For comparison, cogeneration capacity in 1949 was only 10 MW. In 

1990, power generation by cogeneration plants amounted to 1.65 billion kWh. At the 

same time, newly-built large and/or medium scale paper mills had their own 

cogeneration plants [5].


- A number of technological transformations for paper making machine parts had been 

implemented, including white liquor recovery, dryer condensate recovery, three-stage 

steam feed, etc.. 

- Minicomputer-based systems had been primarily used for the cooking process and 

automation control for constant moisture content of paper in the paper making process. 

- Since 1980, much efforts have been made to popularize and disseminate energy-saving 

spray nozzles as well as white liquor circulation recovery. This has led to the decrease in 

specific water consumption in the paper making process. For example, utilization of a 

fan-pattern spray nozzle can bring about water savings of 18-20%. Adoption of white 

liquor circulating loop can enable specific water consumption to decrease from 200-300 

m 3 to 50 m 3 of water per ton of paper. 

6.1.3.3 Comparison of the energy consumption of Chinese pulp & paper industry with 

other countries 

The overall energy consumption level in China’s pulp and paper industry is much higher when 

compared to its foreign counterparts in spite of the above achievements in energy conservation 

during the last years. 

As for the integrated unit energy consumption of paper & paperboard product, the indicator in the 

United States had decreased to 1.17 tce/ton of paper and paperboard (0.766 toe/t) as early as the 

mid-70s[12], which means that China's energy level lags some 20 years behind that of the USA. 

By the end of the 1970s, the same indicator in industrialized countries generally went down to the 

level of 1.15 - 1.22 tce/t (0.753-0.798 toe/t), which was only 64% or even less than China's value at 

the same time.[12] In 1989, integrated energy consumption for Japanese pulp & paper industry 

was 14.5 GJ/ton* or 0.495 tce/ton (0.324 toe/t), which was only 40% that of China. A 

comparison of the unit energy consumption of China and some developed countries, and the 

world average level are shown in Figure 6.1.7 and Table 6.1.8. 

* 1 tce = 0.654 toe = 29.31 GJ and 1 toe = 44.76 GJ


ton ce/ton(paper & paperboard) 

1.4 

1.2 

1 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0 

Advanced in 

NorthEurope 

Australia England 

newsprint Newsprint newsprit (low 

(low limit) 

limit) 

England 

newsprint 

(up limit) 

USA 

newsprint 

Japan P.R.China 

Figure 6.1.7 Comparison of integrated energy consumption among various countries 

Table 6.1.8 Domestic and international integrated product energy consumption 

Minimum energy 

consumption 

toe/t 

Maximum energy 

consumption toe/t 

Average level 

toe/t 

China 0.818 1.113 1.010 

World 0.330 0.779 0.556 

6.1.3.4 Main reasons for the low efficiency energy situation in the paper industry 

There are many complex reasons for the low energy efficiency in China. The most prominent 

among them are identified as follows. 

First, there are more than 10,000 paper enterprises, most of which are small in size (with an 

average per enterprise scale of 2550 ton/year), owned by diverse sectors and township industries. 

Most of these small paper mills use straw as raw material without any recovery of either valuable 

chemicals or thermal energy. Such small scale pulp and paper mills are reputed not to be adopting 

alkali recovery processes, cogeneration, as well as other high-energy, high efficiency technologies. 

These mills are also not easily monitored for their energy consumption due to the severe lack of 

technical strength. Moreover, many entrepreneurs do not care about their factories' energy 

efficiency for some complex reasons.


Second, with regard to large size paper mills, there still exists a big gap between the most energy 

efficient enterprises and the lowest ones. A survey conducted in 1986 in 32 key enterprises showed 

that the average integrated energy consumption was about 1.48 tce/t (0.969 toe/t). The indicator 

for the most energy efficient enterprise was 0.78, which can compete with internationally advanced 

levels, while the same for the lowest one was 2.6 tce/t (1.70 toe/t), or three times higher than the 

former.[12] 

Third, as mentioned above, there were only 60 large size paper mills with cogeneration power 

plants among the ten thousand paper mills nationwide in 1990. For the total 4500 MW power 

capacity of electric equipment in the sector, self-generation of power could only meet 10.5% of 

electricity demand. It has been proven that a cogeneration plant can do the paper mill itself much 

good due to its greater and stable combined thermal and power load. Once again, the size of small 

paper mills is blamed for the non-installation of cogeneration systems. [5] 

Fourth, perhaps the root cause of the problem of low energy efficiency is the low efficiency of 

boilers used in the paper mills. Despite some medium-pressure boilers installed in a few large size 

paper enterprises with a thermal efficiency of 80%, those installed in myriad small paper mills have 

efficiencies as low as 60%[4]. On the contrary, the efficiency for industrial boilers in developed 

countries is within the range of 80-85%. Often, heat loss rates of thermal network exceed 10%. 

Therefore, overall thermal efficiency for China's pulp & paper enterprises might be lower than 

30%, some even less than 25%.[4] 

Fifth, most of the high calorific wastewater and other associated energy carriers (bark, sawdust etc.) 

are abandoned without recovery of relevant chemicals and for energy supply. For the time being, 

there are only three paper mills (Jilin Pulp & Paper Mill, Jiamusi Pulp & Paper Mill and Wufu 

Eastern Pulp & Paper Mill) installed with waste recovery boilers in which bark, sawdust and wood 

chips are fired. Beside the loss of energy, the environment is polluted. In comparison, some 

Western European paper mills can provide 87% of energy for their whole pulping process by fully 

exploiting waste materials such as bark and black liquor. 

Sixth, energy consumed for the digestion process usually accounts for 45% of the total pulping and 

paper making process. Usually, continuous digestion process can save 40% of the amount of steam 

compared with the intermittent digestion process, whereby much thermal energy savings can be 

obtained. Unfortunately, most digestion processes in China are intermittent ones except in rare 

cases. At present, the best figure for pulping process in China is about 1.6 ton steam/ton of pulp. 

The same indicator for foreign countries is just 0.4-0.6 ton steam/ton of pulp. Most equipment 

used for cooking in foreign countries are either the continuous digestion process or the lowenergy-consuming 

intermittent digestion (RDH). 

Seventh, cylinder machines for paper making in China’s paper mills account for only 83% of the 

total number of paper machines with speeds of lower than 200 m/min and widths of 1m to 2m. In


comparison, the width of Fourdrinier machine is generally between 5-10m, with machine speeds of 

800-1200 m/min. 

Finally, as for the fuel mix pertaining to the pulp & paper industry of China, coal is the dominant 

fuel accounting for 95% of the total. Most types of coal used are of low grade. 

6.1.4 Environmental externalities of the pulp & paper industry in China 

6.1.4.1 Liquid, gaseous and solid pollutants 

The pulp & paper industry is a typical pollution intensive industry among all industries. The most 

serious externality is the water pollution due to the highly concentrated organic wastewater 

effluents. Table 6.1.9 shows the amount of wastewater discharged from 2282 pulp & paper mills 

counted in 1993. BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) discharge by the paper mills was 2.716 

billion tons, accounting for 38.2% of national BOD discharge, holding the first position among all 

industries in China. If all pulp & paper mills were taken into account, the total wastewater amount 

discharged from the industry would have reached as high as 3 billion tons in 1992, accounting for 

about one eighth of national total wastewater amount, ranking third after the chemical and ferrous 

industries. 

Table 6.1.9 Wastewater discharge and treatment by Chinese paper industry in 1993 (Mt) 

Number of enterprise 

counted 

Total 

wastewater 

discharged 

Discharge 

d directly 

to inland 

water body 

Discharged 

directly to 

sea 

Discharge 

d through 

treatment 

plant 

Wastewater 

under State 

Discharge 

Standards 

2282 pulp & paper mills 2158 1713 18 21.4 314 

All industries 21949 NA NA 17934 12049 

Share of pulp & paper 

industry 

9.8% – – 1.2‰ 2.6% 

Besides slag (coal combustion cinders and white silt from alkali recovery), dust and ash, pungent 

smell and noise have also their environmental impacts. In 1992, slag and cinder discharged by the 

paper industry rose to 4.8 million tons, 296,000 tons of SO 2, 267,000 tons of soot and dust, and 

2.34 million tons of CO 2. 

Table 6.1.10 shows some gaseous emissions from the industry. It can be found that two-thirds of 

the gaseous emissions are from fuel combustion in industrial boilers, and one-third is from the 

production processes.


Table 6.1.10 Gaseous emissions by pulp & paper industry in China in 1993 

Indicator 

Total 

gaseous 

emission 

s billion 

m3 Emissions 

from fuel 

combustio 

n billion 

m3 Emissions 

from 

production 

process 

billion m3 SO2 emissions 

104 Soot 

discharged 

t 104 Dust 

discharge 

d 

t 

104 t 

Pulp & Paper 

industry 

173.1 117.1 56.0 28.177 28.7497 3.9332 

All industries 9342 6004 3338 1292 880 617 

National 10960 1795 1416 

From Table 6.1.11, which shows the water pollution discharge loads in China from 1980 to 1988, it 

can be seen that specific water pollution loads (including BOD and SS) decreased by 33% to 36%. 

The reduction stemmed from alkali recovery, integrated exploitation of digested wastewater, use of 

recycled white water as well as fiber recovery which were popularized and used in some large and 

medium scale pulp & paper mills. Nevertheless, total water pollution amounts escalated gradually. 

Table 6.1.11 Estimation of the total amount of water pollution and discharge load[9] 

Year Wastewater 

discharged 

BOD SS 

Unit 108 

m3/year 

m3/ton 

paper 

10,000 

ton/year 

kg/ton 

paper 

10,000 

ton/year 

kg/ton 

paper 

1980 27.6 516 125.5 235 120.3 225 

1985 33 362 143 157 146 160 

1988 40 315 190 150 192 151 

Note: BOD – Biochemical or Biological Oxygen Demand, SS – fiber, fillings suspensions 

6.1.4.2 Pollution from paper mill: a case of Qiqihar pulp & paper mill 

Considering the 33 key large size pulp & paper mills belonging to the China Light Industries 

Commission (CLIC), not all of them are environmentally sound. For example, Qiqihar pulp & 

paper mill,[7,14] famous for its newsprint paper production, accounted for 11.5% of the national 

total newsprint paper production from 1954 to 1991. In 1991, its wastewater discharge was 70344 - 

77446 tons/day, from which the COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) discharge was 40.125 - 41.029 

tons/day, BOD discharge was 6.836 tons/day, SS was 25.821 - 3.3821 tons/day, emitted gaseous 

pollutant soot and dust was 4112 tons/year, SO2 was at 1133 tons/year, total amount of solid 

waste was 63331 tons/year, and the strongest noise intensity was at 110 - 136 dB(A). A more 

detailed pollution situation of the paper mill is shown in Table 6.1.12-a & b and Table 6.1.13.


Table 6.1.12-a Status of water pollution in Qiqihar pulp & paper mill (summer) 

Pollution source Pollutants Unit Amount Receptacle 

water effluent m 3/d 51631 

White liquor COD cr kg/d 30101 oxidizing 

outlet BOD5 kg/d 4698 pond 

SS kg/d 19973 


Black liquor CODcr kg/d 10106 oxidizing 


SS kg/d 9348 


Ash outlet CODcr kg/d 822 oxidizing 

BOD5 kg/d - pond 

SS kg/d 4500 

Table 6.1.12-b Status of water pollution in Qiqihar pulp & paper mill (winter) 



White liquor CODcr kg/d 39197 oxidizing 


SS kg/d 11973 


Black liquor CODcr kg/d 10106 oxidizing 


SS kg/d 9348 


Ash outlet CODcr kg/d 822 oxidizing 

BOD5 kg/d pond 

SS kg/d 4500 

Table 6.1.13 Gaseous and solid pollution by Qiqihar pulp & paper mill 


Cogeneration smoke & soot t/year 3558-1015 atmosphere 

Kilns TSP t/year. 555 atmosphere 

SO2 t/year 119 

Alkali recovery workshop H2S mg/m3 ~90 near the workshop 

Cogeneration Slag & Ash m3/year 50000 ash storage field 

Wood preparing bark m3/year 54 filler or 

workshop residential fuel 

Alkali recovery white silt and t/d 32.8 to lime kiln for 

workshop alkaline ash lime recovery


According to the wastewater discharging norm for pulp & paper industry (GB3544-92), its total 

wastewater discharged was about two times greater than the set quota; COD was 1.7 - 2.0 times 

greater and SS was 1.5 - 2.9 times greater than the set quota. Much reductions should be achieved 

if all the paper mills abide by the set regulation. [7] 

6.1.4.3 Major causes of the increasing pollution 

Recently, pulp & paperboard production rose rapidly. This could be attributed mainly to the high 

increase in production of many small size straw-based township enterprises. This change resulted 

in both average unit enterprise scale decrease and overall technical level fall, because most of them 

were furnished with low-technical-level equipment. Other reasons are summarized as follows: 

- Indifference to environmental pollution from enterprises leaders to workers. 

- The share of non-wood fiber raw material is too large. For the prevailing straw pulp 

pollution in China, there are no technically mature and economically feasible clean 

production and/or environment-protecting technologies available. 

- As for the vast capital investment demand for clean production and environmental 

treatment in China's various paper mills, there are no special and definite financial 

channels as yet. 

- No stern environmental assessment is stipulated as an indispensable prerequisite to the 

plant before the construction of many new pulp and paper mills, especially those in rural 

townships. 

6.1.5 Potential for energy efficiency improvement and pollution abatement through 

technological changes 

From the above analysis, it can be concluded that there exists great potential for energy savings as 

well as environmental alleviation. The potentials identified can be summarized as follows: 

1. Adjustment of the present structure of the enterprises (scale), and development of a scaleeconomy 

of large capacity enterprises and/or groups. 

There is a worldwide development trend in pulp & paper industry for the time being: many pulp & 

paper mills ally together to pursue stronger market competitive ability. In Japan, two leading pulp 

& paper companies, each of which had a capacity more than 1 million tons per year have merged 

into a super-enterprise recently. 

As mentioned above, China's average size per enterprise is much lower compared to its foreign 

counterparts, which results in a series of problems that encumber its energy efficiency as well as 

environment-friendly development. It is a common consensus among Chinese paper experts that


construction of large size paper mills installed with modern technological equipment is of great 

importance. Many township mills and other little enterprises should be merged into bigger ones for 

higher productivity, higher energy efficiency and more sound environmental compatibility. 

Moreover, larger scale paper mills will pave the way for a series of subsequent measures to deal 

with existing problems. 

2. Changing raw material composition of China's current pulp production, raising the share of 

wood pulp and waste-paper pulp. 

According to statistics on straw pulp production, China has been the first in the world for years. It 

had been found, however, that the dominant fraction of straw pulp production is also a barrier to 

energy efficiency improvement and pollution abatement. In the United States and Japan, wood 

pulp's fraction in the total pulp production was more than 99% (Table 6.1.14): 

Table 6.1.14 Global pulp production capacity and share of wood pulp (FAO, 1987) 

Country Total production capacity 

(10 3 Wood pulp's share in national 

ton) 

total (%) 

USA 53,677 99.3 

Japan 12,675 95.1 

former USSR 12,408 99.9 

China 10,679 23.9 

Brazil 4,375 93.4 

India 2,790 26.9 

France 2,310 99.1 

Exploitation of wood resources for boosting wood pulp production will not only raise the quality 

of the final paper products, it will also create a favorable condition for “associated biomass energy” 

recovery utilization. Moreover, all kinds of mature pollution abatement technologies pertaining to 

the wood pulp process can be implemented easily. 

To reduce fiber raw material consumption in pulp production, an effective way is to enhance waste 

paper recovery. It has been proven that wastepaper-derived pulp uses only around 1/4 or 1/3 of 

the energy claimed by the wood-derived pulp. In 1988, China's waste-paper pulp (including 

imported waste paper) accounting for 22.5% of the total pulp production, implied a big potential 

when compared to the same indicators of Japan and the European Union (50% and 48% 

respectively). Exploitation of waste paper for pulp production not only reduces consumption of 

energy and other resources, but also improves the quality of the environment.


3. Technological reform and renovation on outdated boilers. 

There are many old industrial coal-fired boilers with a total capacity of more than 14,000 tons/h in 

the Chinese paper industry, and most of them have efficiencies lower than 60% or even 50%. This 

status indicates a great potential for energy savings through the improvement of the boiler 

efficiency. 

Combining technical renovation of some appropriate boilers and simple elimination of some is a 

better approach for efficiency improvement. There exist many mature and technical-economically 

feasible processes which can be used for boiler renovation. For example, the efficiency of small 

boilers with a capacity of less than 1 ton/h can be upgraded from 45% to 60% by a series of 

renovations. For boilers with a capacity between 1-4 tons/h, the efficiency can be raised even to 

75% by technical renovation at a lower cost. Besides this, boosting workers’ operational skill is 

also important. 

4. Development of cogeneration 

Cogeneration is a very useful technology for efficiency improvement in a pulp & paper mill, which 

can provide thermal energy and electricity for its various processes. Compared to separate heat and 

power generation, it can get a prominent energy conservation effect of more than 20%. As a rule, 

any paper mill which owns two or more sets of boilers with unit capacity of more than 10 t/h 

should build its corresponding cogeneration plant. Chinese experts estimated that [8] total 

cogeneration installed capacity in the paper industry may be as much as 1600 MW by the year 

2000. In 1991, total cogeneration capacity was just 473 MW. The energy saving potential by 

cogeneration in the Chinese paper industry will reach more than 2 million tce (1.31 million toe) by 

2000 if 1600 MW installed cogeneration capacity can be realized. The potential for cogeneration, 

therefore, is great. 

5. Recovery of waste liquors and other associated energy carriers such as digested black liquor, 

bark, and sawdust. 

Recovery of associated energy carriers such as black liquor is of great benefit both for energy 

savings and for environmental protection. A ton of dried solid remnant of black liquor in the 

process of sulfate pulping can provide thermal energy of 0.43~0.49 tce (0.28 toe ~ 0.32 toe). In 

the paper industry of developed countries, energy supply from associated energy carriers such as 

black liquor and bark account for a remarkable share. For instance, black liquor and bark supplied 

37.3% and 4.3%, respectively, of the total paper industry energy demand in the USA in the early 

1980s. In Finland and Sweden, the two items together could meet more than 50% of the total 

energy demand. In some cases, even the total energy demand by all processes can be met fully by 

recovery of black liquor and bark.


It is estimated that the total black liquor of the industry can provide at least 3 million toe based on 

1990’s conditions. In comparison, the level of wastewater recovery and utilization in China lags 

behind. At present, alkaline pulp capacity with black liquor recovery is only 1.2 million tons, 

accounting for 41% of the total alkaline pulping capacity nationwide. Most of the paper mills do 

not have the facilities to exploit either black liquor or bark to recover chemicals and thermal 

energy. It is projected by CLIC that if 1.2 million newly-added alkaline pulp capacity with black 

liquor recovery is realized by 2000, then 130,000 toe energy can be saved, and 450,000 tons caustic 

soda can be recycled while reducing BOD discharge by 250,000 tons. 

Combustible waste residue from large scale wood pulp mills alone amounts to 240,000 ton/year. 

As only three mills are installed with waste boilers firing these waste solid, there is an immense 

potential for energy efficiency improvement and environmental protection. 

6. To adopt advanced pulp and paper making technologies both for paper mills modernization 

and for building new large scale paper mills. 

Generally, the energy consumed is distributed among all production processes as follows: 2% for 

wood material preparation, 46% for pulping (digestion, cleansing and alkali recovery), 4% for 

bleaching, 43% for paper shaping, 5% for paper processing. Among the pulping processes, 

digestion accounts for 97% of energy demand. Attention should be given therefore to the two 

energy-consuming processes, digestion and paper making. 

There exist two digestion processes: continuous digestion process and intermittent digestion. 

Compared to the latter, the former can avoid steam load fluctuation, thus reducing steam 

consumption by 40%. Continuous digestion process should be recommended to replace 

intermittent one. At present, medium or small size continuous digestion equipment can be made in 

China, and a number of such equipment have already been commissioned. Moreover, a new lowenergy, 

cold-spouting intermittent digestion process (RDH) invented abroad is found to save 50% 

or more steam while raising productivity by 10-15% when compared to the conventional 

intermittent digestion process. This new process can therefore find a promising market in China, 

though the use of such technology is not yet realized in the country. Additionally, the direct 

heating process for digestion should be substituted by the indirect heating process since the former 

consumes 15-20% more energy than the latter. 

Another process which should also be given attention for energy savings is the paper making stage. 

There are a number of feasible technological transformation methods for comprehensive energyrelated 

improvement of the paper machines. Medium speed Fourdrinier machines can substitute 

existing cylinder machines. The drying ability of the machines can also be boosted by polyester 

former, new pulp feeder and new drying apparatus. High intensity multi-press can be used in 

machine press parts to raise wet paper dryness from the current 32%-38% to 48%-50%. It has 

been proven that reduction of 1% of moisture content of wet paper before drying can save 5% of 

the steam consumption for drying. The dryness of wet paper in Chinese paper mills is usually


around 30%, while that of western countries is more than 50%. Some technical measures to raise 

thermal efficiency for drying include multi-stage steam feed, whole-sealed cover, recovery of 

exhaust heat from its cover, etc. Computer-controlled steam feed for dry oven in some foreign 

countries also proved to be a useful way to save steam consumption. Computer-based constant 

moisture control systems should be disseminated in large or medium-size key paper mills. It is 

estimated that specific energy consumption of paper machines would be reduced by 30% through 

the above-mentioned technologies. If 20% of the existing paper machines are retrofitted by the 

year 2000, 650,000 toe can be conserved. 

7. Application of electricity-saving equipment for technical renovation, replacement of outmoded 

appliances and dissemination of computer-controlled automation processes. 

The performance of electrical equipment directly affects the electricity consumption of the whole 

paper mill. Some available low-electricity-consuming equipment such as double-panned mill, Loci 

electric fan, axial-flow fan and speed-adjustable electric motor have better electricity saving effects 

compared to their respective old generation equipment. For instance, the replacement of variable 

frequency- speed-adjustable electric motor could save electricity by some 30% in most cases, while 

its cost could be paid back in a few years. Here, existing barriers in the Chinese case are mainly 

incentives and initial investments. 

On the other side, computer controlled automation process may bring 10% steam reduction for 

the process of pulping and 15% energy savings for paper shaping process in the Chinese 

context.[12] 

8. For environmental protection, especially water pollution control, challenges and opportunities 

exist together. Potential for pollution abatement includes: 

- For the alkali pulping process, alkali recovery rates of various raw material-based mills 

can be increased to various levels: 90% alkali recovery rate for wood pulp, 80% for 

bamboo/bagasse pulp, and 70% for wheat straw pulp can be reached. 

- For the acid process, efforts should be made to integrate exploitation of wastewater to 

produce adhesives, alcohol by products, etc. 

- For ammonium bisulfite pulp, wastewater can be used for agricultural irrigation & farm 

fertilizer. Recovery exploitation rate of wastewater for this process can increase to 60% 

or higher. 

9. There is still a great potential for water conservation by improving water recycle utilization rate. 

Current white liquor recovery rate of paper machine is 30%, while the dryer condensate recovery 

rate is 50%


10. Enhancement of pulp & paper industry professional management, effective implementation of 

existing regulations relevant to energy consumption and environmental protection issues. 

6.1.6 Status of application of new technologies 

Because most paper mills in China do not belong to the CLIC, there is no strong authority or 

administrative department responsible for the professional management of the pulp & paper 

industry. Much data concerning the status of the application of new technologies are not available. 

Following is an example of application of Alkali Recovery (AR) process in China: 

This technology is reckoned by the industry to be the key approach for environmental control. By 

the end of 1992, there were 63 paper mills installed with alkali recovery facilities. Total alkali 

recovery capacity hit 450,000 tons/year, while actual alkali recovery amount was 380,000 

tons/year. By the AR process, about 400,000 tons of organic pollutants were refined. The AR 

rates in large size wood pulp mills reached 90%, and in medium capacity wood pulp mills, 75-80%. 

AR rate in large size straw pulp mills was 70% or so, medium size straw ones, 50-60%. There was 

about 1.2 million tons/year pulping capacity matched with alkali recovery facilities in 1992, 

accounting for 41.4% of the total 2.9 million tons/year pulping capacity which needed the 

technology (Table 6.1.15). 

Figure 6.1.8 shows the alkali recovery evolution during the decade from 1980 to 1990. It can be 

found that overall alkali recovery and wood pulp alkali recovery kept similar increasing trends, with 

annual growth rates of 5.3% and 5.9%, respectively. Meanwhile, recovery of straw pulp alkali 

increased from 54,200 tons to 73,000 tons. 

Table 6.1.15 Status of AR utilization in China in 1992 

Alkali-based pulp Wood pulp Straw pulp 

Pulping capacity with AR, Mt 1.2 0.80 0.40 

Pulping capacity demanding AR, Mt 2.9 0.90 2.00 

Diffusion rate % 41.4 88.9 20 

AR rate % 22.6 70 6 

With regards to the total amount of alkali recovery, the wood pulp mills’ situation was generally 

better than that of the straw pulp mills. Figure 6.1.9 shows the alkali recovery rates of the situation 

in the two pulp mills. Alkali recovery rate in the wood pulp mills exceeded 60% in 1990. In the 

straw pulp case, the indicator was maintained at lower than 10%. If those straw pulp mills outside 

the CLIC (which often consumed alkali without recovery ) were taken into account, however, the 

real indicator of alkali recovery for whole straw pulp case should be lower than 6% (Figure 6.1.9).


1000 ton 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

Total AR 

Wood Pulp AR 

Straw Pulp AR 

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1992 

Figure 6.1.8 Alkali recovery by wood pulp and straw pulp from 1980 to 1990 

Percent 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

Total AR rate 

Wood Pulp AR 

rate 

Straw pulp AR 

rate 

Year 

0 

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 

Year 

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 

Figure 6.1.9 National macro alkali recovery rates vs. year 

Since 1980, some important alkali recovery projects had been completed in large or medium size 

wood pulp mills such as the Jiamusi Paper Mill, Jilin Paper Mill, Zhalandun Pulp & Paper Mill, 

Helongjiang Paper Mill, Yalujiang Paper Mill, Nanping Paper Mill and Qingzhou Paper Mill. At the 

same time, technical transformations to large size straw pulp mills had also been made successfully. 

For instance, plate membranous concentrating vaporizers had been added into alkali recovery 

systems in Zhenjing Pulp & Paper Mill, Yueyang and Liujing Paper Mills. In a few cases, technical 

transformation and capacity extension for alkali recovery in medium or small size straw pulp mills 

had been made with satisfying techno-economic effects, as in the case of the Guigang, Shanghai 

Songjiang Pulp & Paper Mills, etc.


Unfortunately, alkali recovery situation for most medium and small size straw pulp mills (with 

capacity of 15-35 tons pulp/day) was problematic due to reasons such as small economies of scale, 

low technical equipment installation, poor operation management as well as immature technologies 

available for black liquor treatment in straw pulp mills. 

By the end of 1994, there were 73 AR projects with a total AR capacity of 370,000 tons/year. Of 

these, 37 projects with a total AR capacity of 120,000 tons/year were built but not commissioned, 

and 36 projects of total AR capacity of 250,000 ton/year were under construction. By the end of 

1995, there will be a total of 30 paper mills installed with AR facilities with a total AR capacity of 

820,000 tons/year. 

During the last decades, the AR capacity with an annual growth rate of 5.3% still lagged behind 

that of the paper & paperboard at 15% and the pulp growth rate of 13.7% during the same period. 

This therefore suggests that more alkali is to be consumed to meet faster demand. 

For improvement of the AR rate and wastewater integrated exploitation, wastewater abstraction is 

the primary process to be solved. Several hundreds of domestically-developed belt pulp scrubbers 

have been built since the 1970s. Some large size paper mills also imported new high-efficiency pulp 

scrubbers. In a Guangzhou paper mill, where an imported advanced pulp scrubber was installed, 

the AR was boosted to more than 80%. 

As for many AR processes concerning straw pulp production and other digested wastewater 

recovery technologies, an eminent problem in the Chinese situation is how to commercialize 

and/or disseminate the results of the studies in paper mills. 

6.1.7 Conclusions 

From the above discussion, some main conclusions concerning the pulp & paper industry in 

China can be briefly summarized as follows: 

- The pulp & paper industry of China is a fast developing industry, and currently ranks 

third in the world. It could probably catch up with Japan to become the second largest 

producer in the world by 2000. 

- The pulp & paper industry of China is a highly energy-intensive and polluting industry, 

and is particularly blamed for water pollution. 

- China's integrated energy consumption indicator in the pulp & paper industry is 2.45 

times as high as that of Japan, 1.45 times as high as that of USA. Therefore, its energy 

efficiency is much lower.


- Due to the lack of wastewater recovery, exploitation and treatment technologies and/or 

measures, the industry is responsible for 1/8 of the national wastewater discharge, and 

more than 1/3 of the national BOD discharge. Thus, it is urgent to curb the rampant 

environmental damaging behavior of the pulp & paper industry. 

- There exists a great potential for energy efficiency improvement and environmental 

pollution mitigation from the industry through a number of technical measures, 

including technological renovation and substitution for existing processes; 

transformation of existing paper mills; improvement of boiler efficiency; installation of 

cogeneration; recovery of wastewater and other associated energy carriers (bark, 

sawdust); digestion process replacement; computed-based automation etc. 

- From the viewpoint of national macro-system, enhancement of waste paper recycling, 

reshaping of enterprise scales, as well as the change of raw materials for pulping should 

help in further improvement and pollution abatement. 

- Consolidating pulp & paper professional management and tightening the 

implementation of existing pollution control regulations, as well as even legislating 

appropriate laws for discharge norm from paper mill are urgently needed.


6.2 COUNTRY REPORT: INDIA 


The paper industry in India has been established for over a century, with four paper manufacturing 

units initially in operation with an annual output of 20,000 tons. From an installed capacity of 

137,000 tons in the year 1951, the paper industry has grown during the last four decades to an 

installed capacity of 3,463,000 tons of paper and paperboard, and 300,000 tons of newsprint. The 

development of India’s paper industry centered on bamboo for raw material, rather than wood as 

in other countries. With bamboo resources falling short of the requirement due to the short term 

planning adapted then, the use of tropical hardwood started in the 1960s. Until the start of the 

70s, the paper industry had been forest-based and industrial units were integrated with pulp, paper 

and chemical recovery systems. 

Being highly capital-intensive, new investments were not forthcoming at the desired levels. 

Anticipating a shortage of paper in the 1960s, a crash program for the expansion of the industry 

was devised, under which, second-hand plants and machinery were allowed to be imported. 

The number of units in the process increased from 25 in 1960-1961 to the current 340 units. Most 

of the small paper mills are either agro-based or waste paper-based. At present, 29 units with a 

capacity of 1,485,000 tons, representing 43% of the installed capacity for paper and paper board, 

rely on forest-based raw materials. Eighty-nine units with a capacity of 974,000 tons, representing 

28% of the installed capacity, are based on agricultural residues. These units use imported pulp 

and recycled fiber as well. Added to these are some 22 units with a capacity of 1,004,000 tons, 

representing 29% of the installed capacity, which are largely dependent on imported recycled 

fibers. 

The effective capacity utilization of bamboo and wood-based units is 95%, 80% for agro-based 

units, 63% for recycled fiber-based units, with an average effective capacity utilization of 82% 

(Figure 6.2.1). The overall capacity utilization in relation to installed capacity is 62%. 

The demand for paper and paperboard by the turn of the century shall be reckoned in terms of the 

development phase which has already started. The per capita consumption of newsprint paper, 

currently at 2.4 kg, shall increase to 4.5 kg by the year 2000 (Figure 6.2.2). The demand for paper 

and paperboard products would vary from the packaging to newsprints, and others. 

6.2.2 Technological trajectory of the Indian paper industry 

6.2.2.1 Structure of the paper industry 

At the start of the 1950s, the average production size of the paper mills was only 8,000 t/year. 

Integrated paper mills based on forest raw materials set up during 1955-1960 resulted in an 

increase in the average unit size to 16,000 t/year. In the next decades, additional capacity was


mostly due to the expansion of existing mills and commissioning of small paper mills, but the 

average size declined to 13,500 t/year. During 1970-1980, although 8 large integrated mills with 

production sizes of 20,000 t/year were commissioned, the added capacity was mainly in the form 

of small units and the average size remained at 12,500 t/year. From 1980-1985, an increase in the 

number of units by more than 100% was realized, with small paper mills registering a growth of 

129% and capacity increase of 50%. However, only one large integrated mill (the Nagaland Pulp 

and Paper Mill with a capacity of 33,000 t/year) was commissioned during the period, while four 

other large mills effected expansion for a total of 44,500 tons. A small pulp mill (the Century Pulp 

and Paper Mill with a capacity of 20,000 t/year) was commissioned in 1981 and the average unit 

size came down to about 9,400 t/year. 

Ton / Year 

4000 

3500 

3000 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

1960 1970 1980 1990 1992 

Installed Capacity 

Production 

Figure 6.2.1 Installed capacity and production of India’s pulp & paper industry 

Figure 6.2.2 Per capita paper consumption in India 

In 1988, only one large integrated pulp and paper mill (the Cachar Paper Project of Hindustan 

Paper Corporation, with a capacity of 100,000 tons) was commissioned. The rest of the additions 

to the existing capacity was by way of expanding a few small paper mills. After the commissioning 

of the Cachar project, there has been no further commissioning of integrated pulp and paper mills 

based on forest raw materials.


The number of large mills went up to 25 in 1990, and in 1992, three large mills (Pudumjee Pulp 

and Paper Mill, Balkrishna Papers, and Tribeni Tissues, Ltd.) were added as a result of expansion 

from the small category. Similarly in 1993, two large mills have been added through expansion and 

two new agro-residues-based units have been set up. During the last five years, only three new 

units were set up in the large paper mill category. The trend of setting up small paper mills 

accounting for about 50% of the total capacity is continuing. The average unit has also remained at 

about 10,000 tons. The growth of the paper industry in India is shown in Figure 6.2.3. 

# of mills 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

Small Paper Mills 

Integrated Paper Mills 

1960 1970 1980 

Year 

1990 1992 

Figure 6.2.3 Growth of the paper industry in India (1960 to 1992) 

6.2.2.2 Raw materials scenario 

Twenty years ago, the Indian paper industry started with bamboo as the sole major raw material. 

The restricted availability of the material, however, has curtailed its usage to about 40% at present. 

Because of this, there has been a considerable shift towards the use of tropical hardwood, 

eucalyptus, and other non-conventional raw materials. 

Today, depending on the source of raw material, the paper industry is classified as follows: 

- Forest-based: bamboo & hardwood (plantation-grown raw materials: mainly Eucalyptus 

and Subabul) 

- Unconventional raw materials (agro-residues, jute, grass straw, bagasse, etc.) 

- Waste paper-based 

Segment wise, effective installed capacities in the paper industry are as follows: 

Forest-based raw material: 43% 

Agro-based 28% 

Waste paper-based 29%


Today, the large gap between the demand and supply for paper is basically for the newsprint type 

while future requirements for paper and paper board are expected to register a sharp increase. 

There is therefore a need to substitute scarce forest resources with non-conventional raw materials 

as an immediate measure to meet raw material requirements in the pulp & paper industry. 

Plantations on long-term basis by using modern silviculture practices and other technologies like 

tissue culture for improving the productivity of the forest-based raw materials should be 

considered. 

6.2.2.3 Technological advancement 

Since its establishment, the paper industry in India underwent a lot of changes by way of 

equipment and process development. A hundred years ago, the machinery and equipment available 

for pulping, bleaching and papermaking, limited the size of the mills to about 50 t/d. Apart from 

constraints such as the availability of energy, raw materials and other inputs, one reason for the low 

capacity utilization of the mills is the fact that productive assets are often not at optimum levels of 

efficiency due to the lack of modernization and renovation of old equipment. Furthermore, the 

Indian paper industry has adopted equipment primarily designed for the processing of indigenous 

softwood materials, such as bamboo, but these are used for hardwood as well. Consequently, 

operating efficiencies are low and processes require modernization of techniques to ensure better 

yields, reduce costs and conserve raw materials. 

In view of the increasing paper demand and shortage of forest-based raw materials, the 

government has drawn up a policy to promote small mills based on straw and bagasse. The size of 

the mill has to be restricted due to the seasonal availability of the raw materials, and technical 

problems involved. These agro-based paper mills produce almost all kinds of paper and boards for 

writing and printing. In the absence of a chemical recovery system and high cost of alkali, these 

mills use low amounts of chemicals at the cooking stage and excess amounts of chlorine in the 

bleaching stage. Second-hand paper machines which are used for papermaking are energy 

deficient, and since these mills do not have chemical recovery units, the discharge of spent liquor, 

and excess consumption of chlorine are major causes of water and environmental pollution. 

On the other hand, the large integrated mills which mainly produce writing and printing grade 

papers are equipped with full-fledged chemical recovery systems and effluent treatment plants. 

Developments in the pulp and paper industry has been gradual, though systematic and elaborate 

research activities in the fields of fiber chemistry, morphology, engineering, have been continuing. 

Today, advanced knowledge in morphology and structure of fibers, chemical reactions of wood 

components such as carbohydrates and lignin during pulping and bleaching, has led to several 

technological innovations in the field of pulping. The spectrum of fibrous raw materials which was 

initially limited to wood, has widened to non-wood fibrous raw materials.


The papermaking process involves three main stages: raw material preparation, pulping and 

bleaching, and papermaking. 

A. Raw material preparation 

Wood and bamboo are felled at the forests. Wood is debarked at the felling or mill site. The fiber 

losses in handling is more than 10%. Agricultural residues like straws & bagasse are stored in 

bales. Being seasonal crops, their storage for long periods are prone to microbial degradation 

which often affects the quality of pulp produced. 

Chipping 

The wood is chipped in disc chippers which are also used for bamboo chipping, though the 

Palman Drum type is nowadays commonly used for bamboo. About 53% of the total number of 

chippers (accounting for 58% of the total installed capacity) were installed since 1975, and are 

mostly of the drum types. While the aggregate capacity of chippers for individual units range 

between 35 to 168 t/h, most units fall between 45-50 t/h capacity. Straws are cut by chop cutters, 

which are not power efficient, while bagasse is de-pithed before digestion. 

B. Pulping and bleaching 

Indian mills predominantly use the alkaline pulping process. Large mills based on forest raw 

materials use the Kraft process, whereas agro-based mills use the soda process. Newsprint mills 

use mechanical, chemical, chemi-mechanical and chemi-thermomechanical (CTMP) processes. 

Digestion 

The predominant practice for digestion is the use of batch digesters. Two large mills use 

continuous digesters for bamboo and wood, whereas some of the agro-based mills use Pandya 

digesters. The reasons for not using continuous digesters in agro-based mills include: 

- higher outlays for machinery replacement in the existing units 

- lack of flexibility in the continuous digester process system to accept varying raw material 

mix 

- the relatively small size of the mills makes it uneconomical to use continuous digesters 

more efficiently 


Most Indian mills use chlorine-based bleaching chemicals with barometer drop leg or displacement 

type of washers. Common bleaching sequences are CEHH, CEH, and CHHH, of which CEHH is 

most commonly used in order to achieve a brightness level of over 75%. Some large mills have


started using chlorine dioxide and peroxide partially, i.e., CE (p)HH, while many paper mills propose 

to go for oxygen bleaching. 

Pulp Washing 

Small mills without chemical recovery systems normally employ the poacher-type washer followed 

by one or two drum washers. The fresh water consumption is as high as 20-50 m 3 /t (paper) in 

these mills. Integrated mills have 3-4 drum washers with counter-current washing. 

Stock Preparation 

Most of the units have replaced conical and wide angle refiners with the relatively energy efficient 

double disc refiners. 

C. Paper machines 

Three types of paper machines are commonly employed in the industry: cylinder molds, 

Fourdrinier formers, and twin wire formers 

The cylinder molds are commonly used for small mills engaged in the manufacture of multi-layered 

boards. The Fourdrinier machines are most commonly employed both in small and big mills for 

the manufacture of varieties of paper. About 81% of the total paper machines have Fourdrinier 

formers and 84% have speeds of 150 to 300 meters per minute (mpm). Only 5 machines have 

operating speeds of more than 400 mpm. 

Twinformers that are commonly employed in the newsprint industry, have high speeds and can 

accept weaker pulp. However, their application in small units is not economically viable. 

Other data regarding paper machines used in the industry are as follows: 56% of the total number 

of paper machines have thyrister control drives; 30% have sectorial drives, and 33% have 

line/pulley drives; 48% have open type of head boxes; 52% have closed-type head boxes; 62% 

have suction processes; 39% are equipped with size presses while 69% are equipped with 

calendars. The condensate recovery in most of the mills is between 60% to 90%. 

D. Chemical recovery system 

While all wood-based paper mills have chemical recovery systems, most of the small mills do not 

have one, and the efficiency attained in the recovery units are below 90%. Impressive 

developments, however, have been made in the evaporation and combustion of spent liquor. 

From the 60s to the 80s mills have installed either short-tube or long-tube variety types of 

evaporators. Since spent liquor exhibit very high viscosity, this restricts the evaporator outlet 

concentration to 40-45% solids. Scaling tendencies and colloidal instability of spent liquor are also 

the common problems faced in evaporator units. Recently, the use of the falling-film type of


evaporator has been favored. Experience with these evaporators have shown clean benefits like 

high-end concentration, maximum steam economy and improved condensate quality. 

Boilers used in the industry are the coal-fired types. About 11% of the total installed capacity, 

mainly fluidized bed boilers, are 5 years of age. Prior to 1975, the capacity was 20 t/h of steam 

generated at 20-30 kg/cm 2 pressure and 380 o C to 400 o C temperature, with a thermal efficiency of 

50-60%. From 1975 onwards, the steam generation capacity increased to 25-27 t/h at 40-60 

kg/cm 2 pressure and 400 o C to 480 o C temperature. Thermal efficiency has increased to 70-80%. 

The Central Pulp and Paper Research Institute (CPPRI) is engaged in developing the Direct Alkali 

Recovery System (DARS) for agro-based mills. Organizations like ESVIN Technologies and Amrit 

Banaspati Company are also engaged in R&D work for chemical recovery. CPPRI has made 

breakthroughs in the desilication of black liquor that will improve performance of the recovery 

unit in non-wood-based paper mills, while opening the option for lime sludge reburning. 

E. Other machinery and equipment 

The manufacture of paper from raw materials storage & transport to the packing and handling of 

the finished product requires utilization of a wide range of equipment. In addition, various auxiliary 

items such as steam boilers, power generation equipment, effluent treatment equipment, etc., are 

also required. 

India has now developed its capability to manufacture and supply almost the entire range of 

equipment for the paper industry, specifically for the pulping plant and stock preparation; 

equipment such as paper machines, steam and power generation equipment, chemical recovery 

equipment, etc. Figure 6.2.4 shows the general distribution of process automation in the paper 

industry of India. 

6.2.2.4 Human resource in the Indian paper industry 

Despite the growth of the paper industry, industrial performance has been unsatisfactory due to 

the poor management of materials, money, and manpower, of which manpower planning and 

training is most neglected. For a sustained performance, the industry should have the ability to 

adopt appropriate technology to conserve energy and raw materials, and to cut down costs. This 

challenge can be faced only through a competent and skilled manpower at all levels. On the 

average, the industry utilizes 78 persons in the production line per 1,000 annual tons of 

production. The technical manpower components are 35-40 and 40-60 for every 1,000 annual 

tons in the large and small mills, respectively. For the whole Indian paper industry, professional 

and technical manpower comprise 13% of the total manpower; administrative/executive and 

managerial personnel constitute 23%; 12% are clerical personnel, 7% are service workers, and 45% 

are production-related workers.


To meet the challenges of technical upgrading and productivity improvement, the industry will 

strive for a reduction in its manpower usage with an associated rise in workers’ competence. For 

the next 10-12 years, it is estimated that the average manpower utilization in the country will be 35 

persons per 1,000 annual tons in the paper & paper board sector, and 15-20 persons per 1,000 

annual tons in the newsprint sector. Training programs in the pulp and paper industry will be 

modified to fit into the national pattern for degree/polytechnic diploma levels. The entire strategy 

of manpower development will involve training competent/skilled personnel to move the industry 

to perform at its best level. 

Status (% of Factories) 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 

Computerization Electronic Automation 

Electro Mechanical Regulation Manual Operation 

Figure 6.2.4. Status of process automation in the paper industry 

6.2.2.5 Current status of the pulp and paper industry in Indian national economy 

The paper industry constitutes the core of industries directly linked to the national economy. 

Current per capita consumption of paper is 2.5 kg, and is expected to grow to 4.2 kg by the end of 

the century. Efforts to build additional capacity to meet the future requirements of various grades 

of paper are on-going. In fact, the country has attained self-sufficiency in most varieties of 

industrial paper. Newsprint, though, is still imported at 40% levels, implying a considerable 

outflow of foreign exchange. 

Considering the huge amount of non-conventional raw materials available for pulp and paper 

manufacture, there exists a big export potential in the pulp and paper sector. In 1994-1995 alone, 

nearly 200,000 tons of paper had been exported to third world countries.


6.2.3 Evolution of energy efficiency in Indian pulp and paper industry 

Pulp and paper being an energy intensive industry, is ranked the sixth largest energy consumer in 

the country. Fuels from external sources comprise 70% of the total used, as compared to 30-40% 

for those in developed countries. The energy component in the Indian paper industry is as high as 

30% of the total cost of production, consuming about 7% of the country’s coal and approximately 

3% of the electrical energy requirements of the whole manufacturing sector. Unlike other 

industries, the paper industry requires large quantity of low grade energy (200 o C). Of the total 

energy requirements, about 15-25% is of high grade (electrical energy), and the rest is constituted 

by low grade energy. In terms of thermodynamic efficiency, the industry is lowest among the 

energy intensive manufacturing units of the steel and cement industries. 

The industry was greatly affected by the energy crisis in the early 1970s, which led to the adoption 

of energy conservation methods. Most of the mills installed before the 1970 crisis however, were 

not energy conserving in design and technology. Even though the concept of energy savings 

intensity had already been identified in the 80s, consumption patterns remained the same, brought 

about by the following: 

- lack of modernization 

- use of obsolete technology 

- lack of process control system 

- change in fibrous raw material mix 

The estimated energy consumption in the pulp and paper industry is 2.42 tons of oil equivalent per 

ton of paper. The major energy-consuming plants are the chippers, digesters, refiners, paper 

machines and evaporation plants. The present specific energy consumption patterns show higher 

variations in the integrated pulp and paper mills. The specific steam consumption varies from 10.2 

to 17.4 tons/ton of paper produced, while the specific power consumption varies from 1,300 to 

1,940 kWh/ton of paper. Water consumption also varies from 225 m 3 to 450 m 3 /ton of paper. 

In the last decade, the cost of coal and electricity has increased by 500% and fuel oil by 1000%. 

Based on the industry’s 4.25 million tons of total installed capacity and capacity utilization for all 

products, the projected consumption of the paper industry by year 2000 would require an 

additional 3.0 million tons of coal and about 1.82 million kWh electricity. This means a 76% 

increase in coal requirements and 139% increase in electricity requirements. With rising energy 

costs, ways and means to conserve energy now becomes a major thrust in the industry. 

Energy consumption patterns in developed countries and in India 

Between 1975-1983, the Japanese paper industry has reduced its specific energy consumption from 

0.662 toe to 0.437 toe per ton of paper, accounting for a 34% reduction in specific energy


consumption. This could be attributed to the country’s heavy investments in fossil fuel substitution 

energy programs. European oil consumption has also been cut down from 37% to 8%. The 

Swedish paper industry managed to cut its oil fuel consumption by over 70% between 1973 and 

1983. In the USA, energy from residual fuel and self-generating sources now accounts for an 

estimated 57-58 percent. 

Clearly, most of the developed countries have made significant progress to conserve energy, and 

are presently depending only on 30-40% of fuels from external sources. India however, is still 70% 

dependent on external fuels. The industry’s specific energy consumption varies between 0.76 to 

1.325 toe per ton of paper. 

Table 6.2.1, Table 6.2.2 and Figure 6.2.5 show a comparison between mills in India and the 

developed countries, and energy consumption patterns in the country. It is worthwhile to note 

that some Indian paper mills have already taken some in-plant energy conservation measures. 

Table 6.2.1 Comparison of energy consumption of developed countries and India 

Particulars Developed countries India 

Total specific steam consumption, t/t paper 6.5-8.5 10-16 

Digester 1.9-2.3 2.3-3.9 

Evaporator 1.5-2.2 2.5-4.0 

Paper machine 1.9-2.0 3.0-4.0 

S/R plant 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.1 

Bleach plant 0.2-0.25 0.35-0.40 

Steam generator per ton of black solids 3.0-3.5 1.5-2.5 

Table 6.2.2 Electricity consumption of paper in Developing countries and India (kWh/t) 

Particulars Developed countries India 

Total Consumption 1150-1250 1200-1700 

Chipper 92-98 112-128 

Digester 43-46 58-62 

Washing and screening 116-122 145-155 

Bleaching plant 66-69 88-92 

Stock preparation 164-175 275-286 

Paper machine 410-415 465-475 

S/R plant 127-135 170-190 

Utilities & others 160-165 246-252 

Total specific energy (Gcal/t) 4.14-4.50 4.32-6.12


2.5 

2.0 

1.5 

1.0 

0.5 

0 

1960 1970 1980 1990 1992 

Specific electricity, MWh / ton Paper 

Specific coal, toe / ton Paper 

Specific fuel oil, toe / ton Paper 

Specific non-conventional energy, toe / ton Paper 

Integrated specific energy, toe / ton Paper 

Figure 6.2.5 Energy consumption pattern in the Indian paper industry 

6.2.4 Environmental externalities of technological development in the pulp and paper 

industry 

The pulp and paper industry is essentially a chemical process industry with a distinctive impact on 

the environment. It is estimated that about 41.8% of wood is recovered as bleached pulp, roughly 

4.2% of the remaining wood ends up as solid waste, as 5.25% goes into waste waters as dissolved 

organic matter, and 2.3% ends up as suspended solids also in wastewater. 

The potential pollutants from a pulp and paper mill fall into four categories as follows: 

- effluents 

- air pollutants 

- solid wastes 

- noise pollution


6.2.4.1 Effluents 

Waste water is discharged from almost all unit operations. Large paper mill waste waters are 

generally segregated into streams, namely, colored streams (due to lignin from pulp washing, 

caustic extraction and chemical recovery sector), and colorless stream (chipper house, chlorination, 

hypochlorite and paper machines). Bleach plant effluents constitute nearly 65% of the total BOD 

and 90% of the total color load of combined effluents in large mills. 

Small mills generate ostensibly higher pollution than larger mills mainly due to the absence of 

chemical recovery systems. Major pollution loads come from spent pulping liquor, of which 90% 

of the color and 50% of the COD is due to lignin which is almost completely bio-refractory. 

Tables 6.2.3 and 6.2.4 show the effluent characteristics and the pollution loads of black liquor and 

organics in Indian pulp and paper mills. 

Table 6.2.3 Characteristics of effluents from the pulp and paper mills 

Integrated pulp Newsprint Agro-based small Waste paper 

& paper mills mills paper mills mills 

Raw material bamboo, hardwood bamboo, rice straw, wheat waste paper 

hardwood straw, bagasse, etc. 

waste water, m3/ton 230-250 200 200-380 70-150 

PH 

Pollution load, kg/ton paper: 

6.0-9.0 7.2-7.3 6.0-8.5 6.0-8.5 

Suspended solids 100-150 100 90-240 50-80 

BOD5 35-50 45 85-270 10-40 

COD 150-200 135 500-1100 50-90 

Table 6.2.4 Pollution loads of black liquor and organics 

Parameters Bagasse Rice straw 

COD, kg/t pulp 1075 1247 

BOD, kg/t pulp 216 234 

Black liquor COD/BOD 

5.0 

5.3 

Color, kg/t pulp (PCU) 

1394 

1514 

Acid precipitation COD, kg/t pulp 530 628 

Lignin separated BOD, kg/t pulp was not biodegradable was not biodegradable 


1283 

1444 

Supernatant free 

from lignin 

COD, kg/t pulp 

BOD, kg/t pulp 

COD/BOD 


417 

197 

2.1 

82 

381 

247 

1.5 

1113


Although the spent pulping liquor is the major source of pollution in terms of depleting oxygen 

conditions, the toxicity of the effluents in terms of Total Organic Chlorine (TOCl) originates from 

the bleaching plant of the large and small mills. The amount of TOCl produced is dependent on 

the amount of free Cl2 used during bleaching operations and is roughly calculated by the following 

equation: 

TOCl = K(C+D/5 +H/2) kg TOCl/air dried ton of pulp, 

where C, D, & H are doses of Cl 2, ClO 2 and hypochlorite. 

In India, the situation due to these chloro compounds becomes more alarming in the small paper 

mills. Increasing caustic soda prices and increasing gap between caustic soda and chlorine prices 

indicate a tendency to decrease alkali charge in cooking, thereby increasing lignin content and 

chlorine consumption. 

6.2.4.2 Solid wastes 

Solid wastes constitute a complex problem in the industry due to the varying nature and enormity 

of the wastes generated. Table 6.2.5 shows the solid waste generation from the small and large 

paper mills. The main sources of solid wastes are: 

- The raw material handling/preparation 

- The effluent sludge from the combined mills effluent treatment plant 

- Flue dust from coal-fired boilers and fines in the coal 

- Coal cinders from coal-fired boilers 

- Lime sludge from the chemical recovery plant 

- Hypo mud from the hypo plant 

- Pith generation from the de-pithing plant. 

Wastes from raw materials handling are burnt, discharged as effluent, or dumped in barren lands. 

Burning of lime sludge from causticizers and hypochlorite preparation plants in India, however, is 

unsuccessful due to the high silica content. Hence, the desilication of the black liquor is essential. 

Moreover, sludge from water treatment or effluent treatment plants contains nearly 72% organic 

compounds and has 45-50% water content. Therefore, dewatering of the sludge, and stabilizing the 

water is necessary before its final disposal. 

Coal ash which accounts for 30-32% of the total coal burnt also adds to the solid waste disposal 

problem. Most of it is used as landfill, although its disposal is still a cause for concern. 

From the foregoing discussion, the seriousness of the problems due to wastes generated from the 

pulp and paper industry is not something to be taken for granted. The pressure on land is already 

high, and unless long term plans are made to either reburn the lime sludge, to separate and re-use 

fibrous wastes, and to use coal ash for building materials, the mills will face serious problems for


solid waste disposal in the coming years. The rising consciousness for a clean, healthy environment 

and the implementation of stringent measures for solid waste disposal will force the industry to 

make decisions in order to stop environmental degradation. 

Table 6.2.5 Solid waste generation in paper mills 

Waste source Large paper mills 

(kg dry solids / ton 

paper) 

Raw material 

handling/preparation 

Small paper mills 

(kg dry solids / ton 

paper) 

45 210* 

Hypochlorite preparation grit 20 nil 

Recausticizing lime mud 593 nil 

Power plant/boiler ash** 656 1300 

Waste treatment plant*** 

1. Primary sludge 159 105 

2. Secondary sludge 34 105 

TOTAL 1507 1731 

% inorganic solids 84 75 

% organic solids 16 25 

6.2.4.3 Air pollution 

Particulate and gaseous pollutants from the pulp and paper mills are discharged through the 

following: 

- Digester relief 

- Brown stock washers 

- Washer-bleach liquor preparation plant 

- Multi-effect evaporators for black liquor 

- Direct contact evaporators like cascades, cyclones, etc. 

- Chemical recovery furnace 

- Smelt dissolving and slaking tanks 

- Lime kilns 

- Boiler flue gases 

* When bagasse is used in place of straw in SPM, solid waste generated from raw materials handling will 

be 550 kg/ton paper and total solid wastes will be 2071 kg/t with 65% inorganic solids. 

** Ash generation depends on % ash in coal and the amount of power/steam generation. 

*** Estimated (assuming 0.5 kg mixed liquor suspended solids produced / kg BOD removed in activated 

sludge treatment plant.


Air pollutants are generally controlled by the dust-collecting equipment. Chemical particulates 

emitted from recovery furnaces, smelt dissolving tanks and lime kilns, mostly of sodium sulfate 

and sodium carbonate, are controlled to a considerable extent by the use of venturi scrubbers, 

electrostatic precipitators, and other effective dust-collecting devices. 

Emitted gases which are a variable mixture of hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptans, dimethyl 

sulfide and sulfur dioxide, originate mainly from the sulfate pulping process. Table 6.2.6 shows the 

main emissions of reduced sulfur compounds from the sulfate pulping process. 

Table 6.2.6 Main emissions of sulfur compounds from the sulfate pulping process 

Emission rate, kg/t90 

Emission source 

Batch digester 

H2S 0-0.15 

*MM 

CH3SH 0-1.3 

*DMS 

CH3SCH3 0.05-3.3 

*DMDS 

CH3SSC H3 0.05-2.0 

Continuous digester 0-0.10 0.5-1 0.05-0.5 0.05-0.4 

Washing 0-0.10 0.05-1 0.1-1.0 0.1-0.08 

Evaporation 0.05-1.5 0.05-0.8 0.05-1.0 0.05-1.0 

Recovery Furnace (with 

DCE) 

0-2.50 0-2 0-1 0.03 

Smelt dissolving tank 0-1.0 0-0.08 0-0.5 0.03 

*MM: Methyl-mercaptan; DMS: Dimethyl sulfide; DMDS: Dimethyl Disulfide 

6.2.4.4 Noise pollution 

The major contribution to noise pollution comes from the chipper house, vacuum pumps and 

compressors. Mufflers are necessary to reduce noise in vacuum pumps; and in the paper machine 

drive, changing the material of construction not only reduces noise, it also has the additional 

advantage of self-lubrication. Wherever possible, the paper machine drive gears are made of 

polypick or nylon material to serve the purpose of reducing noise. 


technological change 

6.2.5.1 Energy saving potential 

It is estimated that the energy bill of the pulp and paper industry is about Rs 10 billion with a 

savings potential of at least 20% or Rs 2 billion, if a proper impetus is given to energy 

management. Technological renovations can play a significant role in improving the energy 

efficiency of the processes and lead to a reduction in specific energy consumption, improvement 

of energy and productivity and product quality. These may include major modifications of the 

existing plants and changes in the operating practices or process controls and equipment.


The industry can achieve better energy performance in a number of ways: 

- short-term schemes with small investments and improved housekeeping measures 

estimated to reduce the energy bill by 5% 

- medium-term schemes with attractive pay-back periods can reduce the energy bill by 10- 

15% 

- long-term schemes with major investments can cut the energy bill by 5-10%. 

6.2.5.2 Energy and environmental audits, process modifications, optimization and control, 

and energy generation 

A. Energy and environmental audits 

Energy audit is used as a tool in defining and pursuing comprehensive energy management 

programs. Its primary objective is to determine ways of reducing energy consumption per unit of 

product output. The process is conducted in two ways: preliminary audit and the detailed audit. 

The preliminary audit is conducted in a limited span of time, focusing on the major energy supply 

and demand aspects which account for 70% of the total energy requirements. The detailed audit 

goes beyond the quantitative estimates to cost savings. 

Environmental audits also help in identifying areas of high pollution loads which can be useful for 

the management to come up with measures to reduce pollution discharges. In general, Indian 

paper mills adopt pollution abatement strategies of two types: 

- Internal measure: production process control aimed at reducing waste water volume and 

pollutant discharge load from the mill 

- External measure: waste water treatment technologies or end-of-pipe treatment systems 

aimed at reducing discharges of pollutants to the environment. 

B. Process modifications, optimization and advanced controls 

Through the combination of modifying existing processes and the development of new ones, the 

objective of improving energy efficiency can be achieved. Considerable energy savings in the 

industry has been reported brought about by such measures: 

- Digester: 10-20% 

- Bleaching 5-10% 

- Evaporator 3-5% 

- Recovery boiler 20-50% 

- Paper machines 10-20% 

Following are some latest technologies that are applied in the pulp and paper industry of India:


Raw Materials Handling 

1. Replacement of disc chippers by drum chippers 

In some of the mills, it has been observed that the replacement of large numbers of disc-type low 

capacity chippers with high capacity chippers made it possible to reduce energy consumption from 

35 kWh to as low as 7 kWh/ TBD1 chips. 

Table 6.2.7 Comparative energy consumption of different chippers used 

Type of chippers Capacity TBD Energy consumption 

kWh/ton of BD chip 

1. Drum type 20-25 7 

2. Disc type 6-10 30 

(Status: already in use in three large mills) 

2. Conversion of pneumatic conveyor to the mechanical type 

80% of the mills in India have resorted to the mechanical type of conveying, and a reduction of 4- 

5 tons energy consumption had been realized. Performance-wise, the cleated conveyor belts offer 

an excellent alternative to the pneumatic conveyors. Due to layout restrictions, however, the other 

mills are not able to likewise do conversions. 

Pulping 

1. Installation of continuous digesters in place of batch digesters 

In some of the large integrated mills mainly in the public sector units, the old conventional batch 

digesters are now being replaced by continuous digesters, and are found to be energy efficient 

(Table 6.2.8). Advantages brought about by the latter are: 

- uniform cooking and better pulp quality 

- low specific energy consumption 

- less alkali charge 

- shorter cooking cycle 

- higher liquor concentration for recovery 

2. RDH/Cold Blow System 

This technological innovation has been introduced for energy conservation of 20-25%, and are 

ideally suited for stationary digesters. 

1 TBD : Ton Bone Dry


Table 6.2.8 Comparative performance of different digesters used 

Batch Continuous 

Steam/ton of pulp 1.6 1.0 

Power units/ton of pulp 150 56 

Alkali (%) 16 14 

(Status: HPC units (Nawgaon, Cachar) have Kamyr digesters whereas Seshashayee 

Paper Boards and Tamilnadu News Print Ltd. have Pandia continuous digesters.) 


1. Oxygen bleaching 

This process is being used in paper mills which go for a low kappa number pulping. The 

introduction of oxygen delignification before bleaching reduces the bleach consumption, making 

the bleach effluent less toxic towards the environment with the added advantage of being able to 

generate additional steam from extracted organics at the oxygen stage. 

Another recently introduced bleaching technique is the use of peroxide in the conventional 

systems, which has already been adopted in one of the paper mills in the country. 

2. Stock preparation 

Most of the Indian integrated and non-integrated paper mills are replacing the conventional conical 

and wide angle refiners with disc refiners, which are found to be comparatively highly energy 

efficient (Table 6.2.9). 

Table 6.2.9 Comparative power consumption of different refiners used 

Type Specific energy consumption 

(kWh / sr / ton of pulp) 

Wide angle refiner 14-18 

Conical refiner 9-13 

Double disc refiner 7-9 

Triple disc refiner 6 

Chemical Recovery 

1. Evaporators 

The type of evaporators being used in the Indian paper industry has been the long & short tube 

evaporators. These are currently being replaced by the 7-effect free falling film type evaporators 

which reduce steam consumption by 25-30% in the evaporator section. Increasing the number of 

effects of falling film evaporators can achieve a steam economy as high as 8.0.


Recently, high pressure pumps have also been installed in some of the paper mills which help to 

improve steam economy from 4.2 to 4.8. 

2. Energy cogeneration through boiler modifications 

A number of improvements in the paper industry are needed with regards to the following: 

configuration of recovery boilers with respect to liquor firing, efficient three zone air distribution, 

auxiliary fuel furnace construction corrosion, protection and steam pressure. Earlier, boilers were 

giving steam pressures of 20 kg/cm 2 but mills are now able to produce steam pressures of 40-60 

kg/cm 2 . With new designs, boilers can now produce high pressure steam of 100 kg/cm 2 . By 

incorporating the above-mentioned improvement, the West Coast Paper Mills in India is now 

going for recovery with steam pressure of 80 kg/cm 2 . 

3. Introduction of on-line measurement and control system 

On-line measurements and control systems have lately been introduced in Indian paper machines 

in the Tribeni and HNL paper mills. Other mills are following suit. The introduction of such 

systems aids in the following: 

- high fiber savings 

- improved and consistent quality of paper 

- optional moisture content 

- reduction in energy consumption due to high % of moisture in paper. 

Digesters 

It has been observed that the use of low liquor to material ratio is quite effective in reducing the 

energy consumption in the digester section. In small agro-based pulp mills, this is achieved by the 

constant monitoring of low moisture in the raw material, maintaining a high concentration of the 

cooking liquor (100g/li) and a high temperature or shorter cooking cycle. 

Installation of screw press for efficient washing of pulp 

In conventional washing systems, non-woody raw materials are more difficult to wash compared 

to woody raw materials. The usual equipment being used is the counter current multistage vacuum 

drum filters. It is observed, however, that for every percent increase in solids, a savings potential of 

25 tons of steam per day in a 100 tons per day pulp mill is possible. Table 6.2.10 shows how the 

steam requirement in evaporators is reduced with an increase in inlet solid concentrations. 

In one of the straw-based mills, it was observed that the installation of the screw press before the 

vacuum washer increased the specific loading rate and initial concentration of weak black liquor to 

the evaporator. This reduced the steam requirement during the evaporation process. Table 6.2.11 

shows the effects of process modification.


Table 6.2.10 Steam requirements with varying inlet and outlet concentrations 

White black liquor Final concentration Steam requirement 

(%) 

(t/t of pulp) 

6 40 10.6 

42 10.7 

45 10.8 

8 40 7.5 

42 7.6 

45 7.7 

10 40 5.6 

42 5.7 

45 5.8 

Table 6.2.11 Conventional and screw pressing followed by conventional washing 

Mode Specific loading 

rate 

BDMT/m 

Conventional washer (3- 

stage) 

Screw press followed by 

conventional washer (3stage) 

Black liquor 

solids 

% 

Chemical loss 

kg NaOH/t 

1.46 10 18 

1.73 12 12 

High solids evaporation through thermal depolymerization 

The energy in terms of steam that can be generated per ton of black liquor solids is dependent on 

the concentration of black liquor that is fired in the recovery boiler. Since it is difficult to handle 

highly viscous black liquor from non-woody materials in the evaporator, heat treatment of black 

liquor at temperatures higher than the cooking temperature could reduce the viscosity of black 

liquor tremendously, making it possible for the black liquor to evaporate, leaving behind some 

70% solids. The advantages of the black liquor treatment are the following: 

- Instead of a 50-55% thermal efficiency for 55% black liquor solids, the net thermal 

efficiency is likely to reach 70% in cases of 65% solid concentration. 

- The use of direct contact evaporator is eliminated, thereby reducing gaseous pollution. 

C. Energy generation 

With regards to energy generation, small paper plants operating with lower capacity boilers 

consume waste fuels such as rice husk, bagasse, etc., and depend greatly on purchased power. 

Large mills on the other hand, generate part of their own power through cogeneration.


Commonly-used boilers are the stoker-fired boilers which may either be the chain grate or 

spreader-stoker type, with capacities ranging from 6-80 t/h. Most medium and large-size mills 

currently have installed fluidized bed combustion (FBC) boilers or are in the process of converting 

spreader stoker to FBC boilers. 

6.2.6 Status of the application of new technologies 

The extent of employment of energy-efficient and environmentally sound technologies (EEESTs) 

in the pulp and paper mills of India is summarized in Table 6.2.12. 

Table 6.2.12 EEESTs in the pulp and paper mills of India 

Technology No. of mills using the technology 

Palman chippers 7 

Kamyr continuous digesters 2 

Pandia continuous digesters 3 

Oxidative extraction (OE) 4 

Elemental chlorine-free bleaching 3 

Double disk refiners 50% of the mills 

Twin wire machines 5 

Free flowing falling film evaporators 3 

Long tube vertical type evaporators most integrated mills have LTV 

evaporators 

High pressure boilers (40-60 kg/cm) 5 

Electrostatic precipitator 70% of the integrated mills 

Lime sludge reburning 5 

Full fledged effluent treatment system 80-90% of the integrated mills and some 

selected medium and small-sized mills 

Despite the changes occurring with regards to environmental consciousness, public concerns and 

customer preferences in the country, the pulp and paper industry is still in a difficult position to 

impose total environmental management and undergo environmental control modifications in the 

facilities. Nevertheless, some new trends are currently being realized in a number of paper mills in 

the country in order to combat environmental problems (see Table 6.2.12).


6.3 COUNTRY REPORT: PHILIPPINES 


All industrial processes generate waste. Since no production system can transform all input 

resources completely into end-products, waste generation is inevitable. Problems arise when these 

wastes are discharged in excess of what the environment can absorb. 

The industrial sector which accounts for a large share in the country’s energy consumption, is also 

a major source of environmental pollution. Industrial pollution has earlier been considered a local 

problem but is today recognized as regional as well as global. Common sources of industrial 

pollution are the waste water used in the manufacturing process and the emissions from 

combustion of fossil fuel. There is a wide array of technically feasible abatement measures ranging 

from efficiency improvement in the process to the more common and usually more expensive endof-pipe 

pollution abatement technologies. 

The pulp and paper industry is one of the industrial sector’s high energy consumers and major 

contributors in pollution. Attention to the pulp and paper industry, therefore, deserves a high 

priority. This section looks into the technological status of the pulp and paper industry of the 

Philippines with regards to energy efficiency and environmental soundness. Through the historical 

and present techno-economic data of the industry, the potential for improving the current status of 

technologies for energy and environmental management is analyzed. 

6.3.2 Technological trajectory of the paper industry in the Philippines 

6.3.2.1 Structure of the paper industry 

Pulp and paper production in the Philippines was pioneered by Compania de Cellulosa de Filipinas 

when it established an integrated pulp and paper mill in 1948 in Bais, Negros Occidental. The mill 

which produced 10 tons of bond paper per day using bagasse as raw material is still in operating 

condition. Another pioneer in the paper industry was established in 1950 in Metro Manila to 

operate a second-hand board machine. This machine is still operational and currently produces 

chipboard. 

A number of paper mills were established during the 1950s and the early 1960s when the industry 

had to contend with two sets of import duty levels - a lower rate for pulp and a higher rate for 

finished paper and brand products. This encouraged the mills to utilize the cheaper imported raw 

materials. In effect, plans to build pulping facilities for most of the mills never materialized. 

Several non-integrated paper mills were established during the 1970s and 1980s but these were 

based mainly on imported and local recycled waste paper. The list of paper mills in the country 

and their dates of establishment are shown in Annex 1.


From 1978 to 1991, paper production in the Philippines remained flat. Consumption on one hand 

increased from 440,000 tons in 1978 to 753,000 tons in 1993 (Table 6.3.1). To meet increasing 

demand, the country had to rely on imports. In contrast, production of paper and board in other 

ASEAN countries rose from 820,000 to 2,100,000 tons with marginal increase in net imports 

during the same ten-year period. 

Despite the problem of power shortages in the last two years, the industry managed to continue 

operations and, aided by resilient domestic market, was able to post moderate gains. Total 

production of the country’s operating mills reached 490,000 tons in 1992 and increased by 6% to 

518,000 tons in 1993. 

Table 6.3.1 Evolution of paper industry: total paper and paperboard (10 3 tons) 

Year Installed 


Production Consumption Imports 

1987 439 319.5 475.0 200.8 

1988 506 341.0 493.9 193.0 

1989 564 345.0 554.6 216.4 

1990 579 325.0 481.6 205.3 

1991 579 392.0 626.0 245.2 

1992 635 489.0 743.1 279.5 

1993 650 517.5 753.1 279.5 

Source: Aragon, P.M., Country Focus. 

A. Production capacity 

From a 1989 survey, the industry coverage was 33 pulp and paper mills, with 4 integrated mills 

(shown in Table 6.3.2) and 5 pulp manufacturers (Table 6.3.3). The remaining 24 are nonintegrated 

paper mills. Exclusive of two non-operating mills, the total production capacity of the 

integrated mills is 410,000 tons per annum. 

The total pulp capacity of the Philippines is about 289,000 tons per annum while aggregate paper 

capacity is approximately 611,000 tons per year. In view of several closures, the average annual 

operating capacities for pulp and paper production are 223,000 tons and 526,000 tons, respectively 

(Table 6.3.4). 

The industry structure is very small compared to international standards. Of the 28 paper mills, 

only 3 have a capacity of over 50,000 tons per annum (Table 6.3.5). The average size of mills 

ranges from 10,000 to 15,000 tons per annum. The industry structure is also outmoded and as a 

result, suffers from lengthy machine downtime due to difficulties in obtaining outdated 

replacement parts.


Table 6.3.2 Integrated pulp and paper mills in the Philippines, 1989 

Company/Mill Pulp Paper 


(10 3 Materials Capacity 

t/year) 

(10 3 Main Grades 

t/year) 

PICOP 180 Mech, UKP, 150 Newsprint, Linerboard, 

BKP 

Corrugated Medium 

Central Azucarera 9 Bagasse 14 Printing 

United Pulp & Paper 16 Bagasse 31 Sack Kraft, Corrug. 

Menzi Dev’t. Corp. 3 Abaca 7 

Medium, Linerboard 

Printing & Writing 

Table 6.3.3 Pulp mills in the Philippines, 1989 

Company/Mill Capacity (10 3 t/year) Materials 

Albay Agro-Ind’l. Dev’t. Corp. 1 Abaca 

Canlubang Pulp Mfg. Company 4.5 Abaca 

Cellophil Resources Corporation 66 Wood Pulp 

Isarog Pulp and Paper Co. 4.5 Abaca 

PICOP 5 Abaca 

Table 6.3.4 Total pulp and paper mill capacities in the Philippines, 1989 

Mill Categories Capacity (10 3 t/year) 

Pulp Paper 

Integrated mills 208 202 

Pulp mills 81 - 

Paper mills - 409 

Total capacities 289 611 

Operational capacities 223 536 

Table 6.3.5 Philippine paper mills categorized by rated capacity (t/year) 

Rated Capacity Number of paper mills 

Below 10,000 10 

10,000 to 20,000 10 

20,000 to 50,000 5 

50,000 & above 3 

B. Paper machines 

There are currently 45 paper machines in the country with a total capacity of 540,000 tons per 

annum, or an average of 12,000 tons annually (Table 6.3.6).


Table 6.3.6 Paper machine structure in the Philippines in terms of capacity (10 3 t/year), 

trim width per cm, and start-up year 

PM capacity Operating Total paper % Share 

machines 

capacity 

below 10 33 166 31.0 

10 - 19 7 102 19.0 

20 - 29 1 27 5.0 

30 - 39 1 31 5.8 

40 - 49 - - - 

50 - 59 - - - 

60 - 69 2 128 23.9 

over 69 1 82 15.3 

Total 45 536 100.0 

PM trim/cm 

below 201 22 132 24.6 

201 - 300 16 118 22.0 

301 - 400 5 144 26.9 

401 - 500 - - - 

501 - 600 1 60 11.2 

over 600 1 82 15.3 

Total 45 536 100.0 

Start-up Year 

before 1960 7 57 10.6 

1960s 19 132 24.6 

1970s 10 240 44.8 

1980s 9 107 20.0 

Total 45 536 100.0 

As can be seen in Table 6.3.6, only three of the machines operate at a minimum of 60,000 tons per 

year, representing less than 40 percent of the total industry capacity. Most of the machines were 

bought second-hand and are very small both in terms of capacity and width. Only two have a 

width greater than 5 meters. The machines are also very old. However, it is quite difficult to 

establish the exact age of these machines because almost all have been bought second-hand. 

Twenty machines have reportedly been installed during the past 20 years. 

Of the 45 operating machines, 5 can easily absorb 50 percent of the total annual production 

capacity. In fact, the 2 biggest machines (with a trim exceeding 500 cm) have a combined capacity 

constituting 26.5 percent of total. Essentially, the country’s aggregate paper requirements may be 

supplied by only ten medium-sized (not necessarily modern) paper machines. Table 6.3.7 presents 

the status of the country’s paper machines in 1989, relative to that of the other ASEAN countries.


Table 6.3.7 Total capacities of paper machines in ASEAN countries by mill capacity, 

age, and width, 1989 (10 3 t/year) 

Distribution Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Total 

PM Capacity 

below 20,000 455 136 294 42 330 1257 

21,000-40,000 464 - 103 77 161 805 

41,000-60,000 155 - 60 60 50 325 

61,000-80,000 285 130 72 - 220 707 

over 80,000 225 - 82 - 200 507 

Total 1584 266 611 179 961 3601 

# of machines 90 27 52 13 78 260 

Average capacity 17.6 9.9 11.8 13.8 12.3 13.9 

Start-up year 

before 1950s 375 82 160 38 116 771 

1950s 10 - 55 - 6 71 

1960s 156 13 111 1 162 443 

1970s 281 26 238 47 287 879 

1980s 762 145 47 93 390 1437 

Total 1584 266 611 179 961 3601 

Median age (yr.) 10 8 21 9 12 13 

Wire width (m) 

below 3 602 121 301 64 540 1628 

3 - 5 617 15 168 115 351 1266 

5 - 7 140 130 142 - 70 482 

over 7 225 - - - 225 

Total 1584 266 611 179 961 3601 

Median width (m) 3.35 3.80 3.06 3.46 2.25 3.02 

Local mills lack the simplest instrumentation and process control systems. The speed of most 

machines is quite slow and consumption of energy is high. They are also ill-equipped in terms of 

environmental protection. Prolonged shutdowns have become common due to lack of spare parts 

and inadequate engineering/consulting companies. Safety standards are generally low and fatal 

accidents frequently occur. 

6.3.2.2 Technology 

Standard manufacturing technology is being used in the industry. Given the papermaking 

equipment and facilities available and the flexible requirements of the domestic market, this is 

found to be adequate for the industry. There appears to be an adequate supply of trained 

technicians and skilled personnel. Some big mills also engage foreign technicians as needed.


Based on the study commissioned by the Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP) in 1992, it 

was observed that the technological framework of the pulp and paper industry is essentially 

structured as follows: 

- Only 5 of the country’s operating mills are integrated with pulp production, representing 

36% of total production capacity. 

- The industry is heavily dependent on imported raw materials, particularly virgin pulp, 

waste paper, and papermaking chemicals. 

- Existing paper machines are generally small and do not have economies of scale to 

compete with foreign products. Even the 3 biggest machines representing 40% of the 

total production capacity do not have the economies of scale to be internationally 

competitive. Of the 45 operating machines, 40 have production capacities below 20,000 

tons. 

- Most of the paper machines are old and obsolete. Many were bought second-hand and 

were already outmoded on start-up. 

- One reason for the industry’s low operating efficiency is the difficulty to find spare parts 

for the outmoded machines. Shutdowns due to lack of spare parts are common among 

local mills. 

- High energy consumption is also an effect of obsolete machinery. Only a handful of the 

local machines have some sort of heat recovery system. 

- High energy costs, in turn, result in high production costs. To compare, a modern 

newsprint paper mill based on waste paper consumes about 900 to 1,000 kWh per ton, 

while a standard Philippine mill consumes 1,275 kWh per ton. 

- Modern integrated process control devices which are standard equipment for all machines 

in Western countries are not available in Philippine mills. Local mills are basically 

equipped with conventional pneumatic instrumentation, only 3 machines use 

computerized weight and moisture control systems, and a few operate without any kind 

of instrumentation at all. 

- Most machines operate at speeds below 500 m/min. The fastest newsprint machine runs 

at 760 m/min, slower than the speed of modern machines, which is 1,000 m/min. 

- Faulty process designs result from lack of engineering and technical expertise specific to 

the pulp and paper sub-sector. Extra operation costs are thus incurred, further 

aggravating the low operating efficiency of the industry.


- Safety standards in most mills are very low and fatal accidents frequently occur. 

Unprotected rotating parts, roll nips and pulpers are safety hazards in many mills. 

6.3.3 Evolution of energy efficiency in the pulp and paper industry of the Philippines 

6.3.3.1 Energy profile 

The pulp and paper industry is an energy-intensive industry where energy consumption varies with 

respect to the manufacturing operations and processes involved. From 1984 to 1992, figures show 

an increasing trend in the total consumption of energy for the pulp and paper sector. (Figure 

6.3.1). Oil, non-oil and electricity consumption comprise 40%, 35% and 25%, respectively, of the 

total energy consumption in the industry. 

toe 

450000 

400000 

350000 

300000 

250000 

200000 

150000 

100000 

50000 

0 

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 

Oil Non-oil Electricity Total Energy 

Figure 6.3.1 Historical energy consumption of the pulp and paper sector in the Philippines 

(koe, 1984 to 1992) 

The industry is also considered one of the high fuel oil consuming sectors among the Philippine 

industries with a share of 2.5% of the total industrial fuel oil consumption. The profile on energy 

use as is described below was based on six mills studied (Table 6.3.8 and Figure 6.3.2). 

A. Energy consumption 

Total annual energy consumption in six plants is 182,258 toe. This is broken down into 141,154 

toe (77%) bunker fuel and 284,64 toe (16%) electricity, and 12,640 toe (7%) for others. The energy 

requirement is used mainly as heat for steam generation/process heating and as mechanical power 

to run the plants’ electrical motors. 

Consumption of energy depends largely on the type of machine, its process design, operating 

efficiency, and production rate. Normally, smaller machines consume less energy because they


involve simpler processes with less automation. However, specific energy consumption is higher 

in smaller production units. As a result, energy utilization of local mills is 20 to 40% higher than 

standard levels. 

B. Energy source mix 

The energy use pattern in the six mills is based mainly on electricity and oil sources. One firm uses 

non-oil energy sources in the form of waste wood and black liquor. More than half of the energy 

input in the industry is used to generate steam for process heating. Supply of electricity differs 

among the plants. Most companies utilize electricity which is entirely supplied from outside, while 

one company internally generates a small portion of its electricity requirements. 

Table 6.3.8 Annual energy consumption of six mills of the Philippine paper industry 

Bunker Fuel Electricity Others Total 

Company 10 3 liters toe MWh toe GJ toe toe 

A 2224 2202 11197 955 3157 

B 20700 20500 45528 3884 24384 

C 1104 1093 1877 160 1253 

D 10490 10388 84530 7211 17599 

E 4056 4016 14853 1267 5283 

F 10971 102955 175680 14987 533398 12640 130582 

Total 142544 141154 333665 28464 533398 12640 182258 

77.45% 15.62% 6.93% 100.00% 

Average 23757 28231 55611 5693 36452 

Bunker 

Fuel 

77% 

Electricity 

16% 

Others 

7% 

Figure 6.3.2 Distribution of annual energy consumption of six Philippine paper mills 

C. Energy application 

About 72% of energy input goes for process heating. The use of electricity, mostly in electric 

motors, accounts for 23%. Other small applications such as materials handling and transportation, 

which utilizes petroleum products, account for 5% (Table 6.3.9).


Table 6.3.9 Energy utilization profile of 3 energy-intensive industries in the Philippines 

Energy Applications (%) Paper 

Industry 

Cement (Dry) Steel/Metal 

Mechanical Power Drive 23% 24% 30.3% 

Process Heating 72% 74.5% 66.0% 

Transport/Handling 5% 0.5% 1.5% 

Lighting/Airconditioning 

1.0% 2.2% 

Total 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 

D. Specific Energy Consumption 

On the average, energy consumed in six mills in the country is about 475.6 kgoe/t of paper 

produced. This ratio can be broken down into 364.5 kgoe (bunker fuel) per ton paper and 1,084 

kWh of electricity inputs per ton (Table 6.3.10). 

Table 6.3.10 Specific energy consumption of the six paper mills in the Philippines 

Company SFC in kgoe/t SELC in kWh/t SEC in kgoe/t 

A 310.9 1,580.0 445.6 

B 512.9 1,139.0 612.5 

C 239.2 410.8 274.3 

D 131.2 1,067.3 240.1 

E 306.5 1,133.5 403.2 

F 686.3 1,171.2 877.0 

Average 364.5 1,083.6 475.6 

E. Energy cost 

A previous survey revealed that from 1983 to 1986, fuels purchased accounted for 48% of the total 

of the sector, while electricity accounted for 52% (Table 6.3.11). The average cost of fuels and 

electricity purchased during the same period was P728,669 and P804,813, respectively. At present, 

the cost of bunker fuel oil which is the main source of energy for the industry, ranges from P2.65 

to P2.99 per liter. Electricity cost varies between P1.275 to P2.86 per kWh.


Table 6.3.11 Historical energy cost data of the Philippine paper industry (10 3 US$) 

Year Fuels Purchased Electricity Purchased Total 

1983 31937 25162 58377 

1984 50786 33440 86258 

1985 17614 28594 46913 

1986 16250 41574 58473 

Average 29147 32193 62505 

% of Total 48% 52% 100% 

Source: National Statistics Office, Annual Survey of Establishments 

6.3.4 Environmental externalities of the pulp and paper industry of the Philippines 

6.3.4.1 Environmental concerns 

The industry is heavily concentrated in Metro Manila with strong pressure to establish adequate 

pollution control measures. No mill can be expected to comply with the required environmental 

protection standards due to the high investment needed for proper pollution control measures. 

A. Water pollution 

The mills in the Philippines are mostly old and obsolete with limited pollution control facilities. 

The problem of pollution is more pronounced in the Metro Manila area where most of the mills 

are located. To worsen matters, Metro Manila has no common sewer system to ensure adequate 

waste water treatment. The main pollutants for the pulp and paper industry are the biological 

oxygen demand (BOD5) and the total suspended solids (TSS). 

Water pollution in Metro Manila has become very alarming. Both the industrial sector and private 

individuals are guilty of contributing to the city’s pollution problem. The huge influx of people 

from the provinces who do not have adequate sanitary facilities aggravates the situation. 

Meanwhile, most of the old paper mills only have filters for fiber recovery. 

Effluent water standards in the Philippines are set as ambient combinations. In contrast, other 

pulp and paper producing countries base their standards on the kilogram of pollutant discharged 

per ton of pulp and paper produced. There is no point, therefore, in comparing the two standards. 

The ambient water concentration applied in the Philippines is, however, close to the standard set in 

developed countries, particularly in the USA. 

B. In-plant measures and external effluent water treatment 

Aside from minimized water consumption, recovery of fiber, energy and chemicals is equally 

important for paper mills. The most common measures to effect this include the following:


- collection and recirculation of clean, cool water 

- installation of a vacuum sealing water system equipped with its own cooling tower and 

cooling water recirculation system 

- minimized flow of fresh water shower 

- use of mechanical seals to minimize sealing water consumption of pumps, agitators, and 

refiners 

- sufficient white water storage to equalize water flow and make operations more stable 

- use of effective fiber filters (fiber save all) or other equally effective recovery equipment 

to minimize fiber content in white water overflow 

The introduction of the above measures is expected to enable paper mills in areas with insufficient 

fresh water supply to further reduce water consumption to 10 m 3 per ton. In the Philippines, 

average water consumption is higher, at 30 m 3 per ton. This is because most of the mills are old 

and small, and it is very expensive to undertake a total rebuild. Also, waste paper is used as furnish 

in many mills and fresh water consumption is vital in the operation of these mills to ensure better 

quality of paper produced. 

In-plant measures alone cannot adequately control the presence of effluents and pollutants in 

water. It is necessary to undertake further treatment of effluents before final discharge is made. 

Before discharge, effluents must first be externally treated. A primary clarifier can reduce TSS by 

as much as 70 to 95 percent but BOD can only be reduced marginally by this method. A 

secondary treatment in an aerated lagoon or an activated sludge plant is necessary to shrink BOD 

by about 50 to 90 percent TSS can be minimized further by a secondary clarifier. 

Primary treatment should be compulsory for all pulp and paper mills starting from 1994. 

Secondary treatment including sludge handling should be obligated by the year 2000 or earlier. 

Also, new paper mills are encouraged to be built outside Metro Manila. 

A 1992 DBP study showed that environmental protection cost for the projected paper capacity in 

the year 2000 is estimated to be about US$ 70 million. This includes in-plant measures, primary 

and secondary treatment, and sludge handling. Project financing could come from grants and 

long-term loans sourced from international financing institutions. The total investment for 

installing environmental control measures for the five mills in 1992 is summarized in Table 6.3.12. 

C. Emissions to the atmosphere 

Practically all paper mills in the country have power boilers using Bunker C oil as fuel. Only one 

mill has a recovery boiler. The power boilers in most paper mills are generally small and mediumsized. 

When oil is burned, particulate matter and sulfur compounds are formed. The amount of 

sulfur compound depends on the amount of sulfur in oil.


Table 6.3.12 Investment for environmental control measures in 5 paper mills (10 3 US $) 

Case In-plant Primary Secondary Sludge Total 

measures treatment treatment handling 

A 190 1650 6100 1590 9530 

B 100 710 2210 860 3880 

C 85 370 860 760 2075 

D 100 660 1940 910 3610 

E 80 280 590 730 1680 

Reducing sulfuric emission may be realistically effected by the use of sulfur-free fuel or fuel with 

low sulfuric content and, treatment of flue gas after combustion. Using oil with low sulfur content 

is very effective in regulating sulfuric emissions. This kind of oil, however, is more expensive than 

the normal heavy oil. Electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers used for external treatment of flue 

gas are likewise effective but expensive. Particulate matter is practically eliminated (99 percent) 

with the application of the electrostatic precipitator. To reduce the sulfuric compounds H 2S and 

SO 2, it is necessary to wash the gases in scrubbers. This process reduces sulfur emission by as 

much as 90 to 95 percent. 



6.3.5.1 Energy conservation opportunities 

The following are the general observations and identified technologies with potentials for 

conserving energy for the industry on the basis of previous sectoral studies, surveys and energy 

audits conducted in the pulp and paper industry. 

- Combustion tests conducted during recent energy audits showed that majority of boilers 

were operating well within or near the optimum operating condition with boiler 

efficiencies varying from 72.4% to 87.7%. 

Four of the six companies surveyed, have, in one time or another, purchased and used a 

portable or on-line flue gas analyzer to monitor the combustion performance of their 

boilers and adjust/fine tune the air-fuel ratio. Of these four companies, only two have a 

functioning flue gas analyzer, one portable and one on-line. In the other two companies, 

the analyzers had not been operational for quite some time due to exhausted oxygen 

absorbent/cell. Most of the companies get a free boiler efficiency testing from the 

bunker fuel and/or fuel additive supplier on a monthly basis, while one company never 

had its boiler tested. 

- Boiler feedwater treatment is generally adequate, except in at least 3 companies where 

about 1/8 inch thick scale was found inside the boiler tubes during descaling.


- Fuel oil metering is usually done via day tank level monitoring. Only half of the 

companies surveyed are maintaining boiler operation logsheets. 

- Condensate recovered from the paper machines and returned back to the boiler house 

varied from as low as 30% to as high as 85%. 

- Leaks were often noted on the steam and condensate lines. Steam and condensate lines 

were also commonly observed to be inadequately insulated in most of the plants visited. 

Insulation usually consists of wool blanket or asbestos with aluminum cladding. 

- There is at least one opportunity to investigate the feasibility of installing waste heat 

recovery system in the form of economizer to recover heat from boiler flue gas and a heat 

exchanger to recover heat from boiler blowdown. 

- Historical data is not always available to show the distribution of electrical energy to the 

paper machines and other consumers. Furthermore, there is often a lack of watt-hour 

sub-metering system for the major process areas/equipment. Electrical power distribution 

in a paper mill goes mainly to the paper machine to provide motive power, the balance 

goes to the boiler house, lighting, air conditioning, office equipment and miscellaneous 

loads. 

- Natural lighting is effectively utilized in most of the companies surveyed. However, most 

installed skylights need to be cleaned/replaced. The installation/retrofitting of reflectors 

on existing fluorescent fixtures is uncommon in the industry. The rapid start type ballasts 

are still commonly used. Indoor lighting is predominated by fluorescent fixtures. A 

typical fixture is surface-mounted and consists of two 4-watt fluorescent tubes, without 

reflectors or diffusers but only a casing for the ballast. 

- Motor loads account for the largest portion of the total electrical load. This is an 

indication that there are energy conservation opportunities in the system. 

- The electrical power factor of five plants ranged between 83.75% and 99.5%. In one 

plant, however, the monthly metered power factor of the plant’s electrical system 

averages at a very low 72.58%. As a result of this very low power factor, a power factor 

adjustment or penalty is added to the electricity bill. 

- To ensure a reliable supply of electricity, at least two paper mills are seriously considering 

to install 12 to 20 MW cogeneration systems. Assuming that 50% of the industry will 

install cogeneration systems to be self-sufficient in its thermal and electrical requirements, 

a considerable amount of savings in annual fuel consumption can be realized.


- Air intake in compressed air systems is often from the same enclosed area/surroundings 

where the compressors are located. 

- Pumps and refiners utilized by the paper industry are quite inefficient. Pumps normally 

consume 25 to 35% of electrical energy, while refiners use up 15 to 25%. The low 

efficiency of these machines may be attributed to design capacity and actual process 

requirements. Other factors which significantly influence power consumption and 

refining results are the types of refiner, plate pattern, and speed. 

- Paper drying consumes the biggest share of the process steam. An increase of about 2 to 

35% of paper web dryness after press may be achieved if a typical press part is improved. 

This alone would reduce steam consumption of paper drying by 8 to 12%. It could also 

improve the machine’s efficiency. 

6.3.5.2 Energy conservation program 

Majority of the companies in the industry do not have formal energy conservation committee at 

present. Some used to be very active in energy conservation earlier and have, in the past, 

implemented a number of energy conservation measures or are still carrying out energy 

conservation activities but in a much less aggressive manner. 

6.3.6 Status of application of new technologies 

In spite the opportunities for energy conservation in the industry, there are barriers to their 

effective implementation. These include technical, financial, institutional and other related issues as 

perceived by the industry. 

The technical barriers in the implementation of energy conservation technologies are mostly due to 

existing plant layout, support facilities and services offered by suppliers. For waste fuel utilization 

and coal conversion, problems on pollution, safety, and effects on quality of products were noted. 

These barriers include the lack of information on reliable suppliers and services offered, lack of 

expertise regarding operation, maintenance and servicing of equipment/system, and other 

operation-related problems. 

The financial/economic viability of energy conservation technologies is a major concern of every 

industry, and the most common financial barriers include the unavailability of funds for energy 

conservation projects and the lack of skill, both of plant personnel and financial institution 

personnel, in the packaging and evaluation of energy conservation projects. 

There is also a need to enhance the existing institutional framework that promotes and encourages 

energy conservation. A more aggressive information/dissemination campaign should be 

emphasized to encourage the industry to practice energy conservation.


6.3.7 Concluding remarks 

The pulp and paper industry in the Philippines has been described as small, outmoded, and highly 

protected. It is generally inefficient and internationally non-competitive, with bleak long-term 

prospects. Most of the machines in the pulp and paper sector are old and replaceable. It is 

believed that 10 reasonably-sized paper machines can easily produce 600,000 to 700,000 tons of 

the required one million tons projected for the year 2000. Operating fewer but bigger units will 

take advantage of economies of scale and benefit from modern process technologies. 

In the face of existing conditions, expansion is not recommended for the local industry. The 

increasing pressure to install environmental protection facilities in all mills and the required 

dislocation of plants outside the densely populated metropolis likewise demand a major structural 

change. Millers are, therefore, encouraged to relocate outside the densely populated metropolis 

with the high cost of environmental protection necessitating relocation in areas which are less 

populated. 

Since the industry has not yet reached the ultimate limits of resource-use efficiency, reducing waste 

generation should be high on the industry’s agenda, not only because of concern for the 

environment, but for the more fundamental reason of improving profitability. After all, whatever 

the industry discharges as waste are essentially the very resources it buys and pays for in the first 

place. Nothing comes free. Yet in the past, waste reduction never received the priority it deserved. 

It is important, therefore, to reflect and analyze why.


6.4 COUNTRY REPORT: SRI LANKA 


The current gross domestic product of Sri Lanka is estimated to be increasing at 6.9%. Manufacturing, 

wholesale and retail trade and agriculture are the most important contributory sectors to the growth. 

In 1993, the GDP at current market price was estimated to be Rs. 150.8 billion, with agriculture, 

forestry and fishing contributing 21.2% share of the GNP, mining and quarrying 2.5%, manufacturing 

19.4%, wholesale and retail trade 21.8% and construction 7%. 

The population of Sri Lanka in 1993 has been estimated at 17.62 million. The per capita GNP at 

current factor cost prices is estimated at US$ 526 in 93, an increase of 16.5% over previous year. 

Pulp and paper industry in Sri Lanka was introduced in the 1950’s by the state and was managed by 

the state until very recently. The machinery and the technologies are generally old. Though it has been 

realised that improvements in energy efficiency and environmental standards are very desirable, the 

lack of finances has impeded this development. 

6.4.2 Technological trajectory of the Sri Lankan pulp and paper industry 

6.4.2.1 Capacity, production, raw material and process mix 

There are two paper mills in Sri Lanka. The pulp manufacturing techniques of these mills are soda 

pulping and neutral sulfite semi-chemical processes. Both these plants are designed to use straw as the 

raw material. Figure 6.4.1 shows the pulp production and Figure 6.4.2 shows the raw material mix for 

pulp production. The second plant was commissioned in the late seventies thus increasing the total 

installed capacities. However, as sections of the older plants become unavailable for production, the 

total installed capacity gradually decreased. This is reflected in Figure 6.4.1. 

The extent of production of pulp from rice straw gradually decreased due to the environmental effect 

of discharges from this process. To make up for these losses, the production from waste paper 

increased proportionately. The productivity reported is shown in Table 6.4.1. 

Table 6.4.1 Reported productivity in Sri Lankan pulp and paper industry 

Year Productivity (ton/employee) 

1960 7.7 

1980 5.4 

1990 6.2 

1992 9.2 

The shortfall between the demand for pulp and local production were met by gradual increase of 

imported pulp from large pulp manufacturers, as these became economically attractive.


Pulp Production 

14000 

12000 

10000 

8000 

6000 

4000 

2000 

0 

1970 1980 1990 1992 

Year 

Installed Capacity From Straw & Wood From Waste Paper 

Figure 6.4.1 Sri Lanka’s pulp production capacity by source (tons) 

Raw material 

35000 

30000 

25000 

20000 

15000 

10000 

5000 

0 

1970 1980 1990 1992 

Year 

Wood Straw 

Figure 6.4.2 Raw material mix for pulp production (tons) 

6.4.2.2 Role of the pulp and paper industry in the national economy 

Paper is a direct input to other economic activities like printing and service sectors and remains very 

important in Sri Lankan economy although its relative importance in terms of production is not very 

significant. The contribution of the pulp and paper industry to the Sri Lankan national economy is


demonstrated by its high value added and employment and profitability ratios. The percentage of 

value added to GDP and the value of output has been increasing over the years. Table 6.4.2 shows 

some key economic indicators of the sector. 

Table 6.4.2 Economic indicators of the pulp and paper industry 

Year 1985 1993 

Value Added to GDP (Million 

Rs.) 

200.235 416.347 

No. of Direct Employees 

Sector employment as a ratio of: 

3953 3167 

Industrial Employment 1.26% 0.4% 

Total Employment 0.08% 0.06% 

Direct employment in the pulp and paper sector declined by about 19% between the years 1985 and 

1993. This was caused mainly by the closure of the Valachchenai plant owing to terrorism in the 

Eastern part of Sri Lanka since 1985. 

6.4.3 Evolution of energy efficiency in the pulp and paper industry of Sri Lanka 

Figure 6.4.3 shows the specific energy consumption of the two processes. These factories have been 

operating on varying raw material and technological mixes over the years. Whenever imported pulp or 

waste paper was cheaper, the imported component increased substantially. Thus over the years, these 

plants have been operating with varying degrees of integration, giving non-consistent values for 

specific energy consumption. 

6.4.4 Environmental externalities in the pulp and paper industry of Sri Lanka 

The paper mill which was commissioned in the 1950's, does not have a chemical recovery plant and 

the black liquor was directly discharged into a natural water stream. This has caused a severe 

environmental problem in the area. The stream became dead due to oxygen depletion and the 

deposition of fibrous material along the banks. The lagoon which receives the water stream which was 

rich in prawns and other varieties of fish also became dead. This has led to some serious social 

problems in the fishing villages of the area.


Specific Energy Consumption 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0 

1980 1990 

Year 

1992 

Soda Pulping Sulfite Process 

Figure 6.4.3 Specific energy consumption for soda and sulfite pulping processes 

(toe/t of pulp) 

In the eighties the use of straw as raw material was reduced and recycling of waste paper was increased 

in this factory. In the early 90s, pulp production from straw was completely stopped. Since then the 

environmental issue of discharging effluent into the lagoon has been satisfactorily resolved. 

The second plant which was commissioned in the 1970's was equipped with a chemical recovery 

plant. Unfortunately this plant has never been commissioned due to the high silica content in the 

black liquor. 

Since the inception of the plant the effluents from the mill have been discharged into a main river. As 

the effluents are discharged without chemical recovery, the pollution caused to the river is appreciable. 

The users of the river water are agitating for remedial action. 



The following options may be examined to resolve the high energy cost and the environmental 

problems caused: 

(a) Change Raw Material 

- By changing the raw material from rice straw to bagasse, the silica problem in the black 

liquor could be overcome. With minor modification to the chemical recovery plant, 

chemicals in the effluent could be recovered. Adequate bagasse is available in the locality.


- The use of wood as raw material for the manufacture of pulp will have similar advantages as 

above. The resources needed for growing of trees for this purpose are available. 

(b) Change of Chemical 

By the use of potassium hydroxide instead of sodium hydroxide for cooking of rice straw, the effluent 

could be collected and marketed as potassium based fertilizer. 

(c) Change of Fuel 

As the paper factories are located in the rice growing and processing areas, adequate quantities of rice 

husk is available to be used as fuel for the production of steam for heat and electricity.


7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Sections 1-4 

AFME, 1983. “Preconcentration of Black Liquor Using Mechanical Vapor Recompression”, 

French Agency for Energy Management, France. 

Anonymous 1, 1981. “Pollution by the Pulp and Paper Industry”, Organization for Economic 

Cooperation and Development (OECD), Paris, France: ISBN: 9-264-11117-4. 

Anonymous 2, 1982. “Environmental Guidelines for Pulp and Paper Industry”, Editor Yusuf J. 

Ahmed. UNEP, ISBN: 92-807-1054x. 

Anonymous, 1982. “Philippine Technical Information Sheets”, No.4. Pulp and Paper. Published 

by: Science and Technology Information Institute, Department of Science and Technology, 

Bicutan, Taguig, Metro, Manila Philippines. 

Asian Development Bank, 1994. “Industrial Pollution Prevention”. 

Asian Development Bank, 1993. “Environmental Guidelines for Selected Industrial and Power 

Development Projects”, Office of the Environment.. 

ATV, 1991. Guidelines for Pulp and Paper Industry in Germany”, Volume 38, page 1684. 

Basu, S., 1986. “Studies on the Development of Soda Recovery Process by Ultrafiltration”, 

UNIDO-sponsored seminar on Comparative Pulping Process, Alexandria, Egypt, April 1986. 

Basu, S. and V.S. Sapkal, 1987. “Membrane Technique in Simplification of Soda Recovery in 

Pulp and Paper Industry”, Desalination, 67, 1987, 371-379. 

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Environmental Sanitation Review, 27 June 1988, p 31. 

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Section 6.1 

A. References 

[1] Almanac of China’s Paper Industry, 1993, Edited by China Technical Association of Paper 

Industry (CTAPI). 

[2] Almanac of China's Paper Industry 1990, Edited by China Technical Association of Paper 


[3] Almanac of China's Paper Industry 1986, Edited by China Technical Association of Paper 


[4] Chen Yonghong, Energy Issues and Counter-measures for the Paper Industry of China, 

Proceedings of the Annual Academic Conference of CTAPI, 1985. 

[5] Chen Zhongxing, Cogeneration in Pulp and Paper Mills of China, COPED core project 

1993/1994. 

[6] China Energy Statistical Book 1991, China Statistic Press. 

[7] Environmental Impacts of the Technological Transformation Project in Qiqihar Pulp & 

Paper Mill, Planning and Designing Institute of Light Industry, 1993. 

[8] Fen Shiao and Chai Yinian, Estimation of the Potential of Cogeneration (CHP) in China's 

Pulp & Paper Industry, Energy of China, July, 1993. 

[9] Integrated exploitation of steamed & boiled wastewater and its pollution protection 

technologies, Edited by Zhang Ke et al., China Light Industry Press, 1992.


[10] Li Jiawan, Current Situation of World Paper Industry in 1990s and Its Perspective, World 

Pulp & Paper Mills Data Book, 1992. 

[11] Statistical Yearbook of China, China Statistical Press, 1994. 

[12] Studies on Unit Major Products Energy Consumption, Edited by Liu Xueyi, Guanminri 

Daily Press, 1989. 

[13] Yu Yiji, Speed, Efficiency and Environmental Protection — Some Considerations on 

Sustainable Development of China's Pulp & Paper Industry, China Pulp & Paper, Dec., 

1994. 

[14] Zhang Shuyu and Meng Zhaoli, Final Report on Energy Audit of Qiqihar Paper Mill, 

Technological Support Project for Industrial Energy Conservation, sponsored by ADB, 

1990. 

B. Bibliography 

Cao Piaofang and Jiang Manxia, General Situations of China Paper Industry Pollution 

Protection, China Pulp & Paper, No. 5, Oct. 1994. 

Huanqinan et al. (eds.), Development Strategy of China’s Paper Industry, China Light Industry 

Press, 1992. 

ITEESA, Evaluation of Energy Efficiency in Pulp & Paper Industry in P.R. China, Invited 

Report, ITEESA. 

Pan Peilei, Call for Efforts to Contribute to Environmental Protection in Pulp & Paper Industry, 

China Pulp & Paper, Aug., 1994. 

Yan Erpin, Study on Heat Pump Drying Technology in Paper Machine Parts, China Pulp & 

Paper, December 1994. 

Zhang Houmin, Bio-technology and Pulp & Paper Industry, China Pulp & Paper, Aug. 1994. 

Section 6.2 

[1] Comprehensive industry document for large pulp & paper industry, CBCP Publication. 

[2] Comprehensive industry document for small pulp & paper industry, CBCP Publication. 

[3] CPPRI Database.


[4] Development Council for Paper Pulp & Allied Products. 

[5] Environmental preservation course in pulp & paper industry, Markyd, Sweden. 

[6] Evaluation of energy efficiency in connection with technology - Report prepared by 

Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute (CPRRI) for National Productivity Council, 1985. 

[7] Indian Pulp & Paper Technical Association (IPPTA), vol.1, no.4, Dec. 1989. 

[8] IPPTA convention issue on energy conservation, 1984. 

[9] Paper Asia, July 1993. 

[10] Proceedings of interaction meet on high rate bio-methanation of pulp & paper mill waste 

(UNDP/GEF project). 

[11] Proceedings of the interaction meet on waste management in the pulp & paper industry 

towards sustainable development - Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). 

[12] Report prepared by CPPRI for the 8th five year action plan. 

[13] UNEP report on environmental management in pulp & paper industry. 

Section 6.3 

Aragon, P.M., “The Philippines: Promising Outlook”, Country Focus. 

Hargback, H., “Environmental Management Plan: Pulp and Paper Industry”, A Report to the 

Development Bank of the Philippines, June 25, 1992. 

Dalusong II, A.R., “Energy Development in the Light of Current Environmental Issues: The 

Philippine Case”, Energy Policy Implications of the Climatic Effects of Fossil Fuel Use in the 

Asia-Pacific Region, Bangkok, Thailand. November, 1991. 

Nyati, K.P., “Prospect, Barriers and Strategies - Cleaner Industrial Production in Developing 

Countries”, pp. 10-14, Asia Pacific Tech. Monitor, Nov-Dec 1994, ESCAP APCTT, New Delhi, 

India. 

Oy, J.P., “Industrial Restructuring Studies: Pulp and Paper”, Development Bank of the 

Philippines, 1992.


Schafer, A. et al., “Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Measures - Examples from the 

IIASA Technology Data Bank”.

The Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) is an autonomous international academic institution 

located in Bangkok, Thailand. It’s main mission is the promotion of technological changes 

and their management for sustainable development in the Asia-Pacific region through highlevel 

education, research and outreach activities which integrate technology, planning and 

management. 

AIT carried out this Asian Regional Research Programme in Energy, Environment and Climate 

(ARRPEEC), with the support of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). 

One of the projects under this program concerns the Development of Energy Efficient 

and Environmentally Sound Industrial Technologies in Asia. 

The objective of this specific project is to enhance the synergy among selected developing 

countries in their efforts to adopt and propagate energy efficient and environmentally sound 

technologies. The industrial sub-sectors identified for in-depth analysis are iron & steel, 

cement, and pulp & paper. The project involves active participation of experts from 

collaborating institutes from four Asian countries, namely China, India, the Philippines, and 

Sri Lanka. 

The technological trajectories, energy efficiency and environmental externalities of the pulp 

and paper industry in the four Asian countries are presented in this document (Volume III). 

Other related publications based on this research finding include: 

Volume I Technology, Energy Efficiency and Environmental Externalities in the 

Cement Industry 

Volume II Technology, Energy Efficiency and Environmental Externalities in the 

Iron & Steel Industry 

Volume IV Regulatory Measures and Technological Changes in the Cement, Iron 

& Steel, and Pulp & Paper Industries 

An assessment of the implementation of energy efficient and environmentally sound 

industrial technologies among the selected countries is presented in a separate “Cross- 

Country Comparison” Report. 

ASIAN INSTITUTE 

OF TEC HN OLOGY 

19 5 9

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