Baseline information on agricultural practices in the EU ... - Europabio

<strong>Baseline</strong> <strong>information</strong> on agricultural practices in the EU 

Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) 

May 2012 

Study performed for EuropaBio aisbl 

Avenue de l’ Armée 6 

B- 1040 Brussels 

Belgium 

Patrick L.J. RÜDELSHEIM & Greet SMETS 

PERSEUS BVBA

Table of contents 

1 INTRODUCTION 3 

2 METHODOLOGY 4 

3 SOYBEAN CULTIVATION IN EUROPE 5 

3.1 CROP DESCRIPTION 5 

3.2 CULTIVATION AREA 5 

3.3 WEEDS, PESTS AND DISEASES 8 

3.3.1 WEEDS 8 

3.3.2 PESTS 8 

3.3.3 DISEASES 10 

4 PREPARATION 12 

4.1 SEEDS 12 

4.2 SEED TREATMENT 13 

4.3 SOIL PREPARATION 14 

5 CULTIVATION 18 

5.1 SOWING 18 

5.2 CROP PROTECTION 19 

5.2.1 WEED MANAGEMENT 19 

5.2.2 PEST MANAGEMENT 23 

5.2.3 DISEASE MANAGEMENT 24 

5.2.4 PLANT PROTECTION PRODUCTS 24 

5.3 IRRIGATION 25 

6 HARVEST AND POST-HARVEST LAND USE 37 

6.1 HARVEST 37 

6.2 INTERCROPPING 38 

6.3 SOIL MANAGEMENT & ROTATION 38 

7 CONSULTED SOURCES 39 

Page 2 of 42

1 Introduction 

Under the current European legislations for the commercial cultivation of Genetically Modified 

Organisms (GMOs) in the EU it is required to assess the potential environmental impacts of GM 

plants, including the assessment of potential environmental impacts of specific cultivation and 

management of such plants. This assessment is explained in environmental risk assessment (ERA) 

guidance documents, including those developed by the Panel on GMOs of the European Food Safety 

Authority (EFSA). 

With this project, EuropaBio aimed to collect and structure the dataset on agronomic practices for 

soybean in Europe. Within the definition of the project, the study is expected to cover: 

• cultivation practices with special attention to those practices that can dominate in the future; 

• cultivation practices across EU Member States organized by different geographical regions where 

the GM crop is likely to be cultivated; 

• aspects related to characteristics of the plant and the production systems into which it will be 

introduced; and 

• <strong>information</strong> that will help applicants to address the requirements laid out in Section D.2.9 of Annex 

II of Directive 2001/18/EC. 

Similar studies are conducted for other crops. 

This study provides applicants with a common baseline for performing the ERA of the cultivation 

practice associated with the specific GM plant. 

Page 3 of 42

2 Methodology 

This survey of the practices commonly used in European soybean cultivation is based on <strong>information</strong> 

retrieved from public sites of governments, research institutes, peer-reviewed scientific literature, 

farmers’ organisations, seed organisations, seed companies and expert opinions provided by 

EuropaBio member companies. Most of the documents represent recommendations from research 

institutes and professional organisations. While the practice of an individual farmer will be determined 

by different factors and may be different from the recommendations of the public sites mentioned 

above, they should also be taken into consideration as they represent an optimal management 

situation and should lead to implementation of policy decisions. Therefore, when available, 

<strong>information</strong> is included on the actual crop management practices as performed by the farmers. Also it 

is recognized that practices may differ within Members States and where applicable, indications on 

regional differences have been included. Where available, the <strong>information</strong> was further complemented 

with a review of policy statements that would indicate the direction of the future of agriculture in the 

EU. 

The <strong>information</strong> was organized following the sequence of activities that a farmer performs when 

cultivating a soybean crop. Furthermore it was structured on a geographical basis, following the 

structure implemented in the Regulation on Plant Protection Products 1 . This approach identifies 3 

geographical zones as areas where agricultural, plant health and environmental (including climatic) 

conditions are comparable (see Table 1). 

Table 1: EU geographic zones (based on the Regulation on Plant Protection Products) 

Zone Geography Member States 

A North Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Sweden 

B Centre Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg, the 

Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia and the United Kingdom 

C South Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal and Spain 

Care was taken to collect <strong>information</strong>, covering all relevant zones and focusing on the major 

producers in order to get a representative view on the range of agricultural practices across the EU. 

1 Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 

concerning the placing of plant protection products on the market and repealing Council Directives 

79/117/EEC and 91/414/EEC; OJ 24/11/2009 L 309, p.1-50. 

Page 4 of 42

3 Soybean cultivation in Europe 

3.1 Crop description 

Native to East Asia Glycine max (L.) Merr. is one of the oldest cultivated plant species. It is a summer 

annual with optimum growing temperatures between 20°C and 30°C. Cultivation is successful in 

climates with hot summers. Below 20°C and over 40°C the plants grow significantly slower. Soybeans 

can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic 

content. From sowing to harvesting it takes 80–120 days (OECD, 2000). None of the soybean 

varieties are frost tolerant, and they do not survive freezing winter conditions. 

Soybean is a legume and fixes nitrogen via symbiosis with the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum. 

Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around 1 m. Three to 5 pods containing 2 to 4 seeds 

are clustered in the axils of the leaves. 

The major producers of soybeans are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, China and India. Together 

they produced more than 210 million tonnes in 2008 (FAOstat). Italy, with 346 245 tonnes in 2008 

being the main producer in Europe, ranks 15 th in the global list of soybean producing countries. 

Soybean is grown primarily for the production of grains. It is used in food, feed and industrial sectors. 

In North America and Europe with regard to human consumption it is mainly used as purified oil, 

utilised in margarines, shortenings, and cooking and salad oils. Other products are tofu, soya sauce, 

soymilk, meat products and vegetarian meat substitutes. In Asia many products are a popular part of 

the diet: tofu, miso, natto, soybean paste and soup, soybean sprouts, tempeh, soya sauce, soymilk 

are included in many traditional dishes, often fermented, sometimes as fresh vegetables (cooked in 

the pod and served whole). The high-protein, defatted and toasted soybean meal is used as a 

supplement in feed rations for livestock, such as poultry and swine and recently also in aquaculture. 

Industrial use of soybeans ranges from the production of yeasts and antibodies to the manufacture of 

soaps and disinfectants (OECD, 2000). Also biodiesel may be manufactured from soybean oil. 

Organic farming of soybean is of minor importance in Europe reaching 4.5% (Eurostat). In 2009 Italy 

had 2.3% of its soybean acreage as certified organic land, France 14% and Romania 7.5% (Eurostat). 

3.2 Cultivation area 

A comparison of the surface of soybean cultivation in the EU Member States is provided in Table 2. 

The cropping area within the 27 Member States of the European Union (EU) reached 364,900 

hectares in 2010. The total yield was 1,097,000 tonnes of grain (Eurostat). In 2009 the EU production 

amounted 837,800 tonnes of grain (Eurostat) whereas 12,590,000 tonnes of grain were imported from 

outside the EU in same year and another 531,000 tonnes as oil and 20,629,000 tonnes as meal 

(Fediol 2 ). 

The largest soybean producers are Italy, Romania, France and Hungary accounting for more than 

80% of the EU cultivation area. In Italy, soybeans are produced in the northern regions of the country, 

with the province of Veneto accounting for 50% of the nation’s total soybean production. In France 

soybean fields are concentrated in Midi-Pyrénées (Bassin méditerranéen), Aquitaine, Languedoc- 

Roussillon, Rhône-Alpes, Franche-Comté, Alsace and Poitou-Charentes. In Romania, before 

accession to the EU in 2007, genetically modified soybeans were cultivated on 137,300 hectares of a 

total of 190,800 hectares of soybean crops in 2006. With the ban on growing GM soybean, acreage 

declined afterwards to 49,000 ha and 60,000 hectares nowadays (Table 2). 

Concerning farm size big differences exist between Member States. Table 3 presents the number of 

farms cultivating a certain area of soybeans. In Romania and Italy rather modest acreages per farm 

are noticed (2-20 ha). In France and Hungary the big farms are dominant (>100 ha). 

2 http://www.fediol.org/site/index.php?section=11&menu=102&submenu=229 

Page 5 of 42

Table 2: EU soybean acreage in 1,000 ha (Source: Eurostat) 

Zone Member State 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 

B Austria 34.4 25.3 18.4 20.2 25.0 21.4 17.9 15.5 14.0 16.3 

Centre Belgium - - - - - - - - - - 

Czech Republic 9.5 6.0 4.3 7.5 9.6 9.3 9.0 7.7 3.0 2.7 

Germany a - 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 0 0 0.7 0.8 

Hungary 33.5 31.5 29.0 32.9 35.9 33.6 27.3 30.3 25.0 20.6 

Ireland - - - - - - - - - - 

Luxembourg - - - - - - - - - - 

Netherlands 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - - - - 

Poland 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 

Romania 59.9 48.8 49.9 133.2 190.8 143.1 121.3 128.8 71.8 44.8 

Slovakia 14.0 9.7 5.4 7.9 12.3 10.7 8.6 11.1 9.7 6.4 

Slovenia a - 0.0 0.0 0,1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 

United Kingdom - - - - 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 2.2 

Total Centre 151.5 122.4 108.1 203.1 276.1 219.6 185.5 194.9 125.3 93.8 

Bulgaria - - 0.1 - - - - - - - 

Cyprus - - - - - - - - - - 

France 51.0 43.7 21.8 32.4 45.3 57.4 58.6 80.7 74.8 120.9 

Greece 1.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Italy 159.5 134.7 107.8 130.3 177.9 152.3 150.4 152.1 152.0 233.5 

Malta - - - - - - - - - - 

Portugal - - - - - - - - - - 

Spain 0.7 1.2 0.3 0.6 0.6 1.0 0.1 0.3 0.6 2.5 

C 

South 

Total South 213.1 179.6 130.0 163.3 223.8 210.7 209.1 233.1 227.4 356.9 

European Union 27 364.6 302.0 238.1 366.4 499.9 430.3 394.6 428.0 352.7 450.7 

-: not applicable, real zero or zero by default 

a 

: from FAOstat 

Page 6 of 42

Table 3: Structure of farms with soybeans in 2007 (Source: Eurostat) 

Zone Member State Number of holdings with an area of soybeans of: 

100 ha 

Austria 80 150 420 960 650 960 540 210 

Belgium - - - - - - - - 

B 

Centre 

Czech Republic 0 0 0 10 10 10 30 140 

Germany - - - - - - - - 

Hungary 50 60 90 150 70 120 120 330 

Ireland - - - - - - - - 

Luxembourg - - - - - - - - 

the Netherlands - - - - - - - - 

Poland - - - - - - - - 

Romania 430 1,720 1,390 890 220 280 210 960 

Slovakia 10 30 30 30 20 10 0 0 

Slovenia 10 10 10 10 10 20 10 140 

the United Kingdom - - - - - - - - 

Bulgaria 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Cyprus - - - - - - - - 

C 

South 

France 0 30 0 100 160 490 940 1,110 

Greece 20 10 10 20 10 0 0 0 

Italy 2,540 4,460 2,960 3,580 1,160 1,370 1,090 950 

Malta - - - - - - - - 

Portugal - - - - - - - - 

Spain 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 10 

-: not applicable or real zero or zero by default 

Page 7 of 42

3.3 Weeds, pests and diseases 

3.3.1 Weeds 

Soybeans are poor competitors and need careful weed management. Some examples of common 

weeds found in soybean fields are given in Table 4. 

Table 5: Soybean – main European weeds (Sources: a CETIOM; b Bayerische Landesanstalt für 

Landwirtschaft; c <strong>information</strong> provided by EuropaBio member companies) 

Zone Member State Main weed species 

B 

Centre 

C 

South 

Austria - 

Belgium n/a 

Czech Republic - 

Germany b Amaranthus spp.; Brassica spp.; Chenopodium spp.; Galinsoga spp.; 

Galium aparine; Matricaria chamomilla; Panicum spp.; Rumex spp.; 

Solanum nigrum; … 

Hungary - 

Ireland n/a 

Luxembourg n/a 

the Netherlands n/a 

Poland - 

Romania b Abutilon theoprasti; Amaranthus spp.; Chenopodium spp.; Datura spp.; 

Phragmites communis; Polygonum spp.; Sorghum halepense; Solanum 

nigrum, Xantium spp. 

Slovakia - 

Slovenia - 

the United 

Kingdom 

n/a: not applicable 

-: no data available 

Bulgaria - 

Cyprus n/a 

- 

France a Alopecurus spp.; Amaranthus spp.; Ambrosia spp.; Avena fatua; Bromus 

tectorum; Calystegia sepium; Chenopodium spp.; Datura spp.; Digitaria 

sanguinalis; Echinochloa crus-galli; Elytrigia spp.; Lolium spp.; Matricaria 

chamomilla; Panicum spp.; Polygonum spp.; Rumex; Setaria spp.; 

Solanum nigrum; Sorghum halepense; and Xanthium spp. 

thistles 

Greece - 

Italy Abutilon theophrasti; … 

Malta n/a 

Portugal n/a 

Spain - 

Page 8 of 42

3.3.2 Pests 

A list of soybean pests is provided in Table 6. 

Green stinkbugs (Nezara viridula) are the prevailing pest (CETIOM, 2002). The larvae and adults feed 

on legumes, preferably on plants that are fruiting or forming pods. Pods and grains are aborted or stay 

small. Not only yield is reduced, also grain quality. The injuries allow infestations by fungi, bacteria 

and virus. 

The red spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) typically infests crops in dry environments. It is a 

polyphagous mite damaging crops by sucking the cell contents thereby reducing the photosynthetic 

capability of plants. 

Etiella zinckenella is a moth, with larvae feeding on the grains of legumes, resulting in yield loss and 

difficult to store harvest. 

In Hungary Phorbia platura is the most important pest of seedlings. 

Table 6: Soybean – main European pests (Sources: a Ábrahám, 2008; b CETIOM; c Forum di 

Agraria; d Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; e EuropaBio member companies) 

Zone Member State Main pest species 

B 

Centre 

C 

South 

Austria - 

Belgium n/a 


Germany d Lepidoptera: Vanessa cardui 

Hungary a Diptera: Phorbia platura 

Lepidoptera: Etiella zinckenella 

Thysanoptera: Anaphothrips obscurus; Frankliniella intonsa; Thrips 

tabaci and Thrips angusticeps 

Ireland n/a 



Poland - 

Romania e 

Slovakia 

Lepidoptera: Etiella zinckenella 

Slovenia - 



Bulgaria - 

Others: Tetranychus urticae 

Cyprus n/a 

France b Diptera: Agriotes spp. 

- 

- 

Lepidoptera: Etiella zinckenella; Vanessa cardui 

Hemiptera Nezara viridula 

Sternorrhyncha: Aphids 

Greece - 

Others: Tetranychus urticae 

Page 9 of 42

Zone Member State Main pest species 



3.3.3 Diseases 

Italy c Hemiptera Nezara viridula 

Others: Heterodera glycines; Tetranychus urticae 

Malta n/a 

Portugal n/a 


Sclerotinia is the number one fungal disease of soybeans. The fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum has a 

wide host range including other legumes, sunflower, oilseed rape etc. Favourable conditions for 

contamination are high humidity in the foliage for several hours. The first signs are visible at floral 

nodes, followed by the stem. Eventually, the plant dies. At the end the survival structures are formed: 

the black sclerotia, that persist in the soil for several years. 

Other diseases are caused by Rhizoctonia that also affects maize and sugar beet. The fungus causes 

root rot. In France contamination is usually limited to a few plants. Downy mildew (Peronospora 

manshurica) and Diaporthe may be noticed on the crop but neither do cause major damage or yield 

loss. 

Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea, Diaporthe phaseolorum var. caulivora and var. sojae, 

Phialophora gregata and Phytophthora megasperma f.sp. glycinea are listed to be avoided in 

commercial seed production 3 . 

Pythium and Fusarium are the most important fungi damaging young seedlings (Table 7). 

Viruses are commonly spread through piercing/sucking insects like aphids. 

Table 7: Soybean – main European diseases (Source: a CETIOM; b JRC; c Forum di Agraria) 

Zone Member State Main diseases 

B 

Centre 

Austria - 

Belgium n/a 

Czech Republic Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 

Germany - 

Hungary b Colletotrichum truncatum; Corynespora cassiicola; Diaporthe 

phaseolorum var. sojae; Macrophomina phaseolina; Peronospora 

manshurica; Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 

Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. glycinea; Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. 

glycines 

Soybean mosaic virus 

Ireland n/a 



Poland Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 

Romania b 

Slovakia 

Slovenia - 

Fusarium ssp.; Pythium debaryanum and Phomopsis sojae 

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 

3 Council Directive 2002/57/EC of 13 June 2002 on the marketing of seed of oil and fibre plants. OJ L 

193, 20.7.2002, p. 74 

Page 10 of 42

Zone Member State Main diseases 

C 

South 





Bulgaria - 

Cyprus n/a 

- 

France a, damping-off diseases 

Diaporthe phaseolorum var. sojae (anamorph: Phomopsis sojae); 

Fusarium spp.; Peronospora manshurica; Rhizoctonia spp.; Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum; 

Greece - 

Italy c Cephalosporium gregatum; Cercospora; Diaporthe phaseolorum; 

Fusarium spp.; Phytium spp.; Peronospora manshurica; Septoria 

glycines; Phythophthora; Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 

Pseudomonas glycinea; Xanthomonas phaseoli var. sojensis 

Soybean mosaic virus 

Malta n/a 

Portugal n/a 

Spain Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 

Page 11 of 42

4 Preparation 

4.1 Seeds 

Soybean is considered a self-pollinated species, propagated commercially by seed. While artificial 

hybridisation is used for cultivar breeding, most varieties are pure lines. 

Soybean is a quantitative short day plant. Photoperiodism and temperature response determine the 

region where a certain variety is best grown. Soybean varieties are therefore divided in maturity 

classes, depending on the number of days required for achieving a harvestable crop (OECD, 2000). 

Varieties suited to the northern maturity groups mature quickly, in about 80-90 days after planting, 

whereas those in southern warm climates take longer, 100-150 days. Maturity Groups are designated 

000 (very early) over 00, 0, I, II, III and IV (very late). Depending on the type of cultivar (very early to 

late) the temperature sum (t>10°C) for the soybean vegetation period is in the range 1,200-1,750°C. 

Not only the region, but also the sowing date determines the optimal maturity group. Early varieties 

are less sensitive to photoperiod. In France maturity groups from 000 to II are used, in Italy 0 to II. 

Three types of growth habit can be found amongst soybean cultivars: determinate, semi-determinate 

and indeterminate. Determinate growth is characterised by the cessation of vegetative activity of the 

terminal bud when it becomes an inflorescence at both axillary and terminal racemes. Indeterminate 

genotypes continue vegetative activity throughout the flowering period. Semi-determinate types have 

indeterminate stems that terminate vegetative growth abruptly after the flowering period. 

Soybeans became known in Europe first through the derived food products. The soybean plant was 

first grown in botanical gardens mid-18 th century in the Netherlands, France and England as a 

curiosity 4 . The commercial possibilities were tested in France only in 1821 and in 1840 cultivation of 

soybeans was starting on farms in Italy. The French Society for Acclimatization, starting in 1854, 

made extensive efforts to propagate the soybean in Europe, but did not succeed in establishing a 

permanent culture of the plant. Breeding started with Dr. Friedrich Haberlandt of Vienna one of the 

great pioneers of soybeans in Europe. Between 1873 and 1878 he initiated hundreds of successful 

soybean culture tests throughout southern central Europe. In 1880 the French company Vilmorin- 

Andrieux & Co for the first time offered soybeans for sale in their seed catalogue. This first soybean 

variety was one of those developed by Haberlandt. First cultivated as a food legume, Haberlandt 

pointed to the value as feed. His work helped to shape soybean breeding in the USA. 

As cheap imports dominated the market in Europe the cultivation of soybeans was not a priority. In 

the interbellum the USSR became a major producer of soybeans. In Eastern Europe, especially in 

Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary, the cultivation of soybean only started in the 1930s but fell back to 

almost zero at the end of World War II. Only in 1973, when imports from the USA were embargoed, a 

renewed interest in growing soybean in Europe was noticed. Expansion of the soybean production 

first started in South Eastern Europe and later in France. Mid-1930s the Swedish Dr. Sven A. 

Holmberg started breeding soybeans for growth in northern Europe, adapted to the extreme northern 

latitudes, cold temperatures, maritime climate, and long summer days. Efforts are made to study and 

adapt varieties to extend the soybean growing area to more northwestern regions (e.g. the 

Netherlands, Agrifirm). 

The breeding goals for soybean today are increased productivity, variety of maturity groups, earliness, 

protein content, sclerotinia tolerance and height of the first pod. Other traits are competitiveness 

against weeds during vegetative growth stages, cold tolerance, and quality characters such as a 

reduced trypsin inhibitor activity, improved fatty acid composition, low phytate, low allergenic potential 

or high isoflavone concentration for specific products, etc. In more recent years characters such as 

drought tolerance (especially during flowering), nitrogen use efficiency, or stress tolerance in general 

are becoming important as well. 

Despite the efforts of the breeding industry and research institutes during the last 10 years, the 

profitability of the crop has not improved (CETIOM, 2009). 

4 http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/europe1.php 

Page 12 of 42

European legislation requires that every variety undergoes official trials for DUS (Distinctness, 

Uniformity, Stability) and VCU (Value for Cultivation and Use) before commercialisation. The 

guidelines for the VCU and DUS tests are summarised in Directive 2002/53/EC 5 . The Community 

Plant Variety Office (CPVO) does not publish a technical protocol for DUS testing specifically for 

soybean. However, Directive 2003/90/EC 6 refers to the UPOV guideline TG/80/6 7 for soybean. For the 

VCU the minimum items to test are not defined in detail; i.e. yield, resistance to harmful organisms, 

behaviour with respect to factors in the physical environment, and quality characteristics. Directive 

2002/57/EC 8 and amendments explain on the official examination and certification rules for oil and 

fibre plants. 

The common catalogue is based on the national lists of the Member State. All Member States compile 

one or more national catalogues of the varieties accepted for certification and marketing in their 

territory. The implementation of VCU testing by the Member State might be different resulting in 

different admission levels between countries. Differences exist in the preparation of the seed, trial layout/field 

protocol, evaluated (quality) characteristics, methods of analysis, etc. 

New applications are tested against existing ‘standard’ varieties. A quick replacement of standard 

varieties allows farmers to always use the most advanced material, but leaves little room for new 

registrations. Slower renewal of the standards will permit varieties that are not always an improvement 

compared to the currently used varieties. 

Usually 2 to 3 years of testing are needed on several locations representing the main soybean 

growing areas. Varieties are evaluated according to earliness groups. In testing soybean performance 

characters are measured such as grain yield, protein content, earliness (flowering and maturity), 

disease resistance, lodging resistance, height of the first flowering node, total plant height. 

In Romania varieties are used that are bred both in Romania and the USA (JRC, MOCA study). 

French breeders supply the French market. 

4.2 Seed treatment 

The most important seed treatment is the inoculation with the nitrogen fixing Bradyrhizobium 

japonicum (Kirchner 1896) Jordan, 1982. As this bacterium is not present naturally in European soils, 

it needs to be added. Once introduced treatment of the next soybean crop depends on the time since 

the previous soybean crop, the quality of nodulation in that crop and the soil type (CETIOM). For best 

results, though, an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any 

legume) seed just before planting. Farmers themselves mix the seed with the commercially prepared 

inoculum (microgranules or pellets often mixed with peat, or in liquid form). In France the inocula are 

controlled by INRA together with CETIOM. Producers are EMD Crop Bioscience and Becker 

Underwood. 

In France carboxin and thiram may be used as a seed dressing against damping-off (Pythium and 

Phomopsis). In Romania seeds are treated before sowing with Beret MLX 360 against Fusarium ssp. 

and Pythium debaryanum, and with Tiramet against Phomopsis sojae. 

5 

Council Directive 2002/53/EC of 13 June 2002 on the common catalogue of varieties of agricultural 

plant species. OJ L 193, 20.7.2002, p. 1-15. 

6 

Commission Directive 2003/90/EC of 6 October 2003 setting out implementing measures for the 

purposes of Article 7 of Council Directive 2002/53/EC as regards the characteristics to be covered as 

a minimum by the examination and the minimum conditions for examining certain varieties of 

agricultural plant species. OJ L 254, 8.10.2003, p. 7 

7 

http://www.upov.int/en/publications/tg-rom/tg080/tg_80_6.pdf 

8 

Council Directive 2002/57/EC of 13 June 2002 on the marketing of seed of oil and fibre plants. OJ L 

193, 20.7.2002, p. 74- 

Page 13 of 42

Table 8: Soybean seed treatment (Sources:) 

Zone Member State % of soybean crop area treated with 

B 

Centre 

C 

South 

Bradyrhizobium 

japonicum 

Insecticide Fungicide 

Austria - - - 

Belgium n/a n/a n/a 

Czech Republic - - - 

Germany yes - - 

Hungary yes - - 

Ireland n/a n/a n/a 

Luxembourg n/a n/a n/a 

the Netherlands n/a n/a n/a 

Poland - - - 

Romania yes - yes 

Slovakia - - - 

Slovenia - - - 





- - - 

Bulgaria - - - 

Cyprus n/a n/a n/a 

France 70% - yes 

Greece - - - 

Italy yes - - 

Malta n/a n/a n/a 

Portugal n/a n/a n/a 

Spain - - - 

4.3 Soil preparation 

The general practice to prepare the soil is ploughing in order to incorporate crop residuals and weeds 

in the soil. On heavy soils this is done in autumn with the advantage that frost can break clods. On 

lighter soils the soil is tilled shortly before preparing the actual seedbed. Local legislation might restrict 

soil preparations to prevent erosion. 

The seedbed needs to be fine-structured, well aerated and levelled for easy weed management and 

harvest. The number of passages should be limited and preferably done on a rather dry soil to prevent 

soil compaction. 

Soybean cultivation is suitable to most types of soils and crop rotations. However, soybeans do not 

yield well on acid soils and the addition of limestone may be required. On the other hand, on soils with 

more than 10% limestone (calcium carbonate) the functioning of the nodules will be hindered. 

Soybean is very dependent on the availability of nitrogen, hence the importance of the nitrogen fixing 

Bradyrhizobium. The crop needs about 400 kg/ha (CETIOM, 2002). With enough active bacteria, a 

considerable reduction in chemical fertilisers can be achieved. About 300 kg/ha can be covered by the 

bacteria-plant symbiosis. The rest is supplied by the soil (already present or by fertilisers). If the soil at 

the time of sowing still contains more than 100 kg/ha available nitrogen in the 0-90 cm top layer, the 

Page 14 of 42

nodulation is hampered, especially when irrigation is insufficient (CETIOM). Usually no nitrogen 

fertiliser is applied. Only when nodulation fails nitrogen is applied at flowering. CETIOM advises to 

add 80-150 units per hectare. 

Soybean does not require much phosphorous or potassium. Often no fertilisers are applied. 

With minimum or zero-tillage the soil is not or only superficially laboured. In this way, crop residue 

from previous crops is left in the soil surface layers during the critical soil erosion period, retaining 

more raining water and, therefore, diminishing soil erosion and nutrients wash out. The fertile soil is 

kept in the upper layers, soil structure is kept intact and soil organisms are not disturbed. Seeds are 

sown directly. This practice is useful on slopes and on fields with low carrying capacity. Yields are 

usually lower in comparison with tilled fields. 

The Sixth Environment Action Programme (6 th EAP) sets out the framework for environmental policy 

making in the European Union for the period 2002-2012 and outlines actions that need to be taken to 

achieve them. The 6 th EAP calls for the development of seven thematic strategies, including a 

strategy on soil protection: the Soil Thematic Strategy. In September 2006 the Commission proposed 

a Soil Framework Directive, which is currently under discussion. 

In the final report on the project ‘Sustainable Agriculture and Soil Conservation (SoCo Project Team; 

2009), conservation agriculture is positioned in the thematic strategy on soil protection. The report 

was commissioned by the European Parliament and provides for conclusions and recommendations 

on soil degradation processes, soil conservation practices and policy measures at European level. 

No-tillage and reduced tillage, in combination with permanent soil cover (cover crops, crop residues) 

and crop rotation, are essential practices in conservation agriculture. These practices minimise the 

risk of soil degradation by increasing the organic carbon stock, thus improving biological activity, soil 

fertility, soil structure and the water-retention capacity of soils. As a consequence, soil erosion and 

nutrient runoff are reduced (with positive effects on water quality), and soil resistance to compaction is 

improved. In addition, significant cost savings with respect to labour and fuel consumption are 

reported. 

Table 9: Soybean soil preparation in relation to tillage (options, complemented with relative 

importance % of cultivated soybean area), fertiliser (N: nitrogen, P: phosphorus, K: 

potassium) and soil application of insecticides) (Sources: Sources: a CETIOM; b JRC; 

c Forum di Agraria; d Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; e EuropaBio member 

companies) 

Zone Member State Tillage Fertiliser 

(kg/ha) 

B 

Centre 

Austria - - - 



Germany d - 40-90 P2O5, 

40-100 K2O 

Hungary Ploughing or Disking; 

In autumn 

- - 




Poland - - - 

Romania b, e Disking or Ploughing; 

In autumn 

40-60 N before sowing; 

40-60 P2O5 before ploughing 

60-80 K2O before ploughing 

Insecticides 

(% applied of 

the cultivated 

area) 

- 

- 

Page 15 of 42

Zone Member State Tillage Fertiliser 

(kg/ha) 

C 

South 







- - - 



France a Ploughing; 

In autumn or spring 

0-60 P2O5, 

0-60 K2O 

on 50% of the area 

Greece - - - 

Italy c Ploughing 20-30 N at sowing; 

80-100 P2O5, 

K2O if needed 




Insecticides 

(% applied of 

the cultivated 

area) 

Not only are the requirements of a specific crop or soil conditions determining the agricultural practice 

of applying manure or mineral fertilisers, also laws and regulations are, to a large extend, weighing on 

the agricultural practice. As an example the Nitrates Directive 9 aiming to protect water quality across 

Europe by preventing nitrates from agricultural sources polluting ground and surface waters, sets a 

maximum of 170 kg N/ha originating from livestock manure in "vulnerable zones", amongst other 

measurements. Phosphorus application with chemical fertilisers, as a rule, is prohibited unless soil 

analysis is performed and the competent authority issues a permit. For legumes no nitrogen 

containing fertiliser is allowed in vulnerable zones in France. Some departments have obtained 

derogations (CETIOM). 

Some Member States establish codes of good agricultural practice and set up an action programme 

for the vulnerable zones. Some examples: 

• In France Decree 2001-34 transposing the Nitrates Directive, later modified by Decree 2005- 

634, deals with nitrate applications in vulnerable zones. Several Inter-ministerial Circulars 

(DE/DPPR/DGS/DGFAR of April 2001, DGFAR/SDSTAR/C2003-5021 of September 2003, 

DGFAR/SDER/C2008-5014 of March 2008, etc.) and the inter-ministerial Decision of 6 March 

2001, and the “Code des bonnes pratiques agricoles” as established by the Decision of 22 

November 1993 further elaborate on the subject. 

• Italy: “Decreto legislativo 11 maggio 1999, n. 152, "Disposizioni sulla tutela delle acque 

dall'inquinamento e recepimento della direttiva 91/271/CEE concernente il trattamento delle 

acque reflue urbane e della direttiva 91/676/CEE” as amended in 2000 and twice in 2003. 

• In Spain following Regulation (EC) 73/2009, Royal Decree 486/2009 states good agricultural 

practices as a condition for farmers that receive community aid. The Autonomous Regions 

further elaborate the rules for their territory. In particular, Royal Decree 291/1996 is about 

water quality protection against nitrates. 

9 Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 concerning the protection of waters against 

pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources. OJ L 375, 31.12.1991, p. 1-8 

- 

Page 16 of 42

• Hungary: amongst others: A földművelésügyi és vidékfejlesztésiminiszter43/2007. (VI. 1.) 

FVM rendeletea nitrátérzékeny területeknek a MePAR szerintiblokkok szintjén történő 

közzétételéről. Legal act number: 43/2007. Official Journal 2007/68/II., p. 2-498 10 . 

• Romania: amongst others: Hotărâre pentru modificarea şi completarea Hotărârii Guvernului 

nr.964/2000 privind aprobarea Planului de acţiune pentru protecţia apelor împotriva poluării 

cu nitraţi proveniţi din surse agricole. Legal act number: 1360; Official Journal 1061, 

28/11/2005, p. 6-7 11 . 

• Slovakia: amongst others: Zákon č. 136/2000 Z. z. o hnojivách. Official Journal 58, 

21/04/2000 12 . 

The Nitrate Directive allows Member States to get derogations to go beyond the 170 kg limit, under 

strict conditions. The derogation is granted through a Commission decision, following a positive 

opinion from the Nitrates Committee. However, for the soybean growing countries no such 

derogations have been filed. 

10 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:71991L0676:EN:NOT#FIELD_HU 

11 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:71991L0676:EN:NOT#FIELD_RO 

12 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:71991L0676:EN:NOT#FIELD_SK 

Page 17 of 42

5 Cultivation 

5.1 Sowing 

The seed will germinate when the soil temperature reaches 10°C and will emerge in a 5-7 day period 

under favourable conditions. The minimum temperature for germination is 6-7°C. After germination 

the soybean seedlings are able to resist temperatures of -2°C to -3°C for short periods. The optimum 

temperature range for germination is 18-20°C. In new areas of soybean production, inoculation with 

Bradyrhizobium japonicum is necessary, for optimum efficiency of the nodulated root system (OECD, 

2000). This can be reached through applying the inoculum to the seeds or the soil. 

Soybeans need a soil that is warm, moist, well supplied with air, and provides good contact between 

the seed and soil for rapid and homogeneous germination. The seeds are put 2 cm deep when 

sowing is performed early in cold or wet conditions, and 3-4 cm deep later on, when the soil is warm 

or dry (CETIOM). The distance between the rows is 18-30 cm for early varieties to 35-60 cm for late 

maturing varieties. Early varieties do not ramify to the same level as late varieties. In Hungary rows 

are spaced 45-50 cm apart, in Romania 50 cm, in Italy 40-45 cm. 

Plant densities depend on the soybean variety and type of culture (with or without irrigation). The 

amount of seeds used further is given by the time of sowing. Certified seeds have a germination 

capacity of at least 80%. Usually 5-10% more seeds are used than the desired plant density. 

Italian soybeans are planted from the end of April through the end of May. Alternatively, soybean may 

be sown as an intercrop after an early harvested crop, like winter barley, winter oilseed rape, peas or 

chives, mid-June to early July (‘soja en dérobé’). 

Table 10: Soybean sowing - sowing dates, seed use and plant density (Sources: a CETIOM; b JRC, 

MOCA study; c Forum di Agraria; d Thüringer Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; 

e Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; f EuropaBio member companies) 

Zone Member State Sowing dates Seed use 

(1,000 kernels/ha) 

B 

Centre 

C 

South 

Austria - - - 



Plant density 

(1,000/ha) 

Germany d, e Mid-April – Mid-May 550-700 500-600 

Hungary b April - 450-500 




Poland - - - 

Romania b End of March 

Mid-April – Mid-May f 

Rain-fed: 450-500 

Irrigated: 500-550 





- - - 



Page 18 of 42

Zone Member State Sowing dates Seed use 

(1,000 kernels/ha) 



France a Mid-April - end of May E: 440-670 (dry) 

SW: 330-550 

(irrigated) 

mid-June to early July - - 

Greece - - - 

Plant density 

(1,000/ha) 

E: 400-600 (dry) 

SW: 300-500 

(irrigated) 

Italy c end of April - end of May - 300-350 

Mid-June - 400 




5.2 Crop protection 

5.2.1 Weed management 

Weeds are controlled with herbicides and/or mechanical methods in combination with agricultural 

practices. 

Most soybean fields are treated at least once with herbicides. The first occasion is after sowing before 

the soybean seedlings emerge (pre-emergence) and a second time at the 4-leaf stage (postemergence). 

The importance of the area treated with herbicides as well as the average number of 

herbicide applications per field and are shown in Table 11. 

A broad range of active ingredients has been used in Europe, including aryloxyphenoxy-propionate, 

benzamide, benzothiadiazinone, cyclohexanedione, dinitroaniline, imidazolinone, isoxazolidinone 

chloroacetamide, oxadiazole and urea herbicides. Examples of approved herbicide to use in soybean 

in some countries of the EU are shown in Table 12 and 

Page 19 of 42

Table 13. Alternating use (rotation) of products with different modes of actions is a key tool to manage 

weed resistance and is recommended in many stewardship programmes to prevent the development 

of resistance to commonly used herbicides. 

Alternatively, mechanical cultivation is practiced pre-emergence combined with a chemical application 

later in the season. Also, mechanical methods are used after emergence between the rows combined 

with row spraying of an herbicide to lower the amount of active ingredient. In general, tillage systems 

without soil inversion rely more on efficient herbicide use. 

An adequate crop rotation makes it possible to treat difficult to manage weeds in soybean already in 

the previous crops. Alternating winter and spring crops, monocots and dicots allows for the use of 

herbicides with different modes of action together tackling a broad variety of weeds. Weeds with 

rhizomes are treated preferably between 2 crops. 

The creation of a false seedbed is another method to start with a clean field. The soil is superficially 

worked on after ploughing and well in advance of the actual sowing. This facilitates the germination of 

the weeds. After 15-20 days the operation is repeated and care is taken not to turn the soil. The 

weeds are then destroyed (mechanically or with a none-selective herbicide) just before the soybeans 

are sown. Delaying the actual sowing a little bit will favour a rapid and homogenous germination 

giving the seedlings a competitive advantage over the weeds (CETIOM). 

Page 20 of 42

Table 11: Chemical weed control (pre-emergence & post-emergence) (Sources: a Bayerische 

Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; b CETIOM; c ; d EuropaBio member company) 

Zone Member State Treated area 

(% of 

cultivated 

soybean 

area) 

B 

Centre 

C 

South 

Preemergence 

(average 

number of 

applications 

per field) 

preemergence 

active 

ingredients 

Postemergence 

(average 

number of 


per field) 

Austria - - - - - 

Belgium n/a 

Czech Republic - - - - - 

Germany a 1 Metribuzin 

Pendimethalin 

Hungary - - - - - 

Ireland n/a 



Poland - - - - - 

Romania d 100% 

1 Pendimethalin 

Metribuzine 

Dimethanamid 

S-Metolachlor 

postemergence 

active 


2 Bentazon 

Clodinafoppropargyl 

Cycloxydim 

Fluazifop-P-butyl 

Metsulfuron- 

methyl 

Thifensulfuronmethyl 

2 Bentazon 

Imazamox 

Fluazifop-p-butyl 

Clomazone 

Cycloxydim 

Propaquizafop 

Tepraloxydin 


Slovakia - - - - - 

Slovenia - - - - - 



- - - - - 

Bulgaria - - - - - 

Cyprus n/a 

France b and 13 100% 

1,5 times 

13 http://e-phy.agriculture.gouv.fr/usa/fiche222.htm 

Oxadiazon 


Propyzamide 

S-metolachlor 

Bentazon 

Clethodim 

Clomazone 

Cycloxydim 

Fluazifop-p-butyl 

Imazamox 

Linuron 

Oxadiazon 


Propaquizafop 

Quizalofop ethyl 

S-metolachlor 

Page 21 of 42

Zone Member State Treated area 

(% of 

cultivated 

soybean 

area) 

Preemergence 

(average 

number of 


per field) 

preemergence 

active 


Postemergence 

(average 

number of 


per field) 

Greece - - - - - 

Italy c - - Linuron 


S-metolachlor 

Malta n/a 

Portugal n/a 

postemergence 

active 


- Fomesafen 

Acifluorfen 

Spain - - - - - 



Table 12: Main actives ingredients and examples of pre-emergence commercial herbicides available 

for use in soybean in the EU (Source: <strong>information</strong> provided by EuropaBio member 

companies) 

Active 

ingredient 

HRAC 

classification 

Oxadiazon E RONSTAR 

France Hungary Italy Romania 

Linuron C2 AFALON DS 

Pendimethalin K1 PROWL 400 STOMP STOMP 330 EC 

Propyzamide K1 AGROTECH- 

PROPYZAMIDE 

ARESPROPYZ 

DRAX 

PROPYZAMIDE 

GRAMPRO 

KERB 

KOZAM FLO 

MILENTUS 

PROPYZAMIDE 

ODIN 

PROPYCE 

PROZAPLUS 

RAPSOL 

ROUTEONE 

ZAMIDE FLO 

SETANTA FLO 

SKADI 

TOPNET 

S-Metolachlor K3 MERCANTOR 

GOLD 

DUAL DUAL GOLD 

Dimethanamid K3 FRONTIER 

FORTE 

Page 22 of 42

Table 13: Main actives ingredients and examples of post-emergence commercial herbicides available 

for use in soybean in the EU (Source: <strong>information</strong> provided by EuropaBio member 

companies) 

Active 


HRAC 



Acifluorfen E SCOUT 

Bentazon C3 ADAGIO SG 

BASAGRAN 

BENTA 

ERBATOP 

Clomazone F3 CENTIUM 

CLOMAZO-GOLD 

Clethodim A BALISTIK 

CENTURION 

FOLY R 

KLETHO 

NOROIT 

OGIVE 

SELECT 

Cycloxydim A CIROS 

DEVIN 

SERAC 

STRATOS ULTRA 

BASAGRAN 

FORTE 

COMMAND 

SELECT SUPER 

FOCUS ULTRA 

Fluazifop-p-butyl A FUSILADE FUDILADE 

SUPER 

Fomesafen E FLEX 

Imazamox B PULSAR PULSAR 40 

Linuron C2 MAC-LINURON 

Oxadiazon E RONSTAR 

Pendimethalin K1 ADIRPEN 

AGROTECH- 

PENDIMETHALIN 

BAROUD 

FORKA 

IDOINE 

PROTEX- 

PENDIMETHALIN 

PROWL 

Propaquizafop A AGIL 

AMBASSADOR 

AMBITION 

CLAXON 

INDEX 

NAPAQUI 

PROPAGOLD 

Quizalofop ethyl A COURSIER 

DRIVER 

ETAMINE 

LEOPARD 

PILOT 

TARGA 

TICKET 

S-Metolachlor K3 CHORISTE 

DUAL GOLD 

ELINA 

MERCANTOR 

GOLD 

STOMP 330 EC 

AGIL 100 EC 

LEOPARD 

PANTERA 40 EC 

TARGA SUPER 

KILLER 

ANACONDA 

DUAL GOLD 

Page 23 of 42

Active 


HRAC 



Tepraloxydin A ARAMO 50 


5.2.2 Pest management 

B HARMONY 50 

SG 

Seed treatment (see section 4.2 Seed treatment) protects the crop at sowing against soil insects 

(usually combined with protection against diseases). 

Soil insecticides are used in Hungary to protect the seedlings from Phorbia platura. 

The economic threshold for green stinkbug treatment is 2-3 insects per square metre in the 

reproductive phase (CETIOM, 1999). The most commonly used active ingredient in spray insecticides 

is lambda cyhalothrine (KARATE). 

Acaricides, such as clofentezine, are used to combat the red spider mite. 

Anti-slug treatments are performed on 19% of the soybean area in France, insecticides or acaricides 

are applied on only 3% of the area (CETIOM, 2009). Molluscicides such as metaldehyde, methiocarb 

or ferric phosphate are applied on the soil between sowing and emergence. 

There is no chemical treatment for Etiella zinckenella. A well-managed irrigation and deep ploughing 

of the crop residuals to kill pupae prevents major damage. Agriotes attacks may be minimized by 

sowing at optimal conditions. Treatment is seldom needed. 

Table 14: Soybean – use of insecticides in on plant sprays (Sources: a CETIOM; b Bayerische 

Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft; c EuropaBio member companies) 

Zone Member State Insecticides 

(% of cultivated area) 

B 

Centre 

C 

South 

Insecticides 

active ingredients 

(number of applications) 

Austria - - - 

Belgium n/a 


Germany b - - lambda-cyhalothrin 

Hungary - - - 

Ireland n/a 



Poland - - - 

Romania c 

Slovakia 



Greece - - - 

Italy - - - 

Malta n/a 

Portugal n/a 


Clofentezin (acari) 

In general integrated pest management (IPM) promotes the use of different techniques in combination 

to control pests efficiently, with an emphasis on methods that are least injurious to the environment 

and most specific to the particular pest. 

5.2.3 Disease management 

No fungicides are used in France. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum cannot be treated with fungicides 

(CETIOM, 2004). Sclerotinia infestations may be reduced using varieties that are least sensitive to the 

disease and that are lodging resistant. Careful irrigation avoiding humid conditions in the canopy 

further prevents the development of the fungus. Also, sowing at the right density in good soil 

conditions and a timely irrigation (not before flowering) prevents a too dense canopy. 

Coniothyrium minitans is parasitic fungus that attacks sclerotia in the soil. It is applied as a spore 

formulation (CONSTANS WG) to the soil either before sowing or after harvest when a sclerotina 

infestation has been observed (multiyear treatment). 

Fungi are mainly tackled by seed treatment (see section 4.2 Seed treatment). 

5.2.4 Plant Protection Products 

The placing on the market of plant protection products is regulated by Regulation (EC) No 

1107/2009 15 . Whereas the active substance is approved at EU level, the actual plant protection 

products are authorised at Member State level and the authorisation includes details of each 

authorised use. Potential environmental impacts already addressed by that Regulation include impact 

on non-target species and the likelihood of resistance development. 

A plant protection product must -among other aspects- not have any unacceptable effects on plants or 

plant products; and have no unacceptable effects on the environment, having particular regard to its 

fate and distribution in the environment, its impact on non-target species and its impact on biodiversity 

and the ecosystem. 

In addition to management measures, the holder of an authorisation for a plant protection product is 

also required to monitor and to report annually to the competent authorities of the Member States 

which authorised the plant protection product if the holder has any <strong>information</strong> available relating to the 

lack of expected efficacy, the development of resistance and to any unexpected effect on plants, plant 

products or the environment. Any agricultural development that would include a change in the use of a 

crop protection product, will need to fulfil the requirements imposed by this legislation and will be 

evaluated in line with similar products by the relevant competent authorities. 

The Sixth Environment Action Programme and the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of 

Pesticides, adopted by the Council and Parliament for the period 2002-2012, aims towards a healthier 

environment. Amongst the objectives are the reduction of the levels of harmful active substances 

used, in particular by substituting the most dangerous with safer alternatives, and the promotion of 

15 Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 

concerning the placing of plant protection products on the market and repealing Council Directives 

79/117/EEC and 91/414/EEC. 

Page 25 of 42

low-input or pesticide-free cultivation. This resulted in the 2009/128/EC Framework Directive 16 

establishing the framework to achieve a sustainable use of pesticides by reducing the risks and 

impacts of pesticide use on human health and the environment and promoting the use of integrated 

pest management and of alternative approaches or techniques such as non-chemical alternatives to 

pesticides. This Directive obliges the Member States to adopt National Action Plans (NAPs) by 14 

December 2012 to set up measures to implement Community legislation and to achieve individual 

objectives. 

Integrated pest management (IPM) is a key element in the NAPs. The use of disease and pest 

resistant or tolerant varieties, may add substantially to the implementation of IPM by farmers. 

Examples of pesticide-use reduction programmes include: 

- In Germany, the Plant Protection Product Reduction Programme was devised and published in 

2004. This National Action Plan on Sustainable Use of Plant Protection Products builds on that 

programme (2008). The leitmotiv is the use of the necessary minimum of plant protection 

products when all other practicable options to prevent and deter harmful organisms have been 

exhausted. 

- In 2008, France set a 50% reduction, where possible, by 2018 in the ‘Ecophyto 2018’. It also 

banned the 53 most problematic substances, 30 of which would have been banned by the end of 

2008. 

Any change in agricultural practice will need to be evaluated against these objectives. New 

developments may offer alternatives to existing products and present options for lower levels of 

application of active ingredients with an improved environmental profile. Additionally, integration of 

genetic tolerances or resistances to pests or diseases may expand IPM strategies. 

Pest populations have the potential to develop resistance to the crop protection products used against 

them, particularly if they are regularly treated with a single product. The result is that once effective 

products are no longer able to control the pest and have to be replaced. Resistance is a natural 

phenomenon but its development is an important threat for sustainable crop protection that must be 

tackled proactively, through resistance management programmes. 

Resistance management is undertaken within the context of an Integrated Pest Management 

Strategy. It is possible that resistance management programmes require a change in agricultural 

practice, e.g. by implementing diversification of protective measures in adjacent field zones. 

The 2000/60/EC Water Framework Directive 17 states that aquatic environments throughout the EU will 

have to achieve good ecological status by 2015. Pesticides are one of the main sources of water 

pollution and aquatic environment degradation. The Groundwater Directive 2006/118/EC 18 has been 

developed to elaborate further on the requirements of the Water Framework Directive. Member States 

have developed national laws and regulations, prohibiting the use of some products, limiting the 

application of others. E.g. in Romania, a buffer zone of 15 meters in the proximity of water courses 

was implemented, trough Water Law (107/1996) in order to prevent water pollution with plant 

protection products, 

5.3 Irrigation 

In EU-27 the total agricultural area equipped for irrigation in the year 2003 accounts for 16 million ha 

on a total of 182 million ha of agricultural land (Eurostat, Farm structure survey data 2000, 2003). The 

majority of irrigated areas are concentrated in the Mediterranean region. France, Greece, Italy, 

Portugal and Spain account for 12 million ha corresponding to 75 % of the total area equipped for 

irrigation in EU-27 (JRC, 2008, Water Requirements for Irrigation in the European Union). Whereas in 

the Central and Northern European countries agriculture is generally rain-fed and irrigation is only 

temporarily used to overcome water shortages during summer optimizing crop yields, in Southern 

Europe it is an essential element of agricultural production (Figure 1). 

16 Directive 2009/128/EC of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for Community action to 

achieve the sustainable use of pesticides, OJ L309, 24.11.2009, p.71-86 

17 Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for 

the Community action in the field of water policy, OJ L 327, 22.12.2000, p. 1-72. 

18 Directive 2006/118/EC of 12 December 2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and 

deterioration, OJ L372, 27.12.2006, p. 19-31. 

Page 26 of 42

Soybean is particularly sensitive to water stress. The soybean crop requires 900 m 3 /ha (EEA, 2009). 

In a deep soil this will cause no problems, but on shallow soils, irrigation is often needed. Especially at 

the end of the growing season water is needed to fill the grains and to obtain a high protein level 

(CETIOM, 2002). 

Irrigation is recommended to start preferable at flowering until the appearance of the first mature 

pods. In France the IRRIsoja 19 tool helps farmers to manage irrigation of the crop. On shallow soils 

180-300 mm is provided for in 5 to 10 rounds in an average year. Deep soils need less: 80-200 mm to 

be given in 2 to 6 rounds (CETIOM). 

In Romania less than 30 % of the fields are irrigated. The crop is irrigated in the period between 

flowering and grain filling. First irrigation is at flowering followed by 3-4 irrigations separated by 10-14 

days. On soils with good or moderate permeability the application rate is 700-800 m 3 /ha; on soils with 

low or very high permeability: 400-500 m 3 /ha. In dry spring a first irrigation after sowing is 

recommended (200-300 m 3 /ha). 

Figure 1: European Irrigation Map (EIM) - Irrigation intensity in the EU as irrigated area in % of total 

area calculated over a 10x10km raster, composed from 2000 and 2003 data (source: JRC, 

2008, Water Requirements for Irrigation in the European Union) 

19 http://www.cetiom.fr/index.php?id=10582 

Page 27 of 42

The actual water use (intensity) at the farm level is not known. However, the total irrigable area as the 

maximum area which could be irrigated in the reference year using the equipment and the quantity of 

water normally available on the holding (Eurostat) can be used as an indication, although actual 

irrigated area is generally lower than the irrigable area. 

Eurostat provides <strong>information</strong> on selected crops that are irrigated at least once a year. Table 15 lists 

the number of soybean hectares that were irrigated at least once in 2003 compared to the total of 

harvested soybean areas per region. 

Table 15: Irrigation of soybean in 2003 (Eurostat) 

Zone Member State 

Region 

B 

Centre 

Total area (1,000 ha) of irrigated 

soybean 

production 

irrigated 

soybean 

as % of 

soybean 

area 

Austria 15.5 0.32 2.06 

Ostösterreich 7.1 0.28 3.94 

Südösterreich 3.2 0.01 0.31 

Westösterreich 5.1 0.00 0.00 

Belgium 

Czech Republic 7.7 

Germany 

Hungary 30.3 0.20 0.66 

Közép-Magyarország 0.1 0.00 0.00 

Közép-Dunántúl 0.7 0.00 0.00 

Nyugat-Dunántúl 2.2 0.00 0.00 

Dél-Dunántúl 19.4 0.00 0.00 

Észak-Magyarország 0.4 0.00 0.00 

Észak-Alföld 0.6 0.00 0.00 

Dél-Alföld 6.9 0.20 2.90 

Ireland 

Luxembourg 

the Netherlands 

Poland 0.4 

Romania 128.8 35.36 27.45 

Nord-Vest 2.8 0.00 0.00 

Centru 2.5 0.00 0.00 

Nord-Est 17.0 0.00 0.00 

Sud-Est 47.9 13.80 28.81 

Sud - Muntenia 42.6 10.24 24.04 

Bucuresti - Ilfov 0.2 0.00 0.00 

Sud-Vest Oltenia 1.3 0.00 0.00 

Vest 14.5 0.00 0.00 

Slovakia 11.0 0.91 8.27 

Bratislavský kraj 1.0 0.00 0.00 

Západné Slovensko 2.0 0.62 31.00 

Page 28 of 42



C 

South 


soybean 


irrigated 

soybean 

as % of 

soybean 

area 

Stredné Slovensko 1.0 0.00 0.00 

Východné Slovensko 7.0 0.00 0.00 

Slovenia 

United Kingdom 1.1 0.00 0.00 

Bulgaria 0.5 0.01 2.00 

Cyprus 

France 80.7 44.99 55.75 

Île de France 0.1 0.00 0.00 

Champagne-Ardenne 0.2 0.00 0.00 

Picardie 0.0 0.00 

Haute-Normandie 0.0 0.00 

Centre 1.3 0.73 56.15 

Basse-Normandie 0.0 0.00 

Bourgogne 6.5 0.98 15.08 

Nord - Pas-de-Calais 0.0 0.00 

Lorraine 0.1 0.00 0.00 

Alsace 0.0 0,00 

Franche-Comté 3.9 0.48 12.31 

Pays de la Loire 0.3 0.22 73.33 

Bretagne 0.0 0.00 

Poitou-Charentes 0.4 0.51 100.00* 

Aquitaine 12.0 5.73 47.75 

Midi-Pyrénées 48.4 32.51 67.17 

Limousin 0.1 0.00 0.00 

Rhône-Alpes 5.2 2.56 49.23 

Auvergne 0.8 0.41 51.25 

Languedoc-Roussillon 1.1 0.58 52.73 

Provence-Alpes - Côte d'Azur 0.3 0.23 76.67 

Corse 0.0 0.00 

Greece 0.0 0.08 

Italy 152.1 53.90 35.44 

Piemonte 12.6 4.59 36.43 

Valle d'Aosta 0.0 0.00 

Liguria 0.0 0.00 

Lombardia 19.7 13.40 68.02 

Provincia Autonoma Bolzano 0.0 0.00 

Provincia Autonoma Trento 0.0 0.00 

Veneto 72.0 25.11 34.88 

Friuli- Venezia Giulia 31.0 4.85 15.65 

Emilia-Romagna 16.0 5.87 36.69 

Toscana 0.2 0.00 0.00 

Umbria 0.1 0.00 0.00 

Marche 0.3 0.00 0.00 

Lazio 0.0 0.00 

Page 29 of 42




soybean 


irrigated 

soybean 

as % of 

soybean 

area 

Abruzzo 0.1 0.00 0.00 

Molise 0.0 0.00 

Campania 0.0 0.00 

Puglia 0.0 0.00 

Basilicata 0.0 0.00 

Calabria 0.0 0.00 

Sicilia 0.0 0.00 

Sardegna 0.0 0.00 

Malta 

Portugal 

Empty boxes: figure not available 

Spain 0.3 0.19 63.33 

Galicia 0.0 0.00 

Principado de Asturias 0.0 0.00 

Cantabria 0.0 0.00 

País Vasco 0.0 0.00 

Comunidad Foral de Navarra 0.0 0.00 

La Rioja 0.0 0.00 

Aragón 0.0 0.00 

Comunidad de Madrid 0.0 0.00 

Castilla y León 0.0 0.00 

Castilla-la Mancha 0.0 0.00 

Extremadura 0.1 0.19 100.00* 

Cataluña 0.0 0.00 

Comunidad Valenciana 0.0 0.00 

Illes Balears 0.0 0.00 

Andalucía 0.1 

Región de Murcia 0.0 0.00 

Canarias 0.0 0.00 

*: As data from two different Eurostat tables were combined, the figure for irrigated soybean may be higher than for the total 

area of production. It was then assumed that 100% of the area was irrigated. 

Table 16: Irrigation in specific regions (E: east part of the country, SW: southwest) (Sources: a 

CETIOM, b Eurostat) 

Zone Member State Irrigation % of soybean 

area in 2003 

B 

Centre 

Austria b - 2 

Belgium n/a 

Czech Republic - - 

Germany - - 

Hungary b - 0.7 

Ireland n/a 


Page 30 of 42

Zone Member State Irrigation % of soybean 

area in 2003 

C 

South 




Poland - - 

Romania b - 27.5 

Slovakia b - 8.3 

Slovenia - - 

the United b 


- 0.0 

Bulgaria b - 2 

Cyprus n/a 

France a On average 115 mm in July/August 

in 2007 

SW: 82 

E: 19 

Greece - - 

Italy b - 35.4 

Malta n/a 

Portugal n/a 

Spain b - 63.3 

Water may be available as ground water, or as surface water either on-farm (ground water, water 

basins) or off-farm (rivers, canals). Sometimes water from public water supply networks is used. 

Studying the figures for irrigation methods and sources in general (Table 17), it is clear that most often 

sprinklers are used to irrigate fields. In the southern countries surface irrigation also takes an 

important part. Ground water is the dominating source for water in the northern countries. More to the 

south surface water and water from water supply networks is taken. 

Page 31 of 42

Table 17: Irrigation methods and sources of irrigation water for agricultural land in general expressed in hectares irrigated at least once in 2003 

(Eurostat)(crops under glass and in kitchen gardens are not included) 

Irrigation methods (in ha) 

Surface Sprinkler 

irrigation irrigation 

Irrigation source Total 

Zone Member 

State 

Several 

irrigation 

methods 

Drip 


Austria Total 34,230 a 2,310 c 24,680 a 2,830 a 4,400 a 

B 

Centre 

ground water 24,200 a 1,980 c 17,690 a 1,540 b 2,990 a 

on-farm surface water 580 c 110 c 260 c 120 c 90 c 

off-farm surface water 1,280 c 100 c 1,090 c 60 c 0 

off-farm water from water supply networks 1,440 b 50 c 310 c 930 b 150 c 

ground and surface water 2,760 b 0 2,350 c 0 340 

ground water and public network 2,050 c 0 1,350 c 110 c 590 b 

surface water and public network 220 c 0 160 c 40 c 10 c 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 1,090 b 0 910 c 20 c 0 

Belgium 1,850 200 1,350 150 150 

Total 16,860 280 c 14,060 1,310 1,210 

ground water 1,000 b 40 c 740 b 190 b 30 b 

on-farm surface water 530 a 110 a 280 a 140 0 

off-farm surface water 14,800 130 c 12,760 970 940 

off-farm water from water supply networks 110 b 0 100 b 10 c 0 

ground and surface water 210 a 0 40 b 0 170 a 

surface water and public network 20 a 0 0 0 20 b 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 190 0 0 0 0 

Czech 

Republic 

Hungary Total 148,690 10,850 111,920 8,830 17,090 

ground water 27,990 3,200 16,960 6,040 1,780 

source: on-farm surface water 6,950 1,100 4,480 1,250 b 0 

off-farm surface water 20,640 800 a 18,020 820 1,000 

off-farm water from water supply networks 76,150 5,430 64,220 660 5,840 

ground and surface water 4,170 250 b 2,150 40 b 1,720 

ground water and public network 2,730 50 b 1,490 10 c 1,180 

Page 32 of 42



State Irrigation source Total Surface Sprinkler 

Drip Several 

irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation 

methods 

surface water and public network 9,100 0 3,810 0 0 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 940 20 b 760 0 160 

Ireland Total 0 0 0 0 0 

Luxembourg Total 0 0 0 0 0 

The 

Total 62,190 0 56,910 1,600 3,670 

Nederlands 

Poland Total 46,910 

Romania Total 400,520 24,040 341,620 570 34,290 

ground water 25,510 6,470 17,210 140 1,690 

on-farm surface water 66,250 1,720 64,000 60 470 

off-farm surface water 44,240 1,980 38,420 30 3,800 


ground and surface water 2,610 180 730 10 1,690 

ground water and public network 9,860 660 7,830 0 1,370 

mixed surface water 2,110 20 1,870 0 210 

surface water and public network 26,160 1,910 19,570 0 4,690 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 2,900 30 2,140 0 730 

Slovakia Total 104,560 37,580 49,830 1,310 15,830 

ground water 4,580 1,720 1,760 600 500 

on-farm surface water 8,140 2,880 5,030 0 0 

off-farm surface water 60,060 18,500 33,040 270 8,240 

off-farm water from water supply networks 1,140 780 350 0 0 

ground and surface water 2,940 480 1,170 0 0 

ground water and public network 60 a 10 c 0 0 0 

mixed surface water 70 0 0 0 0 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 27,520 13,150 8,430 350 5,590 

Slovenia Total 1,880 a 70 c 1,280 a 250 a 270 c 

ground water 140 a 0 50 50 b 30 

Page 33 of 42






State 

Several 


methods 

Drip 


on-farm surface water 190 a 10 c 30 c 110 b 40 a 

off-farm surface water 1,390 a 40 c 1,180 a 80 b 90 b 

off-farm water from water supply networks 10 a 0 0 0 0 

ground and surface water 120 c 10 b 0 0 90 c 

mixed surface water 20 c 0 10 c 0 0 

surface water and public network 10 c 0 0 0 0 

United Total 227,120 


Bulgaria Total 79,370 65,920 7,170 1,250 5,030 

ground water 13,980 12,500 830 280 380 

on-farm surface water 2,090 1,370 710 0 10 

off-farm surface water 15,280 12,280 2,490 290 210 


ground and surface water 1,410 930 260 90 130 

ground water and public network 4,640 3,820 330 0 480 

mixed surface water 310 110 0 0 0 

surface water and public network 2,170 1,650 100 0 270 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 550 470 0 0 0 

Cyprus Total 35,410 3,440 6,760 15,860 9,340 

France Total 1,938,730 70,480 1,647,270 49,880 164,950 

ground water 617,790 4,780 b 573,930 12,090 a 26,910 a 

on-farm surface water 133,350 1,180 c 121,600 3,830 b 6,610 b 

off-farm surface water 135,460 11,270 b 113,880 2,260 b 6,990 b 

C 

South 

off-farm water from water supply networks 466,020 39,230 a 356,250 19,530 a 47,050 a 

ground and surface water 132,560 a 310 c 115,490 a 2,090 b 14,630 a 

ground water and public network 130,650 a 880 c 109,770 a 2,820 b 17,170 a 

mixed surface water 44,500 a 50 c 40,160 a 1,420 c 2,860 c 

surface water and public network 129,910 11,060 a 100,060 a 2,220 b 15,770 b 

Page 34 of 42






State 

Several 


methods 

Drip 


other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 148,490 1,690 c 116,120 a 3,630 a 26,960 a 

Greece Total 1,294,400 216,660 323,890 232,220 521,630 

ground water 351,160 37,140 123,310 95,930 94,770 

on-farm surface water 16,590 a 3,390 b 5,260 b 2,380 b 5,560 a 

off-farm surface water 129,830 48,560 53,110 6,740 a 21,430 a 

off-farm water from water supply networks 438,750 91,510 90,680 100,690 155,870 

ground and surface water 54,080 6,330 b 12,320 a 3,420 b 32,010 a 

ground water and public network 210,140 14,910 a 25,580 19,470 150,180 

mixed surface water 930 b 380 c 350 c 20 c 190 c 

surface water and public network 63,050 11,520 a 7,840 a 2,410 b 41,270 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 29,870 2,920 b 5,430 b 1,170 b 20,350 a 

Italia Total 2,732,730 892,720 881,810 387,940 a 406,260 

ground water 648,240 98,890 a 213,500 a 205,960 a 63,360 b 

on-farm surface water 156,900 a 33,650 b 62,250 a 31,650 b 17,240 b 

off-farm surface water 820,350 381,350 274,290 35,910 c 106,600 a 

off-farm water from water supply networks 510,360 191,130 a 159,490 a 46,770 b 76,100 b 

ground and surface water 245,320 94,910 a 73,850 a 15,220 b 58,000 a 

ground water and public network 146,200 a 26,970 b 37,580 b 35,730 c 33,080 b 

mixed surface water 75,170 a 21,070 c 30,230 b 3,610 c 17,890 b 

surface water and public network 88,050 a 33,100 a 23,160 b 6,670 c 18,960 c 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 42,140 a 11,640 b 7,490 b 6,420 c 15,030 b 

Malta Total 2,130 50 c 220 c 710 a 1,100 a 

ground water 1,770 a 30 c 150 c 620 a 930 a 

off-farm water from water supply networks 10 c 0 0 0 10 c 

ground water and public network 20 c 0 0 0 10 c 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 330 b 20 c 80 c 90 b 140 b 

Portugal Total 248,040 106,470 63,580 36,650 41,080 

Page 35 of 42






State 

Several 


methods 

Drip 


ground water 95,490 41,280 20,430 21,980 11,630 a 

on-farm surface water 28,440 7,350 a 11,650 a 2,720 a 6,720 a 

off-farm surface water 21,100 12,100 a 5,090 a 1,440 a 2,450 a 

off-farm water from water supply networks 15,110 a 6,290 a 4,890 b 870 b 3,060 b 

ground and surface water 53,830 24,050 13,730 7,030 a 8,980 

ground water and public network 5,760 a 2,060 b 1,020 c 870 b 1,790 a 

mixed surface water 9,160 a 6,930 a 1,270 b 350 b 600 b 

surface water and public network 7,650 b 1,860 b 2,290 c 60 3,450 b 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 11,490 a 4,550 a 3,200 a 1,330 b 2,410 

Spain Total 3,437,370 1,302,780 956,360 1,178,220 0 

ground water 1,272,200 135,860 a 486,670 a 649,670 0 

on-farm surface water 100,650 a 19,960 b 29,310 b 51,370 b 0 

off-farm surface water 405,650 a 179,170 a 123,460 b 103,030 a 0 

off-farm water from water supply networks 1,650,350 964,700 314,820 a 370,830 0 

other sources or at least 3 mixed sources 8,520 b 3,090 c 2,110 b 3,320 b 0 

Empty boxes: figure not available 

a 

: sampling error: 5-

The main overall objective of EU water policy is to ensure access to good quality water in sufficient 

quantity for all Europeans, and to ensure the good status of all water bodies across Europe. While 

Europe is by large considered as having adequate water resources, water scarcity and drought is an 

increasingly frequent and widespread phenomenon in the EU. This major challenge has been 

recognised in the Communication “Addressing the challenge of water scarcity and droughts" from the 

European Commission 20 adopted in 2007. 

Based on the results of a workshop on farm advisory and water protection organized by DG ENV, a 

handbook of ideas for administrations about integrating water issues in farm advisory services was 

developed. The handbook 21 confirms that as the use of water for irrigation contributes to increase 

water scarcity, especially in southern Europe. Crop selection (water needs of the plants) irrigation 

technology and irrigation management are identified as sources of the problem. 

Good farming practices in relation to irrigation methods and equipment are addressed in the codes of 

Spain, Greece, Portugal and France where the scale of irrigation is significantly greater than in 

northern countries (EEA, 2005). E.g. in Spain the National Irrigation Plan (PNR), which was passed by 

Royal Decree 329/2002 (valid until 2008), followed by an Emergency Plan (Royal Decree 287/2006), 

aimed to modernise Spanish irrigation. As a result 41.6% of irrigation area currently uses drip 

irrigation. More than 60% of irrigated land in Spain has improved its efficiency in recent years (OECD, 

2007). 

20 COM(2007)414 

21 Berglund M., Dworak T. (2010) Integrating water issues in Farm advisory services - A Handbook of 

ideas for administrations. 

Page 37 of 42

6 Harvest and post-harvest land use 

6.1 Harvest 

The harvest starts when the soybean ripens (‘clinking’ of the seed in the pod or when at least 70% of 

pods are brown, 14-16% moisture), which occurs with the shedding of the leaves. Harvest may be 

started at 17-18% moisture when air-drying is available. Harvesting usually begins in September in 

France. In Italy harvest runs from the first of October through the end of November. 

Pod shattering in soybean is a major production constraint causing high field yield losses mainly in 

tropical and sub-tropical regions. With regard to pod shattering, soybean varieties can be categorized 

as tolerant, intermediate or susceptible. 

The harvest timing depends on seed moisture. Waiting too long (over-mature seeds) or harvesting in 

very dry conditions will increase the risk of broken and split grains and grain loss. 

Soybean is harvested mechanically using a combine that cuts and threshes the pods in one round. 

Alternatively, soybean is swathed first and threshed later on. This technique, however, increases the 

risk of seed loss. 

Grains are further cleaned and dried if necessary for storage. Care needs to be taken to aerate 

sufficiently to manage storage temperature. 

Table 18: Harvest date (Sources: a CETIOM; b JRC, Moca study; c Forum di Agraria; d EuropaBio 

member companies) 

Zone Member State Harvest date 

B 

Centre 

C 

South 

Austria - 

Belgium n/a 


Germany d September 

Hungary b August 

Ireland n/a 



Poland - 

Romania August b 

Slovakia - 

Slovenia - 



Bulgaria - 

Cyprus n/a 

September - October d 

- 

France a September- October 

Greece - 

Italy c September 

No later than end of October 

October 

Page 38 of 42

Zone Member State Harvest date 



Malta n/a 

Portugal n/a 


6.2 Intercropping 

When a soybean crop is followed by maize the long interval can be used to grow an interim crop. For 

example rapeseed or white or brown mustard is sown 2 to 3 weeks before harvest to fix residual 

nitrogen in autumn (catch crop) (CETIOM, 2002). Other species that may be grown before soybeans 

are winter or spring oats, rye, Fagopyrum esculentum and Phacelia tanacetifolia (CETIOM). The 

cover crop is then destroyed either by frost, ploughing, disking or herbicide spraying (non-selective, 

like glyphosate). 

The French action plan following the Nitrate Directive obliges to sow a cover crop during winter in the 

vulnerable zones. 

Intercropping is also a remedy against weed growth. It further decreases soil erosion in winter time. 

6.3 Soil management & rotation 

Soybeans are often rotated with crops such as maize, winter wheat, spring cereals, sunflower, dry 

beans, and forage crops. Usually the crops come back once every 3 to 6 years (CETIOM). It is 

advised not to grow soybeans for more than 2 consecutive years in order to avoid diseases such as 

sclerotinia. In Hungary and Romania it is advised not to grow soybean after soybean, sunflower or 

oilseed rape because of sensitivity to common diseases. Usually soybean is cultivated after winter 

wheat, winter barley or maize in Romania. 

The advantage of having soybeans in the rotation is the positive effect it has on soil structure 

(CETIOM, 2002). The plant has an excellent root system and the crop is harvested early, i.e. on a dry 

soil, therefore preventing compaction by harvest machines. The nitrogen present in the crop residues 

allow for savings on nitrogen fertiliser in the following crop. Also, in a rotation with monocots soybeans 

allow for control of otherwise difficult to manage weeds. 

Crop rotation and ploughing to bury the crop residuals are very helpful to maintain the nutrient status. 

It is recommended in many stewardship programmes to prevent the development of resistance to 

commonly used herbicides. It is also very helpful to combat diseases such as downy mildew, or pests 

like Etiella zinckenella. 

Page 39 of 42

7 References 

The following table provides an overview of the different sources that were consulted. When no <strong>information</strong> useful for this analysis was found, this was 

indicated. 

Europe 

Eurostat http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu 

European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association http://www.efma.org/, Information is too general, 

(EFMA) 

European Crop Protection Association http://www.ecpa.be/, Information is too general, 

Joint Research Centre (JRC) 

Wriedt G., Van der Velde M., Aloe A., Bouraoui F., 2008, Water Requirements for Irrigation in the 

European Union, 70p. 

http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/111111111/7527 

Agriculture and fisheries Unit 

MOCA study: Hungary: TASK F3 - Inventory and mapping of the different agronomic practices, crops and 

farming calendar 

Romania: TASK F3 - Inventory and mapping of the different agronomic practices, crops and farming 

calendar 

European Environmental Agency (EEA) Agriculture and environment in EU-15 — the IRENA indicator report, EEA report, No 6/2005 

http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/eea_report_2005_6 

Water resources across Europe — confronting water scarcity and drought, EEA report, No 2/2009 

http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/water-resources-across-europe/at_download/file 

Pesticide Action Network (PAN) NAP Best Practice. Sustainable use of pesticides: Implementing a National Action Plan, 

http://www.pan-europe.info/Resources/Reports/NAP_best_practice.pdf 

SoCo Project Team (2009) Final report on the project ‘Sustainable Agriculture and Soil Conservation (SoCo), Editors: Geertrui 

Louwagie, Stephan Hubertus Gay, Alison Burrell Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the 

European Communities EUR – Scientific and Technical Research series – ISSN 1018-5593 / ISBN 

978-92-79-12400-6 / DOI 10.2791/10052 

Austria 

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and http://www.lebensministerium.at/ 

Water Management (Lebensministerium) 10% of the farmers are organic farmers 

Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety www.ages.at 

(AGES) 

Bulgaria 

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry http://www.mzh.government.bg/mzh/bg/Home.aspx 

Page 40 of 42

National Agency for Advices in Agriculture http://www.naas.government.bg 

Agricultural University Plovdiv 

http://www.au-plovdiv.bg/en/ 

Czech Republic 

Ministry of Agriculture 

http://eagri.cz/public/web/en/mze/ 

Crop Research Institute 

http://www.vurv.cz/, no relevant <strong>information</strong> found 

Research Institute for Fodder Crops 

http://www.vupt.cz/basic-<strong>information</strong>, no relevant <strong>information</strong> found 

France 

Ministère Ministère de l'Alimentation, de l'Agriculture et de Agreste, La statistique, l'évaluation et la prospective agricole 

la Pêche 

SCEES 2006, 2007, survey of farming practice, 

http://agreste.agriculture.gouv.fr/enquetes_3/pratiques_culturales_465/index.html 

rales_465/index.html 

Ecophyto 2018 

http://agriculture.gouv.fr/ecophyto-2018,510 

Groupement National Interprofessionnel des http://www.gnis.fr 

Semences et plants (GNIS) 

CETIOM 

www.cetiom.fr , several publications, guidelines, leaflets: 

Le soja, une culture de choix dans vos assolements, 2002: 

http://www.cetiom.fr/fileadmin/cetiom/kiosque/PDF_fiches_regions/reg_so_choix.pdf 

L’avenir de la filière du soja français, 2009: 

http://www.cetiom.fr/fileadmin/cetiom/kiosque/plaquette_soja_onidol_09.pdf 

La punaise verte, principal ravageur du soja, 1999: 

http://www.cetiom.fr/fileadmin/cetiom/kiosque/PDF_fiches_TK/so_punaises.pdf 

Faites barrage au sclerotinia du soja, 2004: 

http://www.cetiom.fr/fileadmin/cetiom/kiosque/PDF_fiches_regions/sud_so_sclero04.pdf 

.fr/fileadmin/cetiom/kiosque/PDF_fiches_regions/sud_so_sclero04.pdf 

brochure ‘Soja 2011’, ‘Soja : Maladies et ravageurs’, ’, and ‘Soja : Atlas agrométéo’ 

agrométéo’: to purchase 

Centre national de la recherche scientifique http://www.cnrs.fr/ focus on fundamental research 

(CNRS) 

Institute of Biological Sciences (INSB) http://www.cnrs.fr/insb/ and the Institute of Ecology and 

Environment (INEE) http://www.cnrs.fr/inee/ 

Fédération française des Producteurs 

Part of the Fédération nationale des syndicats d'exploitants agricoles (FNSEA), 

d'Oléagineux et de Protéagineux (FOP) 

http://www.fnsea.fr/sites/webfnsea/ 

represents the interests of its members at the level of the French government and the EEU, 

no technical <strong>information</strong> on cultivation 

Soybean variety trials: http://www.tll.de/ainfo/pdf/lv_soja.pdf 

Soybean crop manual: 

http://www.lfl.bayern.de/ipz/leguminosen/16765/sojabohnenanbau_2011.pdf 

http://www.lfl.bayern.de/ipz/leguminosen/16765/sojabohnenanbau_2011.pdf 

Germany 

Thüringer Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft 

Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft 

Page 41 of 42

Greece 

the National Agricultural Research Foundation http://www.nagref.gr/ publishes the “Journal of the National Agricultural Research Foundation” 

(NAGREF) 

the Benaki Phytopathological Institute (BPI) http://www.bpi.gr/ 

edits twice a year the “Hellenic Plant Protection Journal”; 

http://www.bpi.gr/section.aspx?id=6&subid=150 

Hungary 

Hungarian seed association http://www.vszt.hu/nyito.php?lang=a, no relevant <strong>information</strong> 

Agricultural Research Institute of the Hungarian Breeding and crop research, http://www.mgki.hu/ 

Academy of Sciences Martonvásár 

Acta Agronomica Hungarica publishes a.o. on crop research, 

http://www.akademiai.com/content/119692 

Some examples: 

- A. Sudaric, M. Vrataric, I. Rajcan, T. Duvnjak and M. Volenik, 2008, Application of molecular 

markers in parental selection in soybean. Acta Agronomica Hungarica 56(4): 393-398. 

- I. Csöndes, K. Balikó and A. Dégenhardt, 2008, Effect of different nutrient levels on the resistance of 

soybean to Macrophomina phaseolina infection in field experiments. Acta Agronomica Hungarica 

56(3): 357-362. 

- D. Jug, M. Sabo, I. Jug, B. Stipešević and M. Stošić, 2010, Effect of different tillage systems on the 

yield and yield components of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Acta Agronomica Hungarica 58(1): 

65-72. 

- G. Singh and R. S. Jolly, 2004, Effect of herbicides on the weed infestation and grain yield of 

soybean (Glycine max). Acta Agronomica Hungarica 52(2): 199-203 

Central Agricultural Office www.mgszh.gov.hu operates as a plant production authority, soil protection authority, food-chain 

inspectorate, breeding authority, forestry authority, hunting authority, fishing authority, wine-growing 

authority, agricultural managerial authority, pálinka (brandy) controlling authority and an agricultural 

damage assessment organization. 

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development www.fvm.hu 

Agricultural and Rural Development Agency www.mvh.gov.hu 

Association of Hungarian Plant Breeders www.plantbreeders.hu 

Scientific publications Ábrahám, R., 2008, Thrips species associated with soybean in Hungary. Acta Phytopathologica et 

Entomologica Hungarica 43(2): 211-218. 

Italy 

Ministry of Agriculture http://www.politicheagricole.it 

Agricultural Research Council (CRA) 

http://sito.entecra.it/ 

Unità di ricerca per la maiscoltura 

publications on soybean in ‘Agricoltura ricerca’ and ‘Rivista di Agronomia’. 

Page 42 of 42

National Research Council (CNR) www.cnr.it 

Forum di Agraria http://www.agraria.org/coltivazionierbacee/soia.htm 

Poland 

Ministry of Agriculture http://www.minrol.gov.pl/ , no relevant <strong>information</strong> found 

Polski Związek Producentów Kukurydzy (PZPK) www.kukurydza.info.pl, no translations 

Romania 

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development http://www.madr.ro 

AgroWeb Romania http://www.farmnet.eu/ 

Slovakia 

Slovenia 

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food http://www.mkgp.gov.si/en/ 

National chamber of agriculture and forestry of Agricultural advisory service; to represent and to protect the interests of agriculture, forestry and 

Slovenia 

fishery; Provides free technical aid in agricultural, forestry, legal and economic consultancy. 

Spain 

IRTA, a research institute of the Government of http://www.irta.cat/en-US/Pages/default.aspx 

Catalonia attached to the Department of 

Agriculture, Food and Rural Action 

Ministerio de medio ambiente y medio rural y Good agricultural practices 

marino (MARM) 

http://www.marm.es/es/agricultura/temas/condicionalidad/cuadroguia.aspx 

United Kingdom 

DEFRA / FERA http://ww2.defra.gov.uk/ 

International 

OECD, Working Party on Environmental Environmental performance review of Spain, December 2007, 

Performance 

http://www.marm.es/es/estadistica/temas/estadisticas-ambientales/09047122800c4b79_tcm7- 

15373.pdf 

OECD, Environment Directorate Consensus document on the biology of Glycine max (L.) Merr. (Soybean), Series on Harmonization of 

Regulatory Oversight in Biotechnology No. 15, ENV/JM/MONO(2000)9, 13 Nov. 2000. 

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Baseline information on agricultural practices in the EU ... - Europabio

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