Baseline information on agricultural practices in the EU ... - Europabio
Baseline information on agricultural practices in the EU ... - Europabio
Baseline information on agricultural practices in the EU ... - Europabio
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Basel<strong>in</strong>e</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>agricultural</strong> <strong>practices</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong><br />
Soybean (Glyc<strong>in</strong>e max (L.) Merr.)<br />
May 2012<br />
Study performed for EuropaBio aisbl<br />
Avenue de l’ Armée 6<br />
B- 1040 Brussels<br />
Belgium<br />
Patrick L.J. RÜDELSHEIM & Greet SMETS<br />
PERS<strong>EU</strong>S BVBA
Table of c<strong>on</strong>tents<br />
1 INTRODUCTION 3<br />
2 METHODOLOGY 4<br />
3 SOYBEAN CULTIVATION IN <strong>EU</strong>ROPE 5<br />
3.1 CROP DESCRIPTION 5<br />
3.2 CULTIVATION AREA 5<br />
3.3 WEEDS, PESTS AND DISEASES 8<br />
3.3.1 WEEDS 8<br />
3.3.2 PESTS 8<br />
3.3.3 DISEASES 10<br />
4 PREPARATION 12<br />
4.1 SEEDS 12<br />
4.2 SEED TREATMENT 13<br />
4.3 SOIL PREPARATION 14<br />
5 CULTIVATION 18<br />
5.1 SOWING 18<br />
5.2 CROP PROTECTION 19<br />
5.2.1 WEED MANAGEMENT 19<br />
5.2.2 PEST MANAGEMENT 23<br />
5.2.3 DISEASE MANAGEMENT 24<br />
5.2.4 PLANT PROTECTION PRODUCTS 24<br />
5.3 IRRIGATION 25<br />
6 HARVEST AND POST-HARVEST LAND USE 37<br />
6.1 HARVEST 37<br />
6.2 INTERCROPPING 38<br />
6.3 SOIL MANAGEMENT & ROTATION 38<br />
7 CONSULTED SOURCES 39<br />
Page 2 of 42
1 Introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
Under <strong>the</strong> current European legislati<strong>on</strong>s for <strong>the</strong> commercial cultivati<strong>on</strong> of Genetically Modified<br />
Organisms (GMOs) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> it is required to assess <strong>the</strong> potential envir<strong>on</strong>mental impacts of GM<br />
plants, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> assessment of potential envir<strong>on</strong>mental impacts of specific cultivati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
management of such plants. This assessment is expla<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental risk assessment (ERA)<br />
guidance documents, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those developed by <strong>the</strong> Panel <strong>on</strong> GMOs of <strong>the</strong> European Food Safety<br />
Authority (EFSA).<br />
With this project, EuropaBio aimed to collect and structure <strong>the</strong> dataset <strong>on</strong> agr<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>practices</strong> for<br />
soybean <strong>in</strong> Europe. With<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> def<strong>in</strong>iti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> project, <strong>the</strong> study is expected to cover:<br />
• cultivati<strong>on</strong> <strong>practices</strong> with special attenti<strong>on</strong> to those <strong>practices</strong> that can dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> future;<br />
• cultivati<strong>on</strong> <strong>practices</strong> across <strong>EU</strong> Member States organized by different geographical regi<strong>on</strong>s where<br />
<strong>the</strong> GM crop is likely to be cultivated;<br />
• aspects related to characteristics of <strong>the</strong> plant and <strong>the</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> systems <strong>in</strong>to which it will be<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced; and<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> that will help applicants to address <strong>the</strong> requirements laid out <strong>in</strong> Secti<strong>on</strong> D.2.9 of Annex<br />
II of Directive 2001/18/EC.<br />
Similar studies are c<strong>on</strong>ducted for o<strong>the</strong>r crops.<br />
This study provides applicants with a comm<strong>on</strong> basel<strong>in</strong>e for perform<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ERA of <strong>the</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
practice associated with <strong>the</strong> specific GM plant.<br />
Page 3 of 42
2 Methodology<br />
This survey of <strong>the</strong> <strong>practices</strong> comm<strong>on</strong>ly used <strong>in</strong> European soybean cultivati<strong>on</strong> is based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
retrieved from public sites of governments, research <strong>in</strong>stitutes, peer-reviewed scientific literature,<br />
farmers’ organisati<strong>on</strong>s, seed organisati<strong>on</strong>s, seed companies and expert op<strong>in</strong>i<strong>on</strong>s provided by<br />
EuropaBio member companies. Most of <strong>the</strong> documents represent recommendati<strong>on</strong>s from research<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutes and professi<strong>on</strong>al organisati<strong>on</strong>s. While <strong>the</strong> practice of an <strong>in</strong>dividual farmer will be determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by different factors and may be different from <strong>the</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> public sites menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
above, <strong>the</strong>y should also be taken <strong>in</strong>to c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> as <strong>the</strong>y represent an optimal management<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> and should lead to implementati<strong>on</strong> of policy decisi<strong>on</strong>s. Therefore, when available,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> is <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> actual crop management <strong>practices</strong> as performed by <strong>the</strong> farmers. Also it<br />
is recognized that <strong>practices</strong> may differ with<strong>in</strong> Members States and where applicable, <strong>in</strong>dicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al differences have been <strong>in</strong>cluded. Where available, <strong>the</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> was fur<strong>the</strong>r complemented<br />
with a review of policy statements that would <strong>in</strong>dicate <strong>the</strong> directi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> future of agriculture <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>EU</strong>.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> was organized follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sequence of activities that a farmer performs when<br />
cultivat<strong>in</strong>g a soybean crop. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore it was structured <strong>on</strong> a geographical basis, follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
structure implemented <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Regulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Plant Protecti<strong>on</strong> Products 1 . This approach identifies 3<br />
geographical z<strong>on</strong>es as areas where <strong>agricultural</strong>, plant health and envir<strong>on</strong>mental (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g climatic)<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are comparable (see Table 1).<br />
Table 1: <strong>EU</strong> geographic z<strong>on</strong>es (based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Regulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Plant Protecti<strong>on</strong> Products)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Geography Member States<br />
A North Denmark, Est<strong>on</strong>ia, F<strong>in</strong>land, Latvia, Lithuania and Sweden<br />
B Centre Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg, <strong>the</strong><br />
Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia and <strong>the</strong> United K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
C South Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal and Spa<strong>in</strong><br />
Care was taken to collect <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, cover<strong>in</strong>g all relevant z<strong>on</strong>es and focus<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> major<br />
producers <strong>in</strong> order to get a representative view <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> range of <strong>agricultural</strong> <strong>practices</strong> across <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong>.<br />
1 Regulati<strong>on</strong> (EC) No 1107/2009 of <strong>the</strong> European Parliament and of <strong>the</strong> Council of 21 October 2009<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> plac<strong>in</strong>g of plant protecti<strong>on</strong> products <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> market and repeal<strong>in</strong>g Council Directives<br />
79/117/EEC and 91/414/EEC; OJ 24/11/2009 L 309, p.1-50.<br />
Page 4 of 42
3 Soybean cultivati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Europe<br />
3.1 Crop descripti<strong>on</strong><br />
Native to East Asia Glyc<strong>in</strong>e max (L.) Merr. is <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> oldest cultivated plant species. It is a summer<br />
annual with optimum grow<strong>in</strong>g temperatures between 20°C and 30°C. Cultivati<strong>on</strong> is successful <strong>in</strong><br />
climates with hot summers. Below 20°C and over 40°C <strong>the</strong> plants grow significantly slower. Soybeans<br />
can grow <strong>in</strong> a wide range of soils, with optimum growth <strong>in</strong> moist alluvial soils with a good organic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent. From sow<strong>in</strong>g to harvest<strong>in</strong>g it takes 80–120 days (OECD, 2000). N<strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> soybean<br />
varieties are frost tolerant, and <strong>the</strong>y do not survive freez<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>ter c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Soybean is a legume and fixes nitrogen via symbiosis with <strong>the</strong> bacterium Bradyrhizobium jap<strong>on</strong>icum.<br />
Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around 1 m. Three to 5 pods c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 2 to 4 seeds<br />
are clustered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> axils of <strong>the</strong> leaves.<br />
The major producers of soybeans are <strong>the</strong> United States, Brazil, Argent<strong>in</strong>a, Ch<strong>in</strong>a and India. Toge<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>the</strong>y produced more than 210 milli<strong>on</strong> t<strong>on</strong>nes <strong>in</strong> 2008 (FAOstat). Italy, with 346 245 t<strong>on</strong>nes <strong>in</strong> 2008<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> producer <strong>in</strong> Europe, ranks 15 th <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> global list of soybean produc<strong>in</strong>g countries.<br />
Soybean is grown primarily for <strong>the</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> of gra<strong>in</strong>s. It is used <strong>in</strong> food, feed and <strong>in</strong>dustrial sectors.<br />
In North America and Europe with regard to human c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> it is ma<strong>in</strong>ly used as purified oil,<br />
utilised <strong>in</strong> margar<strong>in</strong>es, shorten<strong>in</strong>gs, and cook<strong>in</strong>g and salad oils. O<strong>the</strong>r products are tofu, soya sauce,<br />
soymilk, meat products and vegetarian meat substitutes. In Asia many products are a popular part of<br />
<strong>the</strong> diet: tofu, miso, natto, soybean paste and soup, soybean sprouts, tempeh, soya sauce, soymilk<br />
are <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> many traditi<strong>on</strong>al dishes, often fermented, sometimes as fresh vegetables (cooked <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> pod and served whole). The high-prote<strong>in</strong>, defatted and toasted soybean meal is used as a<br />
supplement <strong>in</strong> feed rati<strong>on</strong>s for livestock, such as poultry and sw<strong>in</strong>e and recently also <strong>in</strong> aquaculture.<br />
Industrial use of soybeans ranges from <strong>the</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> of yeasts and antibodies to <strong>the</strong> manufacture of<br />
soaps and dis<strong>in</strong>fectants (OECD, 2000). Also biodiesel may be manufactured from soybean oil.<br />
Organic farm<strong>in</strong>g of soybean is of m<strong>in</strong>or importance <strong>in</strong> Europe reach<strong>in</strong>g 4.5% (Eurostat). In 2009 Italy<br />
had 2.3% of its soybean acreage as certified organic land, France 14% and Romania 7.5% (Eurostat).<br />
3.2 Cultivati<strong>on</strong> area<br />
A comparis<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> surface of soybean cultivati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> Member States is provided <strong>in</strong> Table 2.<br />
The cropp<strong>in</strong>g area with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 27 Member States of <strong>the</strong> European Uni<strong>on</strong> (<strong>EU</strong>) reached 364,900<br />
hectares <strong>in</strong> 2010. The total yield was 1,097,000 t<strong>on</strong>nes of gra<strong>in</strong> (Eurostat). In 2009 <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> producti<strong>on</strong><br />
amounted 837,800 t<strong>on</strong>nes of gra<strong>in</strong> (Eurostat) whereas 12,590,000 t<strong>on</strong>nes of gra<strong>in</strong> were imported from<br />
outside <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> <strong>in</strong> same year and ano<strong>the</strong>r 531,000 t<strong>on</strong>nes as oil and 20,629,000 t<strong>on</strong>nes as meal<br />
(Fediol 2 ).<br />
The largest soybean producers are Italy, Romania, France and Hungary account<strong>in</strong>g for more than<br />
80% of <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong> area. In Italy, soybeans are produced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn regi<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> country,<br />
with <strong>the</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Veneto account<strong>in</strong>g for 50% of <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>’s total soybean producti<strong>on</strong>. In France<br />
soybean fields are c<strong>on</strong>centrated <strong>in</strong> Midi-Pyrénées (Bass<strong>in</strong> méditerranéen), Aquita<strong>in</strong>e, Languedoc-<br />
Roussill<strong>on</strong>, Rhône-Alpes, Franche-Comté, Alsace and Poitou-Charentes. In Romania, before<br />
accessi<strong>on</strong> to <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2007, genetically modified soybeans were cultivated <strong>on</strong> 137,300 hectares of a<br />
total of 190,800 hectares of soybean crops <strong>in</strong> 2006. With <strong>the</strong> ban <strong>on</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g GM soybean, acreage<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>ed afterwards to 49,000 ha and 60,000 hectares nowadays (Table 2).<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cern<strong>in</strong>g farm size big differences exist between Member States. Table 3 presents <strong>the</strong> number of<br />
farms cultivat<strong>in</strong>g a certa<strong>in</strong> area of soybeans. In Romania and Italy ra<strong>the</strong>r modest acreages per farm<br />
are noticed (2-20 ha). In France and Hungary <strong>the</strong> big farms are dom<strong>in</strong>ant (>100 ha).<br />
2 http://www.fediol.org/site/<strong>in</strong>dex.php?secti<strong>on</strong>=11&menu=102&submenu=229<br />
Page 5 of 42
Table 2: <strong>EU</strong> soybean acreage <strong>in</strong> 1,000 ha (Source: Eurostat)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001<br />
B Austria 34.4 25.3 18.4 20.2 25.0 21.4 17.9 15.5 14.0 16.3<br />
Centre Belgium - - - - - - - - - -<br />
Czech Republic 9.5 6.0 4.3 7.5 9.6 9.3 9.0 7.7 3.0 2.7<br />
Germany a - 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 0 0 0.7 0.8<br />
Hungary 33.5 31.5 29.0 32.9 35.9 33.6 27.3 30.3 25.0 20.6<br />
Ireland - - - - - - - - - -<br />
Luxembourg - - - - - - - - - -<br />
Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - - - -<br />
Poland 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.0<br />
Romania 59.9 48.8 49.9 133.2 190.8 143.1 121.3 128.8 71.8 44.8<br />
Slovakia 14.0 9.7 5.4 7.9 12.3 10.7 8.6 11.1 9.7 6.4<br />
Slovenia a - 0.0 0.0 0,1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0<br />
United K<strong>in</strong>gdom - - - - 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 2.2<br />
Total Centre 151.5 122.4 108.1 203.1 276.1 219.6 185.5 194.9 125.3 93.8<br />
Bulgaria - - 0.1 - - - - - - -<br />
Cyprus - - - - - - - - - -<br />
France 51.0 43.7 21.8 32.4 45.3 57.4 58.6 80.7 74.8 120.9<br />
Greece 1.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0<br />
Italy 159.5 134.7 107.8 130.3 177.9 152.3 150.4 152.1 152.0 233.5<br />
Malta - - - - - - - - - -<br />
Portugal - - - - - - - - - -<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> 0.7 1.2 0.3 0.6 0.6 1.0 0.1 0.3 0.6 2.5<br />
C<br />
South<br />
Total South 213.1 179.6 130.0 163.3 223.8 210.7 209.1 233.1 227.4 356.9<br />
European Uni<strong>on</strong> 27 364.6 302.0 238.1 366.4 499.9 430.3 394.6 428.0 352.7 450.7<br />
-: not applicable, real zero or zero by default<br />
a<br />
: from FAOstat<br />
Page 6 of 42
Table 3: Structure of farms with soybeans <strong>in</strong> 2007 (Source: Eurostat)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Number of hold<strong>in</strong>gs with an area of soybeans of:<br />
100 ha<br />
Austria 80 150 420 960 650 960 540 210<br />
Belgium - - - - - - - -<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
Czech Republic 0 0 0 10 10 10 30 140<br />
Germany - - - - - - - -<br />
Hungary 50 60 90 150 70 120 120 330<br />
Ireland - - - - - - - -<br />
Luxembourg - - - - - - - -<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands - - - - - - - -<br />
Poland - - - - - - - -<br />
Romania 430 1,720 1,390 890 220 280 210 960<br />
Slovakia 10 30 30 30 20 10 0 0<br />
Slovenia 10 10 10 10 10 20 10 140<br />
<strong>the</strong> United K<strong>in</strong>gdom - - - - - - - -<br />
Bulgaria 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0<br />
Cyprus - - - - - - - -<br />
C<br />
South<br />
France 0 30 0 100 160 490 940 1,110<br />
Greece 20 10 10 20 10 0 0 0<br />
Italy 2,540 4,460 2,960 3,580 1,160 1,370 1,090 950<br />
Malta - - - - - - - -<br />
Portugal - - - - - - - -<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 10<br />
-: not applicable or real zero or zero by default<br />
Page 7 of 42
3.3 Weeds, pests and diseases<br />
3.3.1 Weeds<br />
Soybeans are poor competitors and need careful weed management. Some examples of comm<strong>on</strong><br />
weeds found <strong>in</strong> soybean fields are given <strong>in</strong> Table 4.<br />
Table 5: Soybean – ma<strong>in</strong> European weeds (Sources: a CETIOM; b Bayerische Landesanstalt für<br />
Landwirtschaft; c <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> provided by EuropaBio member companies)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Ma<strong>in</strong> weed species<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
C<br />
South<br />
Austria -<br />
Belgium n/a<br />
Czech Republic -<br />
Germany b Amaranthus spp.; Brassica spp.; Chenopodium spp.; Gal<strong>in</strong>soga spp.;<br />
Galium apar<strong>in</strong>e; Matricaria chamomilla; Panicum spp.; Rumex spp.;<br />
Solanum nigrum; …<br />
Hungary -<br />
Ireland n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a<br />
Poland -<br />
Romania b Abutil<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>oprasti; Amaranthus spp.; Chenopodium spp.; Datura spp.;<br />
Phragmites communis; Polyg<strong>on</strong>um spp.; Sorghum halepense; Solanum<br />
nigrum, Xantium spp.<br />
Slovakia -<br />
Slovenia -<br />
<strong>the</strong> United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
Bulgaria -<br />
Cyprus n/a<br />
-<br />
France a Alopecurus spp.; Amaranthus spp.; Ambrosia spp.; Avena fatua; Bromus<br />
tectorum; Calystegia sepium; Chenopodium spp.; Datura spp.; Digitaria<br />
sangu<strong>in</strong>alis; Ech<strong>in</strong>ochloa crus-galli; Elytrigia spp.; Lolium spp.; Matricaria<br />
chamomilla; Panicum spp.; Polyg<strong>on</strong>um spp.; Rumex; Setaria spp.;<br />
Solanum nigrum; Sorghum halepense; and Xanthium spp.<br />
thistles<br />
Greece -<br />
Italy Abutil<strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong>ophrasti; …<br />
Malta n/a<br />
Portugal n/a<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> -<br />
Page 8 of 42
3.3.2 Pests<br />
A list of soybean pests is provided <strong>in</strong> Table 6.<br />
Green st<strong>in</strong>kbugs (Nezara viridula) are <strong>the</strong> prevail<strong>in</strong>g pest (CETIOM, 2002). The larvae and adults feed<br />
<strong>on</strong> legumes, preferably <strong>on</strong> plants that are fruit<strong>in</strong>g or form<strong>in</strong>g pods. Pods and gra<strong>in</strong>s are aborted or stay<br />
small. Not <strong>on</strong>ly yield is reduced, also gra<strong>in</strong> quality. The <strong>in</strong>juries allow <strong>in</strong>festati<strong>on</strong>s by fungi, bacteria<br />
and virus.<br />
The red spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) typically <strong>in</strong>fests crops <strong>in</strong> dry envir<strong>on</strong>ments. It is a<br />
polyphagous mite damag<strong>in</strong>g crops by suck<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> cell c<strong>on</strong>tents <strong>the</strong>reby reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
capability of plants.<br />
Etiella z<strong>in</strong>ckenella is a moth, with larvae feed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> gra<strong>in</strong>s of legumes, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> yield loss and<br />
difficult to store harvest.<br />
In Hungary Phorbia platura is <strong>the</strong> most important pest of seedl<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Table 6: Soybean – ma<strong>in</strong> European pests (Sources: a Ábrahám, 2008; b CETIOM; c Forum di<br />
Agraria; d Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; e EuropaBio member companies)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Ma<strong>in</strong> pest species<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
C<br />
South<br />
Austria -<br />
Belgium n/a<br />
Czech Republic -<br />
Germany d Lepidoptera: Vanessa cardui<br />
Hungary a Diptera: Phorbia platura<br />
Lepidoptera: Etiella z<strong>in</strong>ckenella<br />
Thysanoptera: Anaphothrips obscurus; Frankl<strong>in</strong>iella <strong>in</strong>t<strong>on</strong>sa; Thrips<br />
tabaci and Thrips angusticeps<br />
Ireland n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a<br />
Poland -<br />
Romania e<br />
Slovakia<br />
Lepidoptera: Etiella z<strong>in</strong>ckenella<br />
Slovenia -<br />
<strong>the</strong> United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
Bulgaria -<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs: Tetranychus urticae<br />
Cyprus n/a<br />
France b Diptera: Agriotes spp.<br />
-<br />
-<br />
Lepidoptera: Etiella z<strong>in</strong>ckenella; Vanessa cardui<br />
Hemiptera Nezara viridula<br />
Sternorrhyncha: Aphids<br />
Greece -<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs: Tetranychus urticae<br />
Page 9 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Ma<strong>in</strong> pest species<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
3.3.3 Diseases<br />
Italy c Hemiptera Nezara viridula<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs: Heterodera glyc<strong>in</strong>es; Tetranychus urticae<br />
Malta n/a<br />
Portugal n/a<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> -<br />
Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia is <strong>the</strong> number <strong>on</strong>e fungal disease of soybeans. The fungus Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia sclerotiorum has a<br />
wide host range <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r legumes, sunflower, oilseed rape etc. Favourable c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> are high humidity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> foliage for several hours. The first signs are visible at floral<br />
nodes, followed by <strong>the</strong> stem. Eventually, <strong>the</strong> plant dies. At <strong>the</strong> end <strong>the</strong> survival structures are formed:<br />
<strong>the</strong> black sclerotia, that persist <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil for several years.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r diseases are caused by Rhizoct<strong>on</strong>ia that also affects maize and sugar beet. The fungus causes<br />
root rot. In France c<strong>on</strong>tam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> is usually limited to a few plants. Downy mildew (Per<strong>on</strong>ospora<br />
manshurica) and Diapor<strong>the</strong> may be noticed <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> crop but nei<strong>the</strong>r do cause major damage or yield<br />
loss.<br />
Pseudom<strong>on</strong>as syr<strong>in</strong>gae pv. glyc<strong>in</strong>ea, Diapor<strong>the</strong> phaseolorum var. caulivora and var. sojae,<br />
Phialophora gregata and Phytophthora megasperma f.sp. glyc<strong>in</strong>ea are listed to be avoided <strong>in</strong><br />
commercial seed producti<strong>on</strong> 3 .<br />
Pythium and Fusarium are <strong>the</strong> most important fungi damag<strong>in</strong>g young seedl<strong>in</strong>gs (Table 7).<br />
Viruses are comm<strong>on</strong>ly spread through pierc<strong>in</strong>g/suck<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>sects like aphids.<br />
Table 7: Soybean – ma<strong>in</strong> European diseases (Source: a CETIOM; b JRC; c Forum di Agraria)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Ma<strong>in</strong> diseases<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
Austria -<br />
Belgium n/a<br />
Czech Republic Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia sclerotiorum<br />
Germany -<br />
Hungary b Colletotrichum truncatum; Corynespora cassiicola; Diapor<strong>the</strong><br />
phaseolorum var. sojae; Macrophom<strong>in</strong>a phaseol<strong>in</strong>a; Per<strong>on</strong>ospora<br />
manshurica; Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia sclerotiorum<br />
Pseudom<strong>on</strong>as savastanoi pv. glyc<strong>in</strong>ea; Xanthom<strong>on</strong>as ax<strong>on</strong>opodis pv.<br />
glyc<strong>in</strong>es<br />
Soybean mosaic virus<br />
Ireland n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a<br />
Poland Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia sclerotiorum<br />
Romania b<br />
Slovakia<br />
Slovenia -<br />
Fusarium ssp.; Pythium debaryanum and Phomopsis sojae<br />
Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia sclerotiorum<br />
3 Council Directive 2002/57/EC of 13 June 2002 <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g of seed of oil and fibre plants. OJ L<br />
193, 20.7.2002, p. 74<br />
Page 10 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Ma<strong>in</strong> diseases<br />
C<br />
South<br />
<strong>the</strong> United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
Bulgaria -<br />
Cyprus n/a<br />
-<br />
France a, damp<strong>in</strong>g-off diseases<br />
Diapor<strong>the</strong> phaseolorum var. sojae (anamorph: Phomopsis sojae);<br />
Fusarium spp.; Per<strong>on</strong>ospora manshurica; Rhizoct<strong>on</strong>ia spp.; Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia<br />
sclerotiorum;<br />
Greece -<br />
Italy c Cephalosporium gregatum; Cercospora; Diapor<strong>the</strong> phaseolorum;<br />
Fusarium spp.; Phytium spp.; Per<strong>on</strong>ospora manshurica; Septoria<br />
glyc<strong>in</strong>es; Phythophthora; Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia sclerotiorum<br />
Pseudom<strong>on</strong>as glyc<strong>in</strong>ea; Xanthom<strong>on</strong>as phaseoli var. sojensis<br />
Soybean mosaic virus<br />
Malta n/a<br />
Portugal n/a<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia sclerotiorum<br />
Page 11 of 42
4 Preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
4.1 Seeds<br />
Soybean is c<strong>on</strong>sidered a self-poll<strong>in</strong>ated species, propagated commercially by seed. While artificial<br />
hybridisati<strong>on</strong> is used for cultivar breed<strong>in</strong>g, most varieties are pure l<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Soybean is a quantitative short day plant. Photoperiodism and temperature resp<strong>on</strong>se determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong><br />
regi<strong>on</strong> where a certa<strong>in</strong> variety is best grown. Soybean varieties are <strong>the</strong>refore divided <strong>in</strong> maturity<br />
classes, depend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> number of days required for achiev<strong>in</strong>g a harvestable crop (OECD, 2000).<br />
Varieties suited to <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn maturity groups mature quickly, <strong>in</strong> about 80-90 days after plant<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
whereas those <strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn warm climates take l<strong>on</strong>ger, 100-150 days. Maturity Groups are designated<br />
000 (very early) over 00, 0, I, II, III and IV (very late). Depend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> type of cultivar (very early to<br />
late) <strong>the</strong> temperature sum (t>10°C) for <strong>the</strong> soybean vegetati<strong>on</strong> period is <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> range 1,200-1,750°C.<br />
Not <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>the</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>, but also <strong>the</strong> sow<strong>in</strong>g date determ<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong> optimal maturity group. Early varieties<br />
are less sensitive to photoperiod. In France maturity groups from 000 to II are used, <strong>in</strong> Italy 0 to II.<br />
Three types of growth habit can be found am<strong>on</strong>gst soybean cultivars: determ<strong>in</strong>ate, semi-determ<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
and <strong>in</strong>determ<strong>in</strong>ate. Determ<strong>in</strong>ate growth is characterised by <strong>the</strong> cessati<strong>on</strong> of vegetative activity of <strong>the</strong><br />
term<strong>in</strong>al bud when it becomes an <strong>in</strong>florescence at both axillary and term<strong>in</strong>al racemes. Indeterm<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
genotypes c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ue vegetative activity throughout <strong>the</strong> flower<strong>in</strong>g period. Semi-determ<strong>in</strong>ate types have<br />
<strong>in</strong>determ<strong>in</strong>ate stems that term<strong>in</strong>ate vegetative growth abruptly after <strong>the</strong> flower<strong>in</strong>g period.<br />
Soybeans became known <strong>in</strong> Europe first through <strong>the</strong> derived food products. The soybean plant was<br />
first grown <strong>in</strong> botanical gardens mid-18 th century <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands, France and England as a<br />
curiosity 4 . The commercial possibilities were tested <strong>in</strong> France <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> 1821 and <strong>in</strong> 1840 cultivati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
soybeans was start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> farms <strong>in</strong> Italy. The French Society for Acclimatizati<strong>on</strong>, start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1854,<br />
made extensive efforts to propagate <strong>the</strong> soybean <strong>in</strong> Europe, but did not succeed <strong>in</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
permanent culture of <strong>the</strong> plant. Breed<strong>in</strong>g started with Dr. Friedrich Haberlandt of Vienna <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong><br />
great pi<strong>on</strong>eers of soybeans <strong>in</strong> Europe. Between 1873 and 1878 he <strong>in</strong>itiated hundreds of successful<br />
soybean culture tests throughout sou<strong>the</strong>rn central Europe. In 1880 <strong>the</strong> French company Vilmor<strong>in</strong>-<br />
Andrieux & Co for <strong>the</strong> first time offered soybeans for sale <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir seed catalogue. This first soybean<br />
variety was <strong>on</strong>e of those developed by Haberlandt. First cultivated as a food legume, Haberlandt<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ted to <strong>the</strong> value as feed. His work helped to shape soybean breed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> USA.<br />
As cheap imports dom<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>the</strong> market <strong>in</strong> Europe <strong>the</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong> of soybeans was not a priority. In<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terbellum <strong>the</strong> USSR became a major producer of soybeans. In Eastern Europe, especially <strong>in</strong><br />
Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary, <strong>the</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong> of soybean <strong>on</strong>ly started <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1930s but fell back to<br />
almost zero at <strong>the</strong> end of World War II. Only <strong>in</strong> 1973, when imports from <strong>the</strong> USA were embargoed, a<br />
renewed <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g soybean <strong>in</strong> Europe was noticed. Expansi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> soybean producti<strong>on</strong><br />
first started <strong>in</strong> South Eastern Europe and later <strong>in</strong> France. Mid-1930s <strong>the</strong> Swedish Dr. Sven A.<br />
Holmberg started breed<strong>in</strong>g soybeans for growth <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Europe, adapted to <strong>the</strong> extreme nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
latitudes, cold temperatures, maritime climate, and l<strong>on</strong>g summer days. Efforts are made to study and<br />
adapt varieties to extend <strong>the</strong> soybean grow<strong>in</strong>g area to more northwestern regi<strong>on</strong>s (e.g. <strong>the</strong><br />
Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands, Agrifirm).<br />
The breed<strong>in</strong>g goals for soybean today are <strong>in</strong>creased productivity, variety of maturity groups, earl<strong>in</strong>ess,<br />
prote<strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tent, sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia tolerance and height of <strong>the</strong> first pod. O<strong>the</strong>r traits are competitiveness<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st weeds dur<strong>in</strong>g vegetative growth stages, cold tolerance, and quality characters such as a<br />
reduced tryps<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>hibitor activity, improved fatty acid compositi<strong>on</strong>, low phytate, low allergenic potential<br />
or high isoflav<strong>on</strong>e c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> for specific products, etc. In more recent years characters such as<br />
drought tolerance (especially dur<strong>in</strong>g flower<strong>in</strong>g), nitrogen use efficiency, or stress tolerance <strong>in</strong> general<br />
are becom<strong>in</strong>g important as well.<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> efforts of <strong>the</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry and research <strong>in</strong>stitutes dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> last 10 years, <strong>the</strong><br />
profitability of <strong>the</strong> crop has not improved (CETIOM, 2009).<br />
4 http://www.soy<strong>in</strong>focenter.com/HSS/europe1.php<br />
Page 12 of 42
European legislati<strong>on</strong> requires that every variety undergoes official trials for DUS (Dist<strong>in</strong>ctness,<br />
Uniformity, Stability) and VCU (Value for Cultivati<strong>on</strong> and Use) before commercialisati<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
guidel<strong>in</strong>es for <strong>the</strong> VCU and DUS tests are summarised <strong>in</strong> Directive 2002/53/EC 5 . The Community<br />
Plant Variety Office (CPVO) does not publish a technical protocol for DUS test<strong>in</strong>g specifically for<br />
soybean. However, Directive 2003/90/EC 6 refers to <strong>the</strong> UPOV guidel<strong>in</strong>e TG/80/6 7 for soybean. For <strong>the</strong><br />
VCU <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imum items to test are not def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> detail; i.e. yield, resistance to harmful organisms,<br />
behaviour with respect to factors <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment, and quality characteristics. Directive<br />
2002/57/EC 8 and amendments expla<strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> official exam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> and certificati<strong>on</strong> rules for oil and<br />
fibre plants.<br />
The comm<strong>on</strong> catalogue is based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al lists of <strong>the</strong> Member State. All Member States compile<br />
<strong>on</strong>e or more nati<strong>on</strong>al catalogues of <strong>the</strong> varieties accepted for certificati<strong>on</strong> and market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
territory. The implementati<strong>on</strong> of VCU test<strong>in</strong>g by <strong>the</strong> Member State might be different result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
different admissi<strong>on</strong> levels between countries. Differences exist <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> preparati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> seed, trial layout/field<br />
protocol, evaluated (quality) characteristics, methods of analysis, etc.<br />
New applicati<strong>on</strong>s are tested aga<strong>in</strong>st exist<strong>in</strong>g ‘standard’ varieties. A quick replacement of standard<br />
varieties allows farmers to always use <strong>the</strong> most advanced material, but leaves little room for new<br />
registrati<strong>on</strong>s. Slower renewal of <strong>the</strong> standards will permit varieties that are not always an improvement<br />
compared to <strong>the</strong> currently used varieties.<br />
Usually 2 to 3 years of test<strong>in</strong>g are needed <strong>on</strong> several locati<strong>on</strong>s represent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> soybean<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g areas. Varieties are evaluated accord<strong>in</strong>g to earl<strong>in</strong>ess groups. In test<strong>in</strong>g soybean performance<br />
characters are measured such as gra<strong>in</strong> yield, prote<strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tent, earl<strong>in</strong>ess (flower<strong>in</strong>g and maturity),<br />
disease resistance, lodg<strong>in</strong>g resistance, height of <strong>the</strong> first flower<strong>in</strong>g node, total plant height.<br />
In Romania varieties are used that are bred both <strong>in</strong> Romania and <strong>the</strong> USA (JRC, MOCA study).<br />
French breeders supply <strong>the</strong> French market.<br />
4.2 Seed treatment<br />
The most important seed treatment is <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>oculati<strong>on</strong> with <strong>the</strong> nitrogen fix<strong>in</strong>g Bradyrhizobium<br />
jap<strong>on</strong>icum (Kirchner 1896) Jordan, 1982. As this bacterium is not present naturally <strong>in</strong> European soils,<br />
it needs to be added. Once <strong>in</strong>troduced treatment of <strong>the</strong> next soybean crop depends <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> time s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
<strong>the</strong> previous soybean crop, <strong>the</strong> quality of nodulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> that crop and <strong>the</strong> soil type (CETIOM). For best<br />
results, though, an <strong>in</strong>oculum of <strong>the</strong> correct stra<strong>in</strong> of bacteria should be mixed with <strong>the</strong> soybean (or any<br />
legume) seed just before plant<strong>in</strong>g. Farmers <strong>the</strong>mselves mix <strong>the</strong> seed with <strong>the</strong> commercially prepared<br />
<strong>in</strong>oculum (microgranules or pellets often mixed with peat, or <strong>in</strong> liquid form). In France <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ocula are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled by INRA toge<strong>the</strong>r with CETIOM. Producers are EMD Crop Bioscience and Becker<br />
Underwood.<br />
In France carbox<strong>in</strong> and thiram may be used as a seed dress<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st damp<strong>in</strong>g-off (Pythium and<br />
Phomopsis). In Romania seeds are treated before sow<strong>in</strong>g with Beret MLX 360 aga<strong>in</strong>st Fusarium ssp.<br />
and Pythium debaryanum, and with Tiramet aga<strong>in</strong>st Phomopsis sojae.<br />
5<br />
Council Directive 2002/53/EC of 13 June 2002 <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> comm<strong>on</strong> catalogue of varieties of <strong>agricultural</strong><br />
plant species. OJ L 193, 20.7.2002, p. 1-15.<br />
6<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> Directive 2003/90/EC of 6 October 2003 sett<strong>in</strong>g out implement<strong>in</strong>g measures for <strong>the</strong><br />
purposes of Article 7 of Council Directive 2002/53/EC as regards <strong>the</strong> characteristics to be covered as<br />
a m<strong>in</strong>imum by <strong>the</strong> exam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> and <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imum c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g certa<strong>in</strong> varieties of<br />
<strong>agricultural</strong> plant species. OJ L 254, 8.10.2003, p. 7<br />
7<br />
http://www.upov.<strong>in</strong>t/en/publicati<strong>on</strong>s/tg-rom/tg080/tg_80_6.pdf<br />
8<br />
Council Directive 2002/57/EC of 13 June 2002 <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g of seed of oil and fibre plants. OJ L<br />
193, 20.7.2002, p. 74-<br />
Page 13 of 42
Table 8: Soybean seed treatment (Sources:)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State % of soybean crop area treated with<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
C<br />
South<br />
Bradyrhizobium<br />
jap<strong>on</strong>icum<br />
Insecticide Fungicide<br />
Austria - - -<br />
Belgium n/a n/a n/a<br />
Czech Republic - - -<br />
Germany yes - -<br />
Hungary yes - -<br />
Ireland n/a n/a n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a n/a n/a<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a n/a n/a<br />
Poland - - -<br />
Romania yes - yes<br />
Slovakia - - -<br />
Slovenia - - -<br />
<strong>the</strong> United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
- - -<br />
Bulgaria - - -<br />
Cyprus n/a n/a n/a<br />
France 70% - yes<br />
Greece - - -<br />
Italy yes - -<br />
Malta n/a n/a n/a<br />
Portugal n/a n/a n/a<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> - - -<br />
4.3 Soil preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
The general practice to prepare <strong>the</strong> soil is plough<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> order to <strong>in</strong>corporate crop residuals and weeds<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil. On heavy soils this is d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>in</strong> autumn with <strong>the</strong> advantage that frost can break clods. On<br />
lighter soils <strong>the</strong> soil is tilled shortly before prepar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> actual seedbed. Local legislati<strong>on</strong> might restrict<br />
soil preparati<strong>on</strong>s to prevent erosi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The seedbed needs to be f<strong>in</strong>e-structured, well aerated and levelled for easy weed management and<br />
harvest. The number of passages should be limited and preferably d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> a ra<strong>the</strong>r dry soil to prevent<br />
soil compacti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Soybean cultivati<strong>on</strong> is suitable to most types of soils and crop rotati<strong>on</strong>s. However, soybeans do not<br />
yield well <strong>on</strong> acid soils and <strong>the</strong> additi<strong>on</strong> of limest<strong>on</strong>e may be required. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>on</strong> soils with<br />
more than 10% limest<strong>on</strong>e (calcium carb<strong>on</strong>ate) <strong>the</strong> functi<strong>on</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> nodules will be h<strong>in</strong>dered.<br />
Soybean is very dependent <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> availability of nitrogen, hence <strong>the</strong> importance of <strong>the</strong> nitrogen fix<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Bradyrhizobium. The crop needs about 400 kg/ha (CETIOM, 2002). With enough active bacteria, a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> chemical fertilisers can be achieved. About 300 kg/ha can be covered by <strong>the</strong><br />
bacteria-plant symbiosis. The rest is supplied by <strong>the</strong> soil (already present or by fertilisers). If <strong>the</strong> soil at<br />
<strong>the</strong> time of sow<strong>in</strong>g still c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s more than 100 kg/ha available nitrogen <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 0-90 cm top layer, <strong>the</strong><br />
Page 14 of 42
nodulati<strong>on</strong> is hampered, especially when irrigati<strong>on</strong> is <strong>in</strong>sufficient (CETIOM). Usually no nitrogen<br />
fertiliser is applied. Only when nodulati<strong>on</strong> fails nitrogen is applied at flower<strong>in</strong>g. CETIOM advises to<br />
add 80-150 units per hectare.<br />
Soybean does not require much phosphorous or potassium. Often no fertilisers are applied.<br />
With m<strong>in</strong>imum or zero-tillage <strong>the</strong> soil is not or <strong>on</strong>ly superficially laboured. In this way, crop residue<br />
from previous crops is left <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil surface layers dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> critical soil erosi<strong>on</strong> period, reta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
more ra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g water and, <strong>the</strong>refore, dim<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g soil erosi<strong>on</strong> and nutrients wash out. The fertile soil is<br />
kept <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper layers, soil structure is kept <strong>in</strong>tact and soil organisms are not disturbed. Seeds are<br />
sown directly. This practice is useful <strong>on</strong> slopes and <strong>on</strong> fields with low carry<strong>in</strong>g capacity. Yields are<br />
usually lower <strong>in</strong> comparis<strong>on</strong> with tilled fields.<br />
The Sixth Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Acti<strong>on</strong> Programme (6 th EAP) sets out <strong>the</strong> framework for envir<strong>on</strong>mental policy<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> European Uni<strong>on</strong> for <strong>the</strong> period 2002-2012 and outl<strong>in</strong>es acti<strong>on</strong>s that need to be taken to<br />
achieve <strong>the</strong>m. The 6 th EAP calls for <strong>the</strong> development of seven <strong>the</strong>matic strategies, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
strategy <strong>on</strong> soil protecti<strong>on</strong>: <strong>the</strong> Soil Thematic Strategy. In September 2006 <strong>the</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong> proposed<br />
a Soil Framework Directive, which is currently under discussi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al report <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> project ‘Susta<strong>in</strong>able Agriculture and Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> (SoCo Project Team;<br />
2009), c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> agriculture is positi<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>matic strategy <strong>on</strong> soil protecti<strong>on</strong>. The report<br />
was commissi<strong>on</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> European Parliament and provides for c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s and recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>on</strong> soil degradati<strong>on</strong> processes, soil c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> <strong>practices</strong> and policy measures at European level.<br />
No-tillage and reduced tillage, <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> with permanent soil cover (cover crops, crop residues)<br />
and crop rotati<strong>on</strong>, are essential <strong>practices</strong> <strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> agriculture. These <strong>practices</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imise <strong>the</strong><br />
risk of soil degradati<strong>on</strong> by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> organic carb<strong>on</strong> stock, thus improv<strong>in</strong>g biological activity, soil<br />
fertility, soil structure and <strong>the</strong> water-retenti<strong>on</strong> capacity of soils. As a c<strong>on</strong>sequence, soil erosi<strong>on</strong> and<br />
nutrient runoff are reduced (with positive effects <strong>on</strong> water quality), and soil resistance to compacti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
improved. In additi<strong>on</strong>, significant cost sav<strong>in</strong>gs with respect to labour and fuel c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> are<br />
reported.<br />
Table 9: Soybean soil preparati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> relati<strong>on</strong> to tillage (opti<strong>on</strong>s, complemented with relative<br />
importance % of cultivated soybean area), fertiliser (N: nitrogen, P: phosphorus, K:<br />
potassium) and soil applicati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>in</strong>secticides) (Sources: Sources: a CETIOM; b JRC;<br />
c Forum di Agraria; d Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; e EuropaBio member<br />
companies)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Tillage Fertiliser<br />
(kg/ha)<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
Austria - - -<br />
Belgium n/a n/a n/a<br />
Czech Republic - - -<br />
Germany d - 40-90 P2O5,<br />
40-100 K2O<br />
Hungary Plough<strong>in</strong>g or Disk<strong>in</strong>g;<br />
In autumn<br />
- -<br />
Ireland n/a n/a n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a n/a n/a<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a n/a n/a<br />
Poland - - -<br />
Romania b, e Disk<strong>in</strong>g or Plough<strong>in</strong>g;<br />
In autumn<br />
40-60 N before sow<strong>in</strong>g;<br />
40-60 P2O5 before plough<strong>in</strong>g<br />
60-80 K2O before plough<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Insecticides<br />
(% applied of<br />
<strong>the</strong> cultivated<br />
area)<br />
-<br />
-<br />
Page 15 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Tillage Fertiliser<br />
(kg/ha)<br />
C<br />
South<br />
Slovakia - - -<br />
Slovenia - - -<br />
<strong>the</strong> United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
- - -<br />
Bulgaria - - -<br />
Cyprus n/a n/a n/a<br />
France a Plough<strong>in</strong>g;<br />
In autumn or spr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
0-60 P2O5,<br />
0-60 K2O<br />
<strong>on</strong> 50% of <strong>the</strong> area<br />
Greece - - -<br />
Italy c Plough<strong>in</strong>g 20-30 N at sow<strong>in</strong>g;<br />
80-100 P2O5,<br />
K2O if needed<br />
Malta n/a n/a n/a<br />
Portugal n/a n/a n/a<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> - - -<br />
Insecticides<br />
(% applied of<br />
<strong>the</strong> cultivated<br />
area)<br />
Not <strong>on</strong>ly are <strong>the</strong> requirements of a specific crop or soil c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>agricultural</strong> practice<br />
of apply<strong>in</strong>g manure or m<strong>in</strong>eral fertilisers, also laws and regulati<strong>on</strong>s are, to a large extend, weigh<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>agricultural</strong> practice. As an example <strong>the</strong> Nitrates Directive 9 aim<strong>in</strong>g to protect water quality across<br />
Europe by prevent<strong>in</strong>g nitrates from <strong>agricultural</strong> sources pollut<strong>in</strong>g ground and surface waters, sets a<br />
maximum of 170 kg N/ha orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from livestock manure <strong>in</strong> "vulnerable z<strong>on</strong>es", am<strong>on</strong>gst o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
measurements. Phosphorus applicati<strong>on</strong> with chemical fertilisers, as a rule, is prohibited unless soil<br />
analysis is performed and <strong>the</strong> competent authority issues a permit. For legumes no nitrogen<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g fertiliser is allowed <strong>in</strong> vulnerable z<strong>on</strong>es <strong>in</strong> France. Some departments have obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
derogati<strong>on</strong>s (CETIOM).<br />
Some Member States establish codes of good <strong>agricultural</strong> practice and set up an acti<strong>on</strong> programme<br />
for <strong>the</strong> vulnerable z<strong>on</strong>es. Some examples:<br />
• In France Decree 2001-34 transpos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Nitrates Directive, later modified by Decree 2005-<br />
634, deals with nitrate applicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> vulnerable z<strong>on</strong>es. Several Inter-m<strong>in</strong>isterial Circulars<br />
(DE/DPPR/DGS/DGFAR of April 2001, DGFAR/SDSTAR/C2003-5021 of September 2003,<br />
DGFAR/SDER/C2008-5014 of March 2008, etc.) and <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-m<strong>in</strong>isterial Decisi<strong>on</strong> of 6 March<br />
2001, and <strong>the</strong> “Code des b<strong>on</strong>nes pratiques agricoles” as established by <strong>the</strong> Decisi<strong>on</strong> of 22<br />
November 1993 fur<strong>the</strong>r elaborate <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject.<br />
• Italy: “Decreto legislativo 11 maggio 1999, n. 152, "Disposizi<strong>on</strong>i sulla tutela delle acque<br />
dall'<strong>in</strong>qu<strong>in</strong>amento e recepimento della direttiva 91/271/CEE c<strong>on</strong>cernente il trattamento delle<br />
acque reflue urbane e della direttiva 91/676/CEE” as amended <strong>in</strong> 2000 and twice <strong>in</strong> 2003.<br />
• In Spa<strong>in</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g Regulati<strong>on</strong> (EC) 73/2009, Royal Decree 486/2009 states good <strong>agricultural</strong><br />
<strong>practices</strong> as a c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for farmers that receive community aid. The Aut<strong>on</strong>omous Regi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r elaborate <strong>the</strong> rules for <strong>the</strong>ir territory. In particular, Royal Decree 291/1996 is about<br />
water quality protecti<strong>on</strong> aga<strong>in</strong>st nitrates.<br />
9 Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 c<strong>on</strong>cern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> protecti<strong>on</strong> of waters aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> caused by nitrates from <strong>agricultural</strong> sources. OJ L 375, 31.12.1991, p. 1-8<br />
-<br />
Page 16 of 42
• Hungary: am<strong>on</strong>gst o<strong>the</strong>rs: A földművelésügyi és vidékfejlesztésim<strong>in</strong>iszter43/2007. (VI. 1.)<br />
FVM rendeletea nitrátérzékeny területeknek a MePAR szer<strong>in</strong>tiblokkok sz<strong>in</strong>tjén történő<br />
közzétételéről. Legal act number: 43/2007. Official Journal 2007/68/II., p. 2-498 10 .<br />
• Romania: am<strong>on</strong>gst o<strong>the</strong>rs: Hotărâre pentru modificarea şi completarea Hotărârii Guvernului<br />
nr.964/2000 priv<strong>in</strong>d aprobarea Planului de acţiune pentru protecţia apelor împotriva poluării<br />
cu nitraţi proveniţi d<strong>in</strong> surse agricole. Legal act number: 1360; Official Journal 1061,<br />
28/11/2005, p. 6-7 11 .<br />
• Slovakia: am<strong>on</strong>gst o<strong>the</strong>rs: Zák<strong>on</strong> č. 136/2000 Z. z. o hnojivách. Official Journal 58,<br />
21/04/2000 12 .<br />
The Nitrate Directive allows Member States to get derogati<strong>on</strong>s to go bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> 170 kg limit, under<br />
strict c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. The derogati<strong>on</strong> is granted through a Commissi<strong>on</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong>, follow<strong>in</strong>g a positive<br />
op<strong>in</strong>i<strong>on</strong> from <strong>the</strong> Nitrates Committee. However, for <strong>the</strong> soybean grow<strong>in</strong>g countries no such<br />
derogati<strong>on</strong>s have been filed.<br />
10 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:71991L0676:EN:NOT#FIELD_HU<br />
11 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:71991L0676:EN:NOT#FIELD_RO<br />
12 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:71991L0676:EN:NOT#FIELD_SK<br />
Page 17 of 42
5 Cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
5.1 Sow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
The seed will germ<strong>in</strong>ate when <strong>the</strong> soil temperature reaches 10°C and will emerge <strong>in</strong> a 5-7 day period<br />
under favourable c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. The m<strong>in</strong>imum temperature for germ<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> is 6-7°C. After germ<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> soybean seedl<strong>in</strong>gs are able to resist temperatures of -2°C to -3°C for short periods. The optimum<br />
temperature range for germ<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> is 18-20°C. In new areas of soybean producti<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong>oculati<strong>on</strong> with<br />
Bradyrhizobium jap<strong>on</strong>icum is necessary, for optimum efficiency of <strong>the</strong> nodulated root system (OECD,<br />
2000). This can be reached through apply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>oculum to <strong>the</strong> seeds or <strong>the</strong> soil.<br />
Soybeans need a soil that is warm, moist, well supplied with air, and provides good c<strong>on</strong>tact between<br />
<strong>the</strong> seed and soil for rapid and homogeneous germ<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>. The seeds are put 2 cm deep when<br />
sow<strong>in</strong>g is performed early <strong>in</strong> cold or wet c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, and 3-4 cm deep later <strong>on</strong>, when <strong>the</strong> soil is warm<br />
or dry (CETIOM). The distance between <strong>the</strong> rows is 18-30 cm for early varieties to 35-60 cm for late<br />
matur<strong>in</strong>g varieties. Early varieties do not ramify to <strong>the</strong> same level as late varieties. In Hungary rows<br />
are spaced 45-50 cm apart, <strong>in</strong> Romania 50 cm, <strong>in</strong> Italy 40-45 cm.<br />
Plant densities depend <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> soybean variety and type of culture (with or without irrigati<strong>on</strong>). The<br />
amount of seeds used fur<strong>the</strong>r is given by <strong>the</strong> time of sow<strong>in</strong>g. Certified seeds have a germ<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
capacity of at least 80%. Usually 5-10% more seeds are used than <strong>the</strong> desired plant density.<br />
Italian soybeans are planted from <strong>the</strong> end of April through <strong>the</strong> end of May. Alternatively, soybean may<br />
be sown as an <strong>in</strong>tercrop after an early harvested crop, like w<strong>in</strong>ter barley, w<strong>in</strong>ter oilseed rape, peas or<br />
chives, mid-June to early July (‘soja en dérobé’).<br />
Table 10: Soybean sow<strong>in</strong>g - sow<strong>in</strong>g dates, seed use and plant density (Sources: a CETIOM; b JRC,<br />
MOCA study; c Forum di Agraria; d Thür<strong>in</strong>ger Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft;<br />
e Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; f EuropaBio member companies)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Sow<strong>in</strong>g dates Seed use<br />
(1,000 kernels/ha)<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
C<br />
South<br />
Austria - - -<br />
Belgium n/a n/a n/a<br />
Czech Republic - - -<br />
Plant density<br />
(1,000/ha)<br />
Germany d, e Mid-April – Mid-May 550-700 500-600<br />
Hungary b April - 450-500<br />
Ireland n/a n/a n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a n/a n/a<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a n/a n/a<br />
Poland - - -<br />
Romania b End of March<br />
Mid-April – Mid-May f<br />
Ra<strong>in</strong>-fed: 450-500<br />
Irrigated: 500-550<br />
Slovakia - - -<br />
Slovenia - - -<br />
<strong>the</strong> United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
- - -<br />
Bulgaria - - -<br />
Cyprus n/a n/a n/a<br />
Page 18 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Sow<strong>in</strong>g dates Seed use<br />
(1,000 kernels/ha)<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
France a Mid-April - end of May E: 440-670 (dry)<br />
SW: 330-550<br />
(irrigated)<br />
mid-June to early July - -<br />
Greece - - -<br />
Plant density<br />
(1,000/ha)<br />
E: 400-600 (dry)<br />
SW: 300-500<br />
(irrigated)<br />
Italy c end of April - end of May - 300-350<br />
Mid-June - 400<br />
Malta n/a n/a n/a<br />
Portugal n/a n/a n/a<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> - - -<br />
5.2 Crop protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
5.2.1 Weed management<br />
Weeds are c<strong>on</strong>trolled with herbicides and/or mechanical methods <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> with <strong>agricultural</strong><br />
<strong>practices</strong>.<br />
Most soybean fields are treated at least <strong>on</strong>ce with herbicides. The first occasi<strong>on</strong> is after sow<strong>in</strong>g before<br />
<strong>the</strong> soybean seedl<strong>in</strong>gs emerge (pre-emergence) and a sec<strong>on</strong>d time at <strong>the</strong> 4-leaf stage (postemergence).<br />
The importance of <strong>the</strong> area treated with herbicides as well as <strong>the</strong> average number of<br />
herbicide applicati<strong>on</strong>s per field and are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 11.<br />
A broad range of active <strong>in</strong>gredients has been used <strong>in</strong> Europe, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g aryloxyphenoxy-propi<strong>on</strong>ate,<br />
benzamide, benzothiadiaz<strong>in</strong><strong>on</strong>e, cyclohexanedi<strong>on</strong>e, d<strong>in</strong>itroanil<strong>in</strong>e, imidazol<strong>in</strong><strong>on</strong>e, isoxazolid<strong>in</strong><strong>on</strong>e<br />
chloroacetamide, oxadiazole and urea herbicides. Examples of approved herbicide to use <strong>in</strong> soybean<br />
<strong>in</strong> some countries of <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 12 and<br />
Page 19 of 42
Table 13. Alternat<strong>in</strong>g use (rotati<strong>on</strong>) of products with different modes of acti<strong>on</strong>s is a key tool to manage<br />
weed resistance and is recommended <strong>in</strong> many stewardship programmes to prevent <strong>the</strong> development<br />
of resistance to comm<strong>on</strong>ly used herbicides.<br />
Alternatively, mechanical cultivati<strong>on</strong> is practiced pre-emergence comb<strong>in</strong>ed with a chemical applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
later <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> seas<strong>on</strong>. Also, mechanical methods are used after emergence between <strong>the</strong> rows comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
with row spray<strong>in</strong>g of an herbicide to lower <strong>the</strong> amount of active <strong>in</strong>gredient. In general, tillage systems<br />
without soil <strong>in</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> rely more <strong>on</strong> efficient herbicide use.<br />
An adequate crop rotati<strong>on</strong> makes it possible to treat difficult to manage weeds <strong>in</strong> soybean already <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> previous crops. Alternat<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>ter and spr<strong>in</strong>g crops, m<strong>on</strong>ocots and dicots allows for <strong>the</strong> use of<br />
herbicides with different modes of acti<strong>on</strong> toge<strong>the</strong>r tackl<strong>in</strong>g a broad variety of weeds. Weeds with<br />
rhizomes are treated preferably between 2 crops.<br />
The creati<strong>on</strong> of a false seedbed is ano<strong>the</strong>r method to start with a clean field. The soil is superficially<br />
worked <strong>on</strong> after plough<strong>in</strong>g and well <strong>in</strong> advance of <strong>the</strong> actual sow<strong>in</strong>g. This facilitates <strong>the</strong> germ<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<strong>the</strong> weeds. After 15-20 days <strong>the</strong> operati<strong>on</strong> is repeated and care is taken not to turn <strong>the</strong> soil. The<br />
weeds are <strong>the</strong>n destroyed (mechanically or with a n<strong>on</strong>e-selective herbicide) just before <strong>the</strong> soybeans<br />
are sown. Delay<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> actual sow<strong>in</strong>g a little bit will favour a rapid and homogenous germ<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
giv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> seedl<strong>in</strong>gs a competitive advantage over <strong>the</strong> weeds (CETIOM).<br />
Page 20 of 42
Table 11: Chemical weed c<strong>on</strong>trol (pre-emergence & post-emergence) (Sources: a Bayerische<br />
Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; b CETIOM; c ; d EuropaBio member company)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Treated area<br />
(% of<br />
cultivated<br />
soybean<br />
area)<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
C<br />
South<br />
Preemergence<br />
(average<br />
number of<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
per field)<br />
preemergence<br />
active<br />
<strong>in</strong>gredients<br />
Postemergence<br />
(average<br />
number of<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
per field)<br />
Austria - - - - -<br />
Belgium n/a<br />
Czech Republic - - - - -<br />
Germany a 1 Metribuz<strong>in</strong><br />
Pendimethal<strong>in</strong><br />
Hungary - - - - -<br />
Ireland n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a<br />
Poland - - - - -<br />
Romania d 100%<br />
1 Pendimethal<strong>in</strong><br />
Metribuz<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Dimethanamid<br />
S-Metolachlor<br />
postemergence<br />
active<br />
<strong>in</strong>gredients<br />
2 Bentaz<strong>on</strong><br />
Clod<strong>in</strong>afoppropargyl<br />
Cycloxydim<br />
Fluazifop-P-butyl<br />
Metsulfur<strong>on</strong>-<br />
methyl<br />
Thifensulfur<strong>on</strong>methyl<br />
2 Bentaz<strong>on</strong><br />
Imazamox<br />
Fluazifop-p-butyl<br />
Clomaz<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Cycloxydim<br />
Propaquizafop<br />
Tepraloxyd<strong>in</strong><br />
Thifensulfur<strong>on</strong>methyl<br />
Slovakia - - - - -<br />
Slovenia - - - - -<br />
<strong>the</strong> United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
- - - - -<br />
Bulgaria - - - - -<br />
Cyprus n/a<br />
France b and 13 100%<br />
1,5 times<br />
13 http://e-phy.agriculture.gouv.fr/usa/fiche222.htm<br />
Oxadiaz<strong>on</strong><br />
Pendimethal<strong>in</strong><br />
Propyzamide<br />
S-metolachlor<br />
Bentaz<strong>on</strong><br />
Clethodim<br />
Clomaz<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Cycloxydim<br />
Fluazifop-p-butyl<br />
Imazamox<br />
L<strong>in</strong>ur<strong>on</strong><br />
Oxadiaz<strong>on</strong><br />
Pendimethal<strong>in</strong><br />
Propaquizafop<br />
Quizalofop ethyl<br />
S-metolachlor<br />
Page 21 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Treated area<br />
(% of<br />
cultivated<br />
soybean<br />
area)<br />
Preemergence<br />
(average<br />
number of<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
per field)<br />
preemergence<br />
active<br />
<strong>in</strong>gredients<br />
Postemergence<br />
(average<br />
number of<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
per field)<br />
Greece - - - - -<br />
Italy c - - L<strong>in</strong>ur<strong>on</strong><br />
Pendimethal<strong>in</strong><br />
S-metolachlor<br />
Malta n/a<br />
Portugal n/a<br />
postemergence<br />
active<br />
<strong>in</strong>gredients<br />
- Fomesafen<br />
Acifluorfen<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> - - - - -<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
Table 12: Ma<strong>in</strong> actives <strong>in</strong>gredients and examples of pre-emergence commercial herbicides available<br />
for use <strong>in</strong> soybean <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> (Source: <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> provided by EuropaBio member<br />
companies)<br />
Active<br />
<strong>in</strong>gredient<br />
HRAC<br />
classificati<strong>on</strong><br />
Oxadiaz<strong>on</strong> E RONSTAR<br />
France Hungary Italy Romania<br />
L<strong>in</strong>ur<strong>on</strong> C2 AFALON DS<br />
Pendimethal<strong>in</strong> K1 PROWL 400 STOMP STOMP 330 EC<br />
Propyzamide K1 AGROTECH-<br />
PROPYZAMIDE<br />
ARESPROPYZ<br />
DRAX<br />
PROPYZAMIDE<br />
GRAMPRO<br />
KERB<br />
KOZAM FLO<br />
MILENTUS<br />
PROPYZAMIDE<br />
ODIN<br />
PROPYCE<br />
PROZAPLUS<br />
RAPSOL<br />
ROUTEONE<br />
ZAMIDE FLO<br />
SETANTA FLO<br />
SKADI<br />
TOPNET<br />
S-Metolachlor K3 MERCANTOR<br />
GOLD<br />
DUAL DUAL GOLD<br />
Dimethanamid K3 FRONTIER<br />
FORTE<br />
Page 22 of 42
Table 13: Ma<strong>in</strong> actives <strong>in</strong>gredients and examples of post-emergence commercial herbicides available<br />
for use <strong>in</strong> soybean <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> (Source: <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> provided by EuropaBio member<br />
companies)<br />
Active<br />
<strong>in</strong>gredient<br />
HRAC<br />
classificati<strong>on</strong><br />
France Hungary Italy Romania<br />
Acifluorfen E SCOUT<br />
Bentaz<strong>on</strong> C3 ADAGIO SG<br />
BASAGRAN<br />
BENTA<br />
ERBATOP<br />
Clomaz<strong>on</strong>e F3 CENTIUM<br />
CLOMAZO-GOLD<br />
Clethodim A BALISTIK<br />
CENTURION<br />
FOLY R<br />
KLETHO<br />
NOROIT<br />
OGIVE<br />
SELECT<br />
Cycloxydim A CIROS<br />
DEVIN<br />
SERAC<br />
STRATOS ULTRA<br />
BASAGRAN<br />
FORTE<br />
COMMAND<br />
SELECT SUPER<br />
FOCUS ULTRA<br />
Fluazifop-p-butyl A FUSILADE FUDILADE<br />
SUPER<br />
Fomesafen E FLEX<br />
Imazamox B PULSAR PULSAR 40<br />
L<strong>in</strong>ur<strong>on</strong> C2 MAC-LINURON<br />
Oxadiaz<strong>on</strong> E RONSTAR<br />
Pendimethal<strong>in</strong> K1 ADIRPEN<br />
AGROTECH-<br />
PENDIMETHALIN<br />
BAROUD<br />
FORKA<br />
IDOINE<br />
PROTEX-<br />
PENDIMETHALIN<br />
PROWL<br />
Propaquizafop A AGIL<br />
AMBASSADOR<br />
AMBITION<br />
CLAXON<br />
INDEX<br />
NAPAQUI<br />
PROPAGOLD<br />
Quizalofop ethyl A COURSIER<br />
DRIVER<br />
ETAMINE<br />
LEOPARD<br />
PILOT<br />
TARGA<br />
TICKET<br />
S-Metolachlor K3 CHORISTE<br />
DUAL GOLD<br />
ELINA<br />
MERCANTOR<br />
GOLD<br />
STOMP 330 EC<br />
AGIL 100 EC<br />
LEOPARD<br />
PANTERA 40 EC<br />
TARGA SUPER<br />
KILLER<br />
ANACONDA<br />
DUAL GOLD<br />
Page 23 of 42
Active<br />
<strong>in</strong>gredient<br />
HRAC<br />
classificati<strong>on</strong><br />
France Hungary Italy Romania<br />
Tepraloxyd<strong>in</strong> A ARAMO 50<br />
Thifensulfur<strong>on</strong>methyl<br />
5.2.2 Pest management<br />
B HARMONY 50<br />
SG<br />
Seed treatment (see secti<strong>on</strong> 4.2 Seed treatment) protects <strong>the</strong> crop at sow<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st soil <strong>in</strong>sects<br />
(usually comb<strong>in</strong>ed with protecti<strong>on</strong> aga<strong>in</strong>st diseases).<br />
Soil <strong>in</strong>secticides are used <strong>in</strong> Hungary to protect <strong>the</strong> seedl<strong>in</strong>gs from Phorbia platura.<br />
The ec<strong>on</strong>omic threshold for green st<strong>in</strong>kbug treatment is 2-3 <strong>in</strong>sects per square metre <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
reproductive phase (CETIOM, 1999). The most comm<strong>on</strong>ly used active <strong>in</strong>gredient <strong>in</strong> spray <strong>in</strong>secticides<br />
is lambda cyhalothr<strong>in</strong>e (KARATE).<br />
Acaricides, such as clofentez<strong>in</strong>e, are used to combat <strong>the</strong> red spider mite.<br />
Anti-slug treatments are performed <strong>on</strong> 19% of <strong>the</strong> soybean area <strong>in</strong> France, <strong>in</strong>secticides or acaricides<br />
are applied <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly 3% of <strong>the</strong> area (CETIOM, 2009). Molluscicides such as metaldehyde, methiocarb<br />
or ferric phosphate are applied <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil between sow<strong>in</strong>g and emergence.<br />
There is no chemical treatment for Etiella z<strong>in</strong>ckenella. A well-managed irrigati<strong>on</strong> and deep plough<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of <strong>the</strong> crop residuals to kill pupae prevents major damage. Agriotes attacks may be m<strong>in</strong>imized by<br />
sow<strong>in</strong>g at optimal c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Treatment is seldom needed.<br />
Table 14: Soybean – use of <strong>in</strong>secticides <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong> plant sprays (Sources: a CETIOM; b Bayerische<br />
Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; c EuropaBio member companies)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Insecticides<br />
(% of cultivated area)<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
C<br />
South<br />
Insecticides<br />
active <strong>in</strong>gredients<br />
(number of applicati<strong>on</strong>s)<br />
Austria - - -<br />
Belgium n/a<br />
Czech Republic - - -<br />
Germany b - - lambda-cyhalothr<strong>in</strong><br />
Hungary - - -<br />
Ireland n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a<br />
Poland - - -<br />
Romania c<br />
Slovakia<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
Greece - - -<br />
Italy - - -<br />
Malta n/a<br />
Portugal n/a<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> - - -<br />
Clofentez<strong>in</strong> (acari)<br />
In general <strong>in</strong>tegrated pest management (IPM) promotes <strong>the</strong> use of different techniques <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
to c<strong>on</strong>trol pests efficiently, with an emphasis <strong>on</strong> methods that are least <strong>in</strong>jurious to <strong>the</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
and most specific to <strong>the</strong> particular pest.<br />
5.2.3 Disease management<br />
No fungicides are used <strong>in</strong> France. Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia sclerotiorum cannot be treated with fungicides<br />
(CETIOM, 2004). Sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia <strong>in</strong>festati<strong>on</strong>s may be reduced us<strong>in</strong>g varieties that are least sensitive to <strong>the</strong><br />
disease and that are lodg<strong>in</strong>g resistant. Careful irrigati<strong>on</strong> avoid<strong>in</strong>g humid c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> canopy<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r prevents <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong> fungus. Also, sow<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> right density <strong>in</strong> good soil<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and a timely irrigati<strong>on</strong> (not before flower<strong>in</strong>g) prevents a too dense canopy.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>iothyrium m<strong>in</strong>itans is parasitic fungus that attacks sclerotia <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil. It is applied as a spore<br />
formulati<strong>on</strong> (CONSTANS WG) to <strong>the</strong> soil ei<strong>the</strong>r before sow<strong>in</strong>g or after harvest when a sclerot<strong>in</strong>a<br />
<strong>in</strong>festati<strong>on</strong> has been observed (multiyear treatment).<br />
Fungi are ma<strong>in</strong>ly tackled by seed treatment (see secti<strong>on</strong> 4.2 Seed treatment).<br />
5.2.4 Plant Protecti<strong>on</strong> Products<br />
The plac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> market of plant protecti<strong>on</strong> products is regulated by Regulati<strong>on</strong> (EC) No<br />
1107/2009 15 . Whereas <strong>the</strong> active substance is approved at <strong>EU</strong> level, <strong>the</strong> actual plant protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
products are authorised at Member State level and <strong>the</strong> authorisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes details of each<br />
authorised use. Potential envir<strong>on</strong>mental impacts already addressed by that Regulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude impact<br />
<strong>on</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-target species and <strong>the</strong> likelihood of resistance development.<br />
A plant protecti<strong>on</strong> product must -am<strong>on</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r aspects- not have any unacceptable effects <strong>on</strong> plants or<br />
plant products; and have no unacceptable effects <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ment, hav<strong>in</strong>g particular regard to its<br />
fate and distributi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ment, its impact <strong>on</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-target species and its impact <strong>on</strong> biodiversity<br />
and <strong>the</strong> ecosystem.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to management measures, <strong>the</strong> holder of an authorisati<strong>on</strong> for a plant protecti<strong>on</strong> product is<br />
also required to m<strong>on</strong>itor and to report annually to <strong>the</strong> competent authorities of <strong>the</strong> Member States<br />
which authorised <strong>the</strong> plant protecti<strong>on</strong> product if <strong>the</strong> holder has any <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> available relat<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong><br />
lack of expected efficacy, <strong>the</strong> development of resistance and to any unexpected effect <strong>on</strong> plants, plant<br />
products or <strong>the</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Any <strong>agricultural</strong> development that would <strong>in</strong>clude a change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> use of a<br />
crop protecti<strong>on</strong> product, will need to fulfil <strong>the</strong> requirements imposed by this legislati<strong>on</strong> and will be<br />
evaluated <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with similar products by <strong>the</strong> relevant competent authorities.<br />
The Sixth Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Acti<strong>on</strong> Programme and <strong>the</strong> Thematic Strategy <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> Susta<strong>in</strong>able Use of<br />
Pesticides, adopted by <strong>the</strong> Council and Parliament for <strong>the</strong> period 2002-2012, aims towards a healthier<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Am<strong>on</strong>gst <strong>the</strong> objectives are <strong>the</strong> reducti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> levels of harmful active substances<br />
used, <strong>in</strong> particular by substitut<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> most dangerous with safer alternatives, and <strong>the</strong> promoti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
15 Regulati<strong>on</strong> (EC) No 1107/2009 of <strong>the</strong> European Parliament and of <strong>the</strong> Council of 21 October 2009<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> plac<strong>in</strong>g of plant protecti<strong>on</strong> products <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> market and repeal<strong>in</strong>g Council Directives<br />
79/117/EEC and 91/414/EEC.<br />
Page 25 of 42
low-<strong>in</strong>put or pesticide-free cultivati<strong>on</strong>. This resulted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 2009/128/EC Framework Directive 16<br />
establish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> framework to achieve a susta<strong>in</strong>able use of pesticides by reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> risks and<br />
impacts of pesticide use <strong>on</strong> human health and <strong>the</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ment and promot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
pest management and of alternative approaches or techniques such as n<strong>on</strong>-chemical alternatives to<br />
pesticides. This Directive obliges <strong>the</strong> Member States to adopt Nati<strong>on</strong>al Acti<strong>on</strong> Plans (NAPs) by 14<br />
December 2012 to set up measures to implement Community legislati<strong>on</strong> and to achieve <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
objectives.<br />
Integrated pest management (IPM) is a key element <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> NAPs. The use of disease and pest<br />
resistant or tolerant varieties, may add substantially to <strong>the</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> of IPM by farmers.<br />
Examples of pesticide-use reducti<strong>on</strong> programmes <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
- In Germany, <strong>the</strong> Plant Protecti<strong>on</strong> Product Reducti<strong>on</strong> Programme was devised and published <strong>in</strong><br />
2004. This Nati<strong>on</strong>al Acti<strong>on</strong> Plan <strong>on</strong> Susta<strong>in</strong>able Use of Plant Protecti<strong>on</strong> Products builds <strong>on</strong> that<br />
programme (2008). The leitmotiv is <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>the</strong> necessary m<strong>in</strong>imum of plant protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
products when all o<strong>the</strong>r practicable opti<strong>on</strong>s to prevent and deter harmful organisms have been<br />
exhausted.<br />
- In 2008, France set a 50% reducti<strong>on</strong>, where possible, by 2018 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘Ecophyto 2018’. It also<br />
banned <strong>the</strong> 53 most problematic substances, 30 of which would have been banned by <strong>the</strong> end of<br />
2008.<br />
Any change <strong>in</strong> <strong>agricultural</strong> practice will need to be evaluated aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong>se objectives. New<br />
developments may offer alternatives to exist<strong>in</strong>g products and present opti<strong>on</strong>s for lower levels of<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong> of active <strong>in</strong>gredients with an improved envir<strong>on</strong>mental profile. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
genetic tolerances or resistances to pests or diseases may expand IPM strategies.<br />
Pest populati<strong>on</strong>s have <strong>the</strong> potential to develop resistance to <strong>the</strong> crop protecti<strong>on</strong> products used aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
<strong>the</strong>m, particularly if <strong>the</strong>y are regularly treated with a s<strong>in</strong>gle product. The result is that <strong>on</strong>ce effective<br />
products are no l<strong>on</strong>ger able to c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>the</strong> pest and have to be replaced. Resistance is a natural<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong> but its development is an important threat for susta<strong>in</strong>able crop protecti<strong>on</strong> that must be<br />
tackled proactively, through resistance management programmes.<br />
Resistance management is undertaken with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text of an Integrated Pest Management<br />
Strategy. It is possible that resistance management programmes require a change <strong>in</strong> <strong>agricultural</strong><br />
practice, e.g. by implement<strong>in</strong>g diversificati<strong>on</strong> of protective measures <strong>in</strong> adjacent field z<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
The 2000/60/EC Water Framework Directive 17 states that aquatic envir<strong>on</strong>ments throughout <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> will<br />
have to achieve good ecological status by 2015. Pesticides are <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> sources of water<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> and aquatic envir<strong>on</strong>ment degradati<strong>on</strong>. The Groundwater Directive 2006/118/EC 18 has been<br />
developed to elaborate fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> requirements of <strong>the</strong> Water Framework Directive. Member States<br />
have developed nati<strong>on</strong>al laws and regulati<strong>on</strong>s, prohibit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> use of some products, limit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
applicati<strong>on</strong> of o<strong>the</strong>rs. E.g. <strong>in</strong> Romania, a buffer z<strong>on</strong>e of 15 meters <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> proximity of water courses<br />
was implemented, trough Water Law (107/1996) <strong>in</strong> order to prevent water polluti<strong>on</strong> with plant<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> products,<br />
5.3 Irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
In <strong>EU</strong>-27 <strong>the</strong> total <strong>agricultural</strong> area equipped for irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2003 accounts for 16 milli<strong>on</strong> ha<br />
<strong>on</strong> a total of 182 milli<strong>on</strong> ha of <strong>agricultural</strong> land (Eurostat, Farm structure survey data 2000, 2003). The<br />
majority of irrigated areas are c<strong>on</strong>centrated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean regi<strong>on</strong>. France, Greece, Italy,<br />
Portugal and Spa<strong>in</strong> account for 12 milli<strong>on</strong> ha corresp<strong>on</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g to 75 % of <strong>the</strong> total area equipped for<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>EU</strong>-27 (JRC, 2008, Water Requirements for Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> European Uni<strong>on</strong>). Whereas <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Central and Nor<strong>the</strong>rn European countries agriculture is generally ra<strong>in</strong>-fed and irrigati<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
temporarily used to overcome water shortages dur<strong>in</strong>g summer optimiz<strong>in</strong>g crop yields, <strong>in</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Europe it is an essential element of <strong>agricultural</strong> producti<strong>on</strong> (Figure 1).<br />
16 Directive 2009/128/EC of 21 October 2009 establish<strong>in</strong>g a framework for Community acti<strong>on</strong> to<br />
achieve <strong>the</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able use of pesticides, OJ L309, 24.11.2009, p.71-86<br />
17 Directive 2000/60/EC of <strong>the</strong> European Parliament and of <strong>the</strong> Council establish<strong>in</strong>g a framework for<br />
<strong>the</strong> Community acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field of water policy, OJ L 327, 22.12.2000, p. 1-72.<br />
18 Directive 2006/118/EC of 12 December 2006 <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> protecti<strong>on</strong> of groundwater aga<strong>in</strong>st polluti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
deteriorati<strong>on</strong>, OJ L372, 27.12.2006, p. 19-31.<br />
Page 26 of 42
Soybean is particularly sensitive to water stress. The soybean crop requires 900 m 3 /ha (EEA, 2009).<br />
In a deep soil this will cause no problems, but <strong>on</strong> shallow soils, irrigati<strong>on</strong> is often needed. Especially at<br />
<strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g seas<strong>on</strong> water is needed to fill <strong>the</strong> gra<strong>in</strong>s and to obta<strong>in</strong> a high prote<strong>in</strong> level<br />
(CETIOM, 2002).<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> is recommended to start preferable at flower<strong>in</strong>g until <strong>the</strong> appearance of <strong>the</strong> first mature<br />
pods. In France <strong>the</strong> IRRIsoja 19 tool helps farmers to manage irrigati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>the</strong> crop. On shallow soils<br />
180-300 mm is provided for <strong>in</strong> 5 to 10 rounds <strong>in</strong> an average year. Deep soils need less: 80-200 mm to<br />
be given <strong>in</strong> 2 to 6 rounds (CETIOM).<br />
In Romania less than 30 % of <strong>the</strong> fields are irrigated. The crop is irrigated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period between<br />
flower<strong>in</strong>g and gra<strong>in</strong> fill<strong>in</strong>g. First irrigati<strong>on</strong> is at flower<strong>in</strong>g followed by 3-4 irrigati<strong>on</strong>s separated by 10-14<br />
days. On soils with good or moderate permeability <strong>the</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> rate is 700-800 m 3 /ha; <strong>on</strong> soils with<br />
low or very high permeability: 400-500 m 3 /ha. In dry spr<strong>in</strong>g a first irrigati<strong>on</strong> after sow<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
recommended (200-300 m 3 /ha).<br />
Figure 1: European Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Map (EIM) - Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong> as irrigated area <strong>in</strong> % of total<br />
area calculated over a 10x10km raster, composed from 2000 and 2003 data (source: JRC,<br />
2008, Water Requirements for Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> European Uni<strong>on</strong>)<br />
19 http://www.cetiom.fr/<strong>in</strong>dex.php?id=10582<br />
Page 27 of 42
The actual water use (<strong>in</strong>tensity) at <strong>the</strong> farm level is not known. However, <strong>the</strong> total irrigable area as <strong>the</strong><br />
maximum area which could be irrigated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference year us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> equipment and <strong>the</strong> quantity of<br />
water normally available <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> hold<strong>in</strong>g (Eurostat) can be used as an <strong>in</strong>dicati<strong>on</strong>, although actual<br />
irrigated area is generally lower than <strong>the</strong> irrigable area.<br />
Eurostat provides <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> selected crops that are irrigated at least <strong>on</strong>ce a year. Table 15 lists<br />
<strong>the</strong> number of soybean hectares that were irrigated at least <strong>on</strong>ce <strong>in</strong> 2003 compared to <strong>the</strong> total of<br />
harvested soybean areas per regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Table 15: Irrigati<strong>on</strong> of soybean <strong>in</strong> 2003 (Eurostat)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong><br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
Total area (1,000 ha) of irrigated<br />
soybean<br />
producti<strong>on</strong><br />
irrigated<br />
soybean<br />
as % of<br />
soybean<br />
area<br />
Austria 15.5 0.32 2.06<br />
Ostösterreich 7.1 0.28 3.94<br />
Südösterreich 3.2 0.01 0.31<br />
Westösterreich 5.1 0.00 0.00<br />
Belgium<br />
Czech Republic 7.7<br />
Germany<br />
Hungary 30.3 0.20 0.66<br />
Közép-Magyarország 0.1 0.00 0.00<br />
Közép-Dunántúl 0.7 0.00 0.00<br />
Nyugat-Dunántúl 2.2 0.00 0.00<br />
Dél-Dunántúl 19.4 0.00 0.00<br />
Észak-Magyarország 0.4 0.00 0.00<br />
Észak-Alföld 0.6 0.00 0.00<br />
Dél-Alföld 6.9 0.20 2.90<br />
Ireland<br />
Luxembourg<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands<br />
Poland 0.4<br />
Romania 128.8 35.36 27.45<br />
Nord-Vest 2.8 0.00 0.00<br />
Centru 2.5 0.00 0.00<br />
Nord-Est 17.0 0.00 0.00<br />
Sud-Est 47.9 13.80 28.81<br />
Sud - Muntenia 42.6 10.24 24.04<br />
Bucuresti - Ilfov 0.2 0.00 0.00<br />
Sud-Vest Oltenia 1.3 0.00 0.00<br />
Vest 14.5 0.00 0.00<br />
Slovakia 11.0 0.91 8.27<br />
Bratislavský kraj 1.0 0.00 0.00<br />
Západné Slovensko 2.0 0.62 31.00<br />
Page 28 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong><br />
C<br />
South<br />
Total area (1,000 ha) of irrigated<br />
soybean<br />
producti<strong>on</strong><br />
irrigated<br />
soybean<br />
as % of<br />
soybean<br />
area<br />
Stredné Slovensko 1.0 0.00 0.00<br />
Východné Slovensko 7.0 0.00 0.00<br />
Slovenia<br />
United K<strong>in</strong>gdom 1.1 0.00 0.00<br />
Bulgaria 0.5 0.01 2.00<br />
Cyprus<br />
France 80.7 44.99 55.75<br />
Île de France 0.1 0.00 0.00<br />
Champagne-Ardenne 0.2 0.00 0.00<br />
Picardie 0.0 0.00<br />
Haute-Normandie 0.0 0.00<br />
Centre 1.3 0.73 56.15<br />
Basse-Normandie 0.0 0.00<br />
Bourgogne 6.5 0.98 15.08<br />
Nord - Pas-de-Calais 0.0 0.00<br />
Lorra<strong>in</strong>e 0.1 0.00 0.00<br />
Alsace 0.0 0,00<br />
Franche-Comté 3.9 0.48 12.31<br />
Pays de la Loire 0.3 0.22 73.33<br />
Bretagne 0.0 0.00<br />
Poitou-Charentes 0.4 0.51 100.00*<br />
Aquita<strong>in</strong>e 12.0 5.73 47.75<br />
Midi-Pyrénées 48.4 32.51 67.17<br />
Limous<strong>in</strong> 0.1 0.00 0.00<br />
Rhône-Alpes 5.2 2.56 49.23<br />
Auvergne 0.8 0.41 51.25<br />
Languedoc-Roussill<strong>on</strong> 1.1 0.58 52.73<br />
Provence-Alpes - Côte d'Azur 0.3 0.23 76.67<br />
Corse 0.0 0.00<br />
Greece 0.0 0.08<br />
Italy 152.1 53.90 35.44<br />
Piem<strong>on</strong>te 12.6 4.59 36.43<br />
Valle d'Aosta 0.0 0.00<br />
Liguria 0.0 0.00<br />
Lombardia 19.7 13.40 68.02<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>cia Aut<strong>on</strong>oma Bolzano 0.0 0.00<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>cia Aut<strong>on</strong>oma Trento 0.0 0.00<br />
Veneto 72.0 25.11 34.88<br />
Friuli- Venezia Giulia 31.0 4.85 15.65<br />
Emilia-Romagna 16.0 5.87 36.69<br />
Toscana 0.2 0.00 0.00<br />
Umbria 0.1 0.00 0.00<br />
Marche 0.3 0.00 0.00<br />
Lazio 0.0 0.00<br />
Page 29 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong><br />
Total area (1,000 ha) of irrigated<br />
soybean<br />
producti<strong>on</strong><br />
irrigated<br />
soybean<br />
as % of<br />
soybean<br />
area<br />
Abruzzo 0.1 0.00 0.00<br />
Molise 0.0 0.00<br />
Campania 0.0 0.00<br />
Puglia 0.0 0.00<br />
Basilicata 0.0 0.00<br />
Calabria 0.0 0.00<br />
Sicilia 0.0 0.00<br />
Sardegna 0.0 0.00<br />
Malta<br />
Portugal<br />
Empty boxes: figure not available<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> 0.3 0.19 63.33<br />
Galicia 0.0 0.00<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>cipado de Asturias 0.0 0.00<br />
Cantabria 0.0 0.00<br />
País Vasco 0.0 0.00<br />
Comunidad Foral de Navarra 0.0 0.00<br />
La Rioja 0.0 0.00<br />
Aragón 0.0 0.00<br />
Comunidad de Madrid 0.0 0.00<br />
Castilla y León 0.0 0.00<br />
Castilla-la Mancha 0.0 0.00<br />
Extremadura 0.1 0.19 100.00*<br />
Cataluña 0.0 0.00<br />
Comunidad Valenciana 0.0 0.00<br />
Illes Balears 0.0 0.00<br />
Andalucía 0.1<br />
Región de Murcia 0.0 0.00<br />
Canarias 0.0 0.00<br />
*: As data from two different Eurostat tables were comb<strong>in</strong>ed, <strong>the</strong> figure for irrigated soybean may be higher than for <strong>the</strong> total<br />
area of producti<strong>on</strong>. It was <strong>the</strong>n assumed that 100% of <strong>the</strong> area was irrigated.<br />
Table 16: Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> specific regi<strong>on</strong>s (E: east part of <strong>the</strong> country, SW: southwest) (Sources: a<br />
CETIOM, b Eurostat)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Irrigati<strong>on</strong> % of soybean<br />
area <strong>in</strong> 2003<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
Austria b - 2<br />
Belgium n/a<br />
Czech Republic - -<br />
Germany - -<br />
Hungary b - 0.7<br />
Ireland n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a<br />
Page 30 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Irrigati<strong>on</strong> % of soybean<br />
area <strong>in</strong> 2003<br />
C<br />
South<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a<br />
Poland - -<br />
Romania b - 27.5<br />
Slovakia b - 8.3<br />
Slovenia - -<br />
<strong>the</strong> United b<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
- 0.0<br />
Bulgaria b - 2<br />
Cyprus n/a<br />
France a On average 115 mm <strong>in</strong> July/August<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2007<br />
SW: 82<br />
E: 19<br />
Greece - -<br />
Italy b - 35.4<br />
Malta n/a<br />
Portugal n/a<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> b - 63.3<br />
Water may be available as ground water, or as surface water ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>on</strong>-farm (ground water, water<br />
bas<strong>in</strong>s) or off-farm (rivers, canals). Sometimes water from public water supply networks is used.<br />
Study<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> figures for irrigati<strong>on</strong> methods and sources <strong>in</strong> general (Table 17), it is clear that most often<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>klers are used to irrigate fields. In <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn countries surface irrigati<strong>on</strong> also takes an<br />
important part. Ground water is <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g source for water <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn countries. More to <strong>the</strong><br />
south surface water and water from water supply networks is taken.<br />
Page 31 of 42
Table 17: Irrigati<strong>on</strong> methods and sources of irrigati<strong>on</strong> water for <strong>agricultural</strong> land <strong>in</strong> general expressed <strong>in</strong> hectares irrigated at least <strong>on</strong>ce <strong>in</strong> 2003<br />
(Eurostat)(crops under glass and <strong>in</strong> kitchen gardens are not <strong>in</strong>cluded)<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> methods (<strong>in</strong> ha)<br />
Surface Spr<strong>in</strong>kler<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> source Total<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member<br />
State<br />
Several<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
methods<br />
Drip<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Austria Total 34,230 a 2,310 c 24,680 a 2,830 a 4,400 a<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
ground water 24,200 a 1,980 c 17,690 a 1,540 b 2,990 a<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 580 c 110 c 260 c 120 c 90 c<br />
off-farm surface water 1,280 c 100 c 1,090 c 60 c 0<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 1,440 b 50 c 310 c 930 b 150 c<br />
ground and surface water 2,760 b 0 2,350 c 0 340<br />
ground water and public network 2,050 c 0 1,350 c 110 c 590 b<br />
surface water and public network 220 c 0 160 c 40 c 10 c<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 1,090 b 0 910 c 20 c 0<br />
Belgium 1,850 200 1,350 150 150<br />
Total 16,860 280 c 14,060 1,310 1,210<br />
ground water 1,000 b 40 c 740 b 190 b 30 b<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 530 a 110 a 280 a 140 0<br />
off-farm surface water 14,800 130 c 12,760 970 940<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 110 b 0 100 b 10 c 0<br />
ground and surface water 210 a 0 40 b 0 170 a<br />
surface water and public network 20 a 0 0 0 20 b<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 190 0 0 0 0<br />
Czech<br />
Republic<br />
Hungary Total 148,690 10,850 111,920 8,830 17,090<br />
ground water 27,990 3,200 16,960 6,040 1,780<br />
source: <strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 6,950 1,100 4,480 1,250 b 0<br />
off-farm surface water 20,640 800 a 18,020 820 1,000<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 76,150 5,430 64,220 660 5,840<br />
ground and surface water 4,170 250 b 2,150 40 b 1,720<br />
ground water and public network 2,730 50 b 1,490 10 c 1,180<br />
Page 32 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> methods (<strong>in</strong> ha)<br />
State Irrigati<strong>on</strong> source Total Surface Spr<strong>in</strong>kler<br />
Drip Several<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
methods<br />
surface water and public network 9,100 0 3,810 0 0<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 940 20 b 760 0 160<br />
Ireland Total 0 0 0 0 0<br />
Luxembourg Total 0 0 0 0 0<br />
The<br />
Total 62,190 0 56,910 1,600 3,670<br />
Nederlands<br />
Poland Total 46,910<br />
Romania Total 400,520 24,040 341,620 570 34,290<br />
ground water 25,510 6,470 17,210 140 1,690<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 66,250 1,720 64,000 60 470<br />
off-farm surface water 44,240 1,980 38,420 30 3,800<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 220,870 11,080 189,830 320 19,640<br />
ground and surface water 2,610 180 730 10 1,690<br />
ground water and public network 9,860 660 7,830 0 1,370<br />
mixed surface water 2,110 20 1,870 0 210<br />
surface water and public network 26,160 1,910 19,570 0 4,690<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 2,900 30 2,140 0 730<br />
Slovakia Total 104,560 37,580 49,830 1,310 15,830<br />
ground water 4,580 1,720 1,760 600 500<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 8,140 2,880 5,030 0 0<br />
off-farm surface water 60,060 18,500 33,040 270 8,240<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 1,140 780 350 0 0<br />
ground and surface water 2,940 480 1,170 0 0<br />
ground water and public network 60 a 10 c 0 0 0<br />
mixed surface water 70 0 0 0 0<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 27,520 13,150 8,430 350 5,590<br />
Slovenia Total 1,880 a 70 c 1,280 a 250 a 270 c<br />
ground water 140 a 0 50 50 b 30<br />
Page 33 of 42
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> methods (<strong>in</strong> ha)<br />
Surface Spr<strong>in</strong>kler<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> source Total<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member<br />
State<br />
Several<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
methods<br />
Drip<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 190 a 10 c 30 c 110 b 40 a<br />
off-farm surface water 1,390 a 40 c 1,180 a 80 b 90 b<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 10 a 0 0 0 0<br />
ground and surface water 120 c 10 b 0 0 90 c<br />
mixed surface water 20 c 0 10 c 0 0<br />
surface water and public network 10 c 0 0 0 0<br />
United Total 227,120<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
Bulgaria Total 79,370 65,920 7,170 1,250 5,030<br />
ground water 13,980 12,500 830 280 380<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 2,090 1,370 710 0 10<br />
off-farm surface water 15,280 12,280 2,490 290 210<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 38,950 32,790 2,430 430 3,290<br />
ground and surface water 1,410 930 260 90 130<br />
ground water and public network 4,640 3,820 330 0 480<br />
mixed surface water 310 110 0 0 0<br />
surface water and public network 2,170 1,650 100 0 270<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 550 470 0 0 0<br />
Cyprus Total 35,410 3,440 6,760 15,860 9,340<br />
France Total 1,938,730 70,480 1,647,270 49,880 164,950<br />
ground water 617,790 4,780 b 573,930 12,090 a 26,910 a<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 133,350 1,180 c 121,600 3,830 b 6,610 b<br />
off-farm surface water 135,460 11,270 b 113,880 2,260 b 6,990 b<br />
C<br />
South<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 466,020 39,230 a 356,250 19,530 a 47,050 a<br />
ground and surface water 132,560 a 310 c 115,490 a 2,090 b 14,630 a<br />
ground water and public network 130,650 a 880 c 109,770 a 2,820 b 17,170 a<br />
mixed surface water 44,500 a 50 c 40,160 a 1,420 c 2,860 c<br />
surface water and public network 129,910 11,060 a 100,060 a 2,220 b 15,770 b<br />
Page 34 of 42
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> methods (<strong>in</strong> ha)<br />
Surface Spr<strong>in</strong>kler<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> source Total<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member<br />
State<br />
Several<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
methods<br />
Drip<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 148,490 1,690 c 116,120 a 3,630 a 26,960 a<br />
Greece Total 1,294,400 216,660 323,890 232,220 521,630<br />
ground water 351,160 37,140 123,310 95,930 94,770<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 16,590 a 3,390 b 5,260 b 2,380 b 5,560 a<br />
off-farm surface water 129,830 48,560 53,110 6,740 a 21,430 a<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 438,750 91,510 90,680 100,690 155,870<br />
ground and surface water 54,080 6,330 b 12,320 a 3,420 b 32,010 a<br />
ground water and public network 210,140 14,910 a 25,580 19,470 150,180<br />
mixed surface water 930 b 380 c 350 c 20 c 190 c<br />
surface water and public network 63,050 11,520 a 7,840 a 2,410 b 41,270<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 29,870 2,920 b 5,430 b 1,170 b 20,350 a<br />
Italia Total 2,732,730 892,720 881,810 387,940 a 406,260<br />
ground water 648,240 98,890 a 213,500 a 205,960 a 63,360 b<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 156,900 a 33,650 b 62,250 a 31,650 b 17,240 b<br />
off-farm surface water 820,350 381,350 274,290 35,910 c 106,600 a<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 510,360 191,130 a 159,490 a 46,770 b 76,100 b<br />
ground and surface water 245,320 94,910 a 73,850 a 15,220 b 58,000 a<br />
ground water and public network 146,200 a 26,970 b 37,580 b 35,730 c 33,080 b<br />
mixed surface water 75,170 a 21,070 c 30,230 b 3,610 c 17,890 b<br />
surface water and public network 88,050 a 33,100 a 23,160 b 6,670 c 18,960 c<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 42,140 a 11,640 b 7,490 b 6,420 c 15,030 b<br />
Malta Total 2,130 50 c 220 c 710 a 1,100 a<br />
ground water 1,770 a 30 c 150 c 620 a 930 a<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 10 c 0 0 0 10 c<br />
ground water and public network 20 c 0 0 0 10 c<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 330 b 20 c 80 c 90 b 140 b<br />
Portugal Total 248,040 106,470 63,580 36,650 41,080<br />
Page 35 of 42
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> methods (<strong>in</strong> ha)<br />
Surface Spr<strong>in</strong>kler<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> source Total<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member<br />
State<br />
Several<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
methods<br />
Drip<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
ground water 95,490 41,280 20,430 21,980 11,630 a<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 28,440 7,350 a 11,650 a 2,720 a 6,720 a<br />
off-farm surface water 21,100 12,100 a 5,090 a 1,440 a 2,450 a<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 15,110 a 6,290 a 4,890 b 870 b 3,060 b<br />
ground and surface water 53,830 24,050 13,730 7,030 a 8,980<br />
ground water and public network 5,760 a 2,060 b 1,020 c 870 b 1,790 a<br />
mixed surface water 9,160 a 6,930 a 1,270 b 350 b 600 b<br />
surface water and public network 7,650 b 1,860 b 2,290 c 60 3,450 b<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 11,490 a 4,550 a 3,200 a 1,330 b 2,410<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> Total 3,437,370 1,302,780 956,360 1,178,220 0<br />
ground water 1,272,200 135,860 a 486,670 a 649,670 0<br />
<strong>on</strong>-farm surface water 100,650 a 19,960 b 29,310 b 51,370 b 0<br />
off-farm surface water 405,650 a 179,170 a 123,460 b 103,030 a 0<br />
off-farm water from water supply networks 1,650,350 964,700 314,820 a 370,830 0<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r sources or at least 3 mixed sources 8,520 b 3,090 c 2,110 b 3,320 b 0<br />
Empty boxes: figure not available<br />
a<br />
: sampl<strong>in</strong>g error: 5-
The ma<strong>in</strong> overall objective of <strong>EU</strong> water policy is to ensure access to good quality water <strong>in</strong> sufficient<br />
quantity for all Europeans, and to ensure <strong>the</strong> good status of all water bodies across Europe. While<br />
Europe is by large c<strong>on</strong>sidered as hav<strong>in</strong>g adequate water resources, water scarcity and drought is an<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly frequent and widespread phenomen<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>EU</strong>. This major challenge has been<br />
recognised <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong> “Address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> challenge of water scarcity and droughts" from <strong>the</strong><br />
European Commissi<strong>on</strong> 20 adopted <strong>in</strong> 2007.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> results of a workshop <strong>on</strong> farm advisory and water protecti<strong>on</strong> organized by DG ENV, a<br />
handbook of ideas for adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong>s about <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g water issues <strong>in</strong> farm advisory services was<br />
developed. The handbook 21 c<strong>on</strong>firms that as <strong>the</strong> use of water for irrigati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tributes to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
water scarcity, especially <strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Europe. Crop selecti<strong>on</strong> (water needs of <strong>the</strong> plants) irrigati<strong>on</strong><br />
technology and irrigati<strong>on</strong> management are identified as sources of <strong>the</strong> problem.<br />
Good farm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>practices</strong> <strong>in</strong> relati<strong>on</strong> to irrigati<strong>on</strong> methods and equipment are addressed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> codes of<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong>, Greece, Portugal and France where <strong>the</strong> scale of irrigati<strong>on</strong> is significantly greater than <strong>in</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn countries (EEA, 2005). E.g. <strong>in</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nati<strong>on</strong>al Irrigati<strong>on</strong> Plan (PNR), which was passed by<br />
Royal Decree 329/2002 (valid until 2008), followed by an Emergency Plan (Royal Decree 287/2006),<br />
aimed to modernise Spanish irrigati<strong>on</strong>. As a result 41.6% of irrigati<strong>on</strong> area currently uses drip<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong>. More than 60% of irrigated land <strong>in</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong> has improved its efficiency <strong>in</strong> recent years (OECD,<br />
2007).<br />
20 COM(2007)414<br />
21 Berglund M., Dworak T. (2010) Integrat<strong>in</strong>g water issues <strong>in</strong> Farm advisory services - A Handbook of<br />
ideas for adm<strong>in</strong>istrati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Page 37 of 42
6 Harvest and post-harvest land use<br />
6.1 Harvest<br />
The harvest starts when <strong>the</strong> soybean ripens (‘cl<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g’ of <strong>the</strong> seed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pod or when at least 70% of<br />
pods are brown, 14-16% moisture), which occurs with <strong>the</strong> shedd<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> leaves. Harvest may be<br />
started at 17-18% moisture when air-dry<strong>in</strong>g is available. Harvest<strong>in</strong>g usually beg<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> September <strong>in</strong><br />
France. In Italy harvest runs from <strong>the</strong> first of October through <strong>the</strong> end of November.<br />
Pod shatter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> soybean is a major producti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>stra<strong>in</strong>t caus<strong>in</strong>g high field yield losses ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong><br />
tropical and sub-tropical regi<strong>on</strong>s. With regard to pod shatter<strong>in</strong>g, soybean varieties can be categorized<br />
as tolerant, <strong>in</strong>termediate or susceptible.<br />
The harvest tim<strong>in</strong>g depends <strong>on</strong> seed moisture. Wait<strong>in</strong>g too l<strong>on</strong>g (over-mature seeds) or harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
very dry c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s will <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> risk of broken and split gra<strong>in</strong>s and gra<strong>in</strong> loss.<br />
Soybean is harvested mechanically us<strong>in</strong>g a comb<strong>in</strong>e that cuts and threshes <strong>the</strong> pods <strong>in</strong> <strong>on</strong>e round.<br />
Alternatively, soybean is swa<strong>the</strong>d first and threshed later <strong>on</strong>. This technique, however, <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>the</strong><br />
risk of seed loss.<br />
Gra<strong>in</strong>s are fur<strong>the</strong>r cleaned and dried if necessary for storage. Care needs to be taken to aerate<br />
sufficiently to manage storage temperature.<br />
Table 18: Harvest date (Sources: a CETIOM; b JRC, Moca study; c Forum di Agraria; d EuropaBio<br />
member companies)<br />
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Harvest date<br />
B<br />
Centre<br />
C<br />
South<br />
Austria -<br />
Belgium n/a<br />
Czech Republic -<br />
Germany d September<br />
Hungary b August<br />
Ireland n/a<br />
Luxembourg n/a<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands n/a<br />
Poland -<br />
Romania August b<br />
Slovakia -<br />
Slovenia -<br />
<strong>the</strong> United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
Bulgaria -<br />
Cyprus n/a<br />
September - October d<br />
-<br />
France a September- October<br />
Greece -<br />
Italy c September<br />
No later than end of October<br />
October<br />
Page 38 of 42
Z<strong>on</strong>e Member State Harvest date<br />
n/a: not applicable<br />
-: no data available<br />
Malta n/a<br />
Portugal n/a<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> -<br />
6.2 Intercropp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
When a soybean crop is followed by maize <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terval can be used to grow an <strong>in</strong>terim crop. For<br />
example rapeseed or white or brown mustard is sown 2 to 3 weeks before harvest to fix residual<br />
nitrogen <strong>in</strong> autumn (catch crop) (CETIOM, 2002). O<strong>the</strong>r species that may be grown before soybeans<br />
are w<strong>in</strong>ter or spr<strong>in</strong>g oats, rye, Fagopyrum esculentum and Phacelia tanacetifolia (CETIOM). The<br />
cover crop is <strong>the</strong>n destroyed ei<strong>the</strong>r by frost, plough<strong>in</strong>g, disk<strong>in</strong>g or herbicide spray<strong>in</strong>g (n<strong>on</strong>-selective,<br />
like glyphosate).<br />
The French acti<strong>on</strong> plan follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Nitrate Directive obliges to sow a cover crop dur<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vulnerable z<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
Intercropp<strong>in</strong>g is also a remedy aga<strong>in</strong>st weed growth. It fur<strong>the</strong>r decreases soil erosi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter time.<br />
6.3 Soil management & rotati<strong>on</strong><br />
Soybeans are often rotated with crops such as maize, w<strong>in</strong>ter wheat, spr<strong>in</strong>g cereals, sunflower, dry<br />
beans, and forage crops. Usually <strong>the</strong> crops come back <strong>on</strong>ce every 3 to 6 years (CETIOM). It is<br />
advised not to grow soybeans for more than 2 c<strong>on</strong>secutive years <strong>in</strong> order to avoid diseases such as<br />
sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia. In Hungary and Romania it is advised not to grow soybean after soybean, sunflower or<br />
oilseed rape because of sensitivity to comm<strong>on</strong> diseases. Usually soybean is cultivated after w<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
wheat, w<strong>in</strong>ter barley or maize <strong>in</strong> Romania.<br />
The advantage of hav<strong>in</strong>g soybeans <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> rotati<strong>on</strong> is <strong>the</strong> positive effect it has <strong>on</strong> soil structure<br />
(CETIOM, 2002). The plant has an excellent root system and <strong>the</strong> crop is harvested early, i.e. <strong>on</strong> a dry<br />
soil, <strong>the</strong>refore prevent<strong>in</strong>g compacti<strong>on</strong> by harvest mach<strong>in</strong>es. The nitrogen present <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> crop residues<br />
allow for sav<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>on</strong> nitrogen fertiliser <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g crop. Also, <strong>in</strong> a rotati<strong>on</strong> with m<strong>on</strong>ocots soybeans<br />
allow for c<strong>on</strong>trol of o<strong>the</strong>rwise difficult to manage weeds.<br />
Crop rotati<strong>on</strong> and plough<strong>in</strong>g to bury <strong>the</strong> crop residuals are very helpful to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nutrient status.<br />
It is recommended <strong>in</strong> many stewardship programmes to prevent <strong>the</strong> development of resistance to<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>ly used herbicides. It is also very helpful to combat diseases such as downy mildew, or pests<br />
like Etiella z<strong>in</strong>ckenella.<br />
Page 39 of 42
7 References<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g table provides an overview of <strong>the</strong> different sources that were c<strong>on</strong>sulted. When no <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> useful for this analysis was found, this was<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated.<br />
Europe<br />
Eurostat http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu<br />
European Fertiliser Manufacturers Associati<strong>on</strong> http://www.efma.org/, Informati<strong>on</strong> is too general,<br />
(EFMA)<br />
European Crop Protecti<strong>on</strong> Associati<strong>on</strong> http://www.ecpa.be/, Informati<strong>on</strong> is too general,<br />
Jo<strong>in</strong>t Research Centre (JRC)<br />
Wriedt G., Van der Velde M., Aloe A., Bouraoui F., 2008, Water Requirements for Irrigati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
European Uni<strong>on</strong>, 70p.<br />
http://publicati<strong>on</strong>s.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/111111111/7527<br />
Agriculture and fisheries Unit<br />
MOCA study: Hungary: TASK F3 - Inventory and mapp<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> different agr<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>practices</strong>, crops and<br />
farm<strong>in</strong>g calendar<br />
Romania: TASK F3 - Inventory and mapp<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> different agr<strong>on</strong>omic <strong>practices</strong>, crops and farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
calendar<br />
European Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Agency (EEA) Agriculture and envir<strong>on</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> <strong>EU</strong>-15 — <strong>the</strong> IRENA <strong>in</strong>dicator report, EEA report, No 6/2005<br />
http://www.eea.europa.eu/publicati<strong>on</strong>s/eea_report_2005_6<br />
Water resources across Europe — c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g water scarcity and drought, EEA report, No 2/2009<br />
http://www.eea.europa.eu/publicati<strong>on</strong>s/water-resources-across-europe/at_download/file<br />
Pesticide Acti<strong>on</strong> Network (PAN) NAP Best Practice. Susta<strong>in</strong>able use of pesticides: Implement<strong>in</strong>g a Nati<strong>on</strong>al Acti<strong>on</strong> Plan,<br />
http://www.pan-europe.<strong>in</strong>fo/Resources/Reports/NAP_best_practice.pdf<br />
SoCo Project Team (2009) F<strong>in</strong>al report <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> project ‘Susta<strong>in</strong>able Agriculture and Soil C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> (SoCo), Editors: Geertrui<br />
Louwagie, Stephan Hubertus Gay, Alis<strong>on</strong> Burrell Luxembourg: Office for Official Publicati<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>the</strong><br />
European Communities <strong>EU</strong>R – Scientific and Technical Research series – ISSN 1018-5593 / ISBN<br />
978-92-79-12400-6 / DOI 10.2791/10052<br />
Austria<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture, Forestry, Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and http://www.lebensm<strong>in</strong>isterium.at/<br />
Water Management (Lebensm<strong>in</strong>isterium) 10% of <strong>the</strong> farmers are organic farmers<br />
Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety www.ages.at<br />
(AGES)<br />
Bulgaria<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture and Forestry http://www.mzh.government.bg/mzh/bg/Home.aspx<br />
Page 40 of 42
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Agency for Advices <strong>in</strong> Agriculture http://www.naas.government.bg<br />
Agricultural University Plovdiv<br />
http://www.au-plovdiv.bg/en/<br />
Czech Republic<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture<br />
http://eagri.cz/public/web/en/mze/<br />
Crop Research Institute<br />
http://www.vurv.cz/, no relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> found<br />
Research Institute for Fodder Crops<br />
http://www.vupt.cz/basic-<str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, no relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> found<br />
France<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istère M<strong>in</strong>istère de l'Alimentati<strong>on</strong>, de l'Agriculture et de Agreste, La statistique, l'évaluati<strong>on</strong> et la prospective agricole<br />
la Pêche<br />
SCEES 2006, 2007, survey of farm<strong>in</strong>g practice,<br />
http://agreste.agriculture.gouv.fr/enquetes_3/pratiques_culturales_465/<strong>in</strong>dex.html<br />
rales_465/<strong>in</strong>dex.html<br />
Ecophyto 2018<br />
http://agriculture.gouv.fr/ecophyto-2018,510<br />
Groupement Nati<strong>on</strong>al Interprofessi<strong>on</strong>nel des http://www.gnis.fr<br />
Semences et plants (GNIS)<br />
CETIOM<br />
www.cetiom.fr , several publicati<strong>on</strong>s, guidel<strong>in</strong>es, leaflets:<br />
Le soja, une culture de choix dans vos assolements, 2002:<br />
http://www.cetiom.fr/fileadm<strong>in</strong>/cetiom/kiosque/PDF_fiches_regi<strong>on</strong>s/reg_so_choix.pdf<br />
L’avenir de la filière du soja français, 2009:<br />
http://www.cetiom.fr/fileadm<strong>in</strong>/cetiom/kiosque/plaquette_soja_<strong>on</strong>idol_09.pdf<br />
La punaise verte, pr<strong>in</strong>cipal ravageur du soja, 1999:<br />
http://www.cetiom.fr/fileadm<strong>in</strong>/cetiom/kiosque/PDF_fiches_TK/so_punaises.pdf<br />
Faites barrage au sclerot<strong>in</strong>ia du soja, 2004:<br />
http://www.cetiom.fr/fileadm<strong>in</strong>/cetiom/kiosque/PDF_fiches_regi<strong>on</strong>s/sud_so_sclero04.pdf<br />
.fr/fileadm<strong>in</strong>/cetiom/kiosque/PDF_fiches_regi<strong>on</strong>s/sud_so_sclero04.pdf<br />
brochure ‘Soja 2011’, ‘Soja : Maladies et ravageurs’, ’, and ‘Soja : Atlas agrométéo’<br />
agrométéo’: to purchase<br />
Centre nati<strong>on</strong>al de la recherche scientifique http://www.cnrs.fr/ focus <strong>on</strong> fundamental research<br />
(CNRS)<br />
Institute of Biological Sciences (INSB) http://www.cnrs.fr/<strong>in</strong>sb/ and <strong>the</strong> Institute of Ecology and<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment (INEE) http://www.cnrs.fr/<strong>in</strong>ee/<br />
Fédérati<strong>on</strong> française des Producteurs<br />
Part of <strong>the</strong> Fédérati<strong>on</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>ale des syndicats d'exploitants agricoles (FNSEA),<br />
d'Oléag<strong>in</strong>eux et de Protéag<strong>in</strong>eux (FOP)<br />
http://www.fnsea.fr/sites/webfnsea/<br />
represents <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terests of its members at <strong>the</strong> level of <strong>the</strong> French government and <strong>the</strong> E<strong>EU</strong>,<br />
no technical <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
Soybean variety trials: http://www.tll.de/a<strong>in</strong>fo/pdf/lv_soja.pdf<br />
Soybean crop manual:<br />
http://www.lfl.bayern.de/ipz/legum<strong>in</strong>osen/16765/sojabohnenanbau_2011.pdf<br />
http://www.lfl.bayern.de/ipz/legum<strong>in</strong>osen/16765/sojabohnenanbau_2011.pdf<br />
Germany<br />
Thür<strong>in</strong>ger Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft<br />
Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft<br />
Page 41 of 42
Greece<br />
<strong>the</strong> Nati<strong>on</strong>al Agricultural Research Foundati<strong>on</strong> http://www.nagref.gr/ publishes <strong>the</strong> “Journal of <strong>the</strong> Nati<strong>on</strong>al Agricultural Research Foundati<strong>on</strong>”<br />
(NAGREF)<br />
<strong>the</strong> Benaki Phytopathological Institute (BPI) http://www.bpi.gr/<br />
edits twice a year <strong>the</strong> “Hellenic Plant Protecti<strong>on</strong> Journal”;<br />
http://www.bpi.gr/secti<strong>on</strong>.aspx?id=6&subid=150<br />
Hungary<br />
Hungarian seed associati<strong>on</strong> http://www.vszt.hu/nyito.php?lang=a, no relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Agricultural Research Institute of <strong>the</strong> Hungarian Breed<strong>in</strong>g and crop research, http://www.mgki.hu/<br />
Academy of Sciences Mart<strong>on</strong>vásár<br />
Acta Agr<strong>on</strong>omica Hungarica publishes a.o. <strong>on</strong> crop research,<br />
http://www.akademiai.com/c<strong>on</strong>tent/119692<br />
Some examples:<br />
- A. Sudaric, M. Vrataric, I. Rajcan, T. Duvnjak and M. Volenik, 2008, Applicati<strong>on</strong> of molecular<br />
markers <strong>in</strong> parental selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> soybean. Acta Agr<strong>on</strong>omica Hungarica 56(4): 393-398.<br />
- I. Csöndes, K. Balikó and A. Dégenhardt, 2008, Effect of different nutrient levels <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> resistance of<br />
soybean to Macrophom<strong>in</strong>a phaseol<strong>in</strong>a <strong>in</strong>fecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> field experiments. Acta Agr<strong>on</strong>omica Hungarica<br />
56(3): 357-362.<br />
- D. Jug, M. Sabo, I. Jug, B. Stipešević and M. Stošić, 2010, Effect of different tillage systems <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
yield and yield comp<strong>on</strong>ents of soybean [Glyc<strong>in</strong>e max (L.) Merr.]. Acta Agr<strong>on</strong>omica Hungarica 58(1):<br />
65-72.<br />
- G. S<strong>in</strong>gh and R. S. Jolly, 2004, Effect of herbicides <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> weed <strong>in</strong>festati<strong>on</strong> and gra<strong>in</strong> yield of<br />
soybean (Glyc<strong>in</strong>e max). Acta Agr<strong>on</strong>omica Hungarica 52(2): 199-203<br />
Central Agricultural Office www.mgszh.gov.hu operates as a plant producti<strong>on</strong> authority, soil protecti<strong>on</strong> authority, food-cha<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>spectorate, breed<strong>in</strong>g authority, forestry authority, hunt<strong>in</strong>g authority, fish<strong>in</strong>g authority, w<strong>in</strong>e-grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
authority, <strong>agricultural</strong> managerial authority, pál<strong>in</strong>ka (brandy) c<strong>on</strong>troll<strong>in</strong>g authority and an <strong>agricultural</strong><br />
damage assessment organizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture and Rural Development www.fvm.hu<br />
Agricultural and Rural Development Agency www.mvh.gov.hu<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> of Hungarian Plant Breeders www.plantbreeders.hu<br />
Scientific publicati<strong>on</strong>s Ábrahám, R., 2008, Thrips species associated with soybean <strong>in</strong> Hungary. Acta Phytopathologica et<br />
Entomologica Hungarica 43(2): 211-218.<br />
Italy<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture http://www.politicheagricole.it<br />
Agricultural Research Council (CRA)<br />
http://sito.entecra.it/<br />
Unità di ricerca per la maiscoltura<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> soybean <strong>in</strong> ‘Agricoltura ricerca’ and ‘Rivista di Agr<strong>on</strong>omia’.<br />
Page 42 of 42
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Research Council (CNR) www.cnr.it<br />
Forum di Agraria http://www.agraria.org/coltivazi<strong>on</strong>ierbacee/soia.htm<br />
Poland<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture http://www.m<strong>in</strong>rol.gov.pl/ , no relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> found<br />
Polski Związek Producentów Kukurydzy (PZPK) www.kukurydza.<strong>in</strong>fo.pl, no translati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Romania<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture and Rural Development http://www.madr.ro<br />
AgroWeb Romania http://www.farmnet.eu/<br />
Slovakia<br />
Slovenia<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food http://www.mkgp.gov.si/en/<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al chamber of agriculture and forestry of Agricultural advisory service; to represent and to protect <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terests of agriculture, forestry and<br />
Slovenia<br />
fishery; Provides free technical aid <strong>in</strong> <strong>agricultural</strong>, forestry, legal and ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>sultancy.<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong><br />
IRTA, a research <strong>in</strong>stitute of <strong>the</strong> Government of http://www.irta.cat/en-US/Pages/default.aspx<br />
Catal<strong>on</strong>ia attached to <strong>the</strong> Department of<br />
Agriculture, Food and Rural Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
M<strong>in</strong>isterio de medio ambiente y medio rural y Good <strong>agricultural</strong> <strong>practices</strong><br />
mar<strong>in</strong>o (MARM)<br />
http://www.marm.es/es/agricultura/temas/c<strong>on</strong>dici<strong>on</strong>alidad/cuadroguia.aspx<br />
United K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
DEFRA / FERA http://ww2.defra.gov.uk/<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
OECD, Work<strong>in</strong>g Party <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Envir<strong>on</strong>mental performance review of Spa<strong>in</strong>, December 2007,<br />
Performance<br />
http://www.marm.es/es/estadistica/temas/estadisticas-ambientales/09047122800c4b79_tcm7-<br />
15373.pdf<br />
OECD, Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Directorate C<strong>on</strong>sensus document <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> biology of Glyc<strong>in</strong>e max (L.) Merr. (Soybean), Series <strong>on</strong> Harm<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Regulatory Oversight <strong>in</strong> Biotechnology No. 15, ENV/JM/MONO(2000)9, 13 Nov. 2000.<br />
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