FIRE Mallee is fire-prone country. The vegetation is highly ...

FIRE
Mallee is fire-prone country. The vegetation is highly
flammable because of the high amount of litter fuel it produces. As
well, porcupine grass, speargrasses and mallee leaves themselves are
very flammable
Wildfire
Wildfires are highly likely when dried off speargrasses are
abundant, particularly if there is a lot of dry electrical storm activity.
The huge bushfires of summer 1974-75 were caused by lightning
strikes after a particularly wet season.
Control of wildfires is best, but not totally, achieved by
infrequent prescribed burns to reduce the fuel load. After a number of
years, a mosaic of burnt and unburnt mallee land develops, growing
herbage and giving protection from fire. As well, a network of fire
trails has been created in several mallee areas to improve access for
firefighting and to form lines for burning off.
Fire as a Management Tool
Fire can be used to manage the density and species
composition of mallee lands. It is perhaps the most effective tool
available to managers of mallee country. Fire can be used for
several purposes:
• to increase forage
• to control woody weeds
• to reduce wildfire hazard
• to open up mallee.
Different results can be achieved by varying the season and
frequency of the fire.
Fires in mallee country are followed by a flush of herbage that
can last for several years. The fire reduces the canopy foliage (of mallee
eucalypts, etc.) and the density of shrubs. A number of native pasture
species such as toothed raspwort are adapted to fire and rapidly
recolonise the area following suitable rains. Multiple autumn burns (up
to three in ten years) can lead to an opening up of the mallee by
reducing the density of the mallee eucalypts. This is only possible,
however, in mallee with abundant speargrasses and more reliable
coolseason rainfall. If the understorey is dominated by porcupine grass,
burns are usually possible only once every fifteen to twenty years.
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Dr Jim Noble, of CSIRO, has demonstrated the
cost-effectiveness of clearing by fire at ‘Earl’; west of Euston.
After a wildfire in 1975, three prescribed burns were carried out in
1980, 1982 and 1985, with the following results:
doubling of the stocking rate
gross margins increased from $2.31 to $5.00 per hectare
lamb weaning increased by 30%
stock management, particularly mustering, vastly
improved.
Leaf, twig and bark litter shed by
mallee trees is highly inflammable
(Photo: WLC)

A flush of herbage following fire
several years earlier (Photo: Jim
Noble, CSIRO)
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A major advantage of clearing by fire rather than with bulldozers
is that fire will thin mallee only where sufficient fuel is present. The
dunes, potentially erodible, do not carry sufficient fuel for such
frequent burns. Thus forage production can be maximised while
maintaining soil stability. These less frequently burnt areas also act
as reserves for native plants and animals as well as preventing
erosion.
In contrast to autumn burns, which cause a substantial reduction
in mallee eucalypts, spring burns encourage seedling regeneration.
Woody plants can also be managed by fire. The germination
of narrow-leaf hopbush, like many other woody shrubs, can be
enhanced by fire. However, the seedlings are killed by fire, so if
burns are timed to coincide with seedling establishment or when
shrubs are small, some measure of control can be achieved. Seedling
establishment generally coincides with high quantities of grass fuel
(that is, after a wet season). This is the time to attack. By the time the
grass is dry enough to burn, it is of little feed value and fire can be
used to control young shrubs and prevent future problems. Such
germinations and good seasons may occur every six to twenty years,
and judicious burning at those times may well be sufficient to control
most infestations. More detailed information on management of
woody weeds can be found in the Soil Conservation Service
publication "Woody Weeds Their Ecology and Control"; and in Soil
Conservation Service Soil Note No 13/84.
Fire hazard can be reduced by developing a mosaic pattern of
areas with varying fuel loads. This is done by burning different areas at
different times. Fire does not endanger the mallee ecosystem; in fact,
the mallee ecosystem is adapted to fire. There is a need for regular
burns to ensure the health and species diversity of mallee lands. Fire is
a natural process operating in the mallee.

Conducting a Prescribed Burn
Conducting a prescribed burn is not a particularly difficult task;
the ingredients for success are experience, commonsense and good
preparation. It is desirable to develop a plan for conducting a
prescribed burn six to twelve months before the event. The first step is
to examine the fuel available. A decision on how to burn the area
should be made at this stage. A map of the area to be burnt should be
drawn, and neighbours and relevant bodies (Shire Councils, Bushfire
Brigades, etc.) should be informed.
Because the mallee is so flammable, pay considerable attention
towards constructing adequate firebreaks, particularly during high
fire risk seasons. If firebreaks are to be burnt, do it when there is a low
risk of escape. They should be at least 40 m wide.
The decision on when to burn an area is based on information
about the flammability of fuel, the forecast temperatures, wind
speed, wind direction and wind duration and the availability of
personnel. Weather conditions greatly influence rate of fire spread
and success of the burn.
The most common method of lighting up is to ignite a fire line
with a drip torch, either with or against the wind, to form a headfire or
backfire respectively. If there is little wind, a second line of fire may be
lit to ‘draw in the fire’ thereby increasing the rate of spread. Where fuel
is discontinuous, individual patches may be lit by traversing the area in
a grid line fashion. In these systems of lighting up, the operator may
walk or ride on a vehicle with the drip torch in hand.
Until recently, prescribed burning has been limited to relatively
small parcels of mallee due to the logistical coordination required for
large-scale burning. Aerial ignition has many advantages over other
methods, including:
large areas can be ignited in a short time (two or three hours)
It can be quickly employed when conditions are at their best
it overcomes problems of discontinuous fuel the risk of a
high-intensity fire developing (because of high fuel loads) is
minimised by lighting many small fires that soon join up.
There are several bushfire prevention schemes operating in the
mallee country. They provide a valuable service in all fire-related
matters. Their charter is to maintain a network of fire trails and to
monitor fuel loads. They also advocate hazard reduction burning.
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A prescribed burn
(Photo: NPWS)
Lighting up with a drip torch

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WATER
Water is the lifeblood of any property, and the provision of
watering points opens up areas to grazing that would otherwise be
unusable. Much of the mallee country is unwatered - i.e., is beyond the
generally accepted 5 km limit that sheep will walk from a watering
point. This is partly because many properties have other, more
productive types of country which are improved in preference to
mallee and partly because surface water is hard to obtain.
A well-designed distribution system, which both reduces stock
daily walking distances and services under-utilised grazing lands,
will be cost-effective to the landholder.
Location
There are several points to note when deciding on the location of
watering points. Because the watering point will suffer intense
grazing and trampling, it should be in the least fragile
environment possible. A sand dune near to a watering point is likely
to become very degraded by the continual movement of stock.
Corners of paddocks should be avoided to help prevent the
concentration of stock in confined areas and the formation of
stockpads along fencelines.
Erosion around a water point aggravated by a nearby gateway.
Good excavated earthen tanks, common throughout
western NSW, are not as common in the mallee because of the
lack of good catchments and suitable impermeable subsoils.
Many mallee graziers have installed expensive pipeline
networks to reticulate pumped water from permanent sources,
such as the Murray or Darling Rivers, to watering troughs up to
80 km distant. In some cases a single pumping source on the
river can serve several properties away from the river with the
advantages of sharing the capital cost.
Watering systems give the grazier better control of grazing
animals including domestic stock, feral goats and kangaroos,
since individual watering troughs can be shut off wherever
grazing is not required in specific areas or paddocks. Efficient
watering systems introduce a further responsibility to the
grazier - by eliminating 'water drought’; the grazier must
adjust grazing pressures to avoid damage to perennial forage
reserves.
The Soil Conservation Service can help you with watering
your property in the following ways:
assessing water requirements for stock and domestic uses
advising on suitable sites for ground tanks
advising on drought-proofing of properties
advising on water quality
advising on licensing requirements
assisting with pumping equipment, pipeline, tank and
trough selection and performance checking
providing certain financial assistance

'MALLEE VALE' - An Action Plan
FIRE
Bill's and Joe's Paddocks are most suited to a controlled burn because
dunes are well spaced, and when the fuel load on the adjacent open
country is low it forms a natural firebreak. The roads and fencelines
can be used to break the burn into manageable units. There is
relatively good potential for future water supply extensions from the
bore and from the house tank should there be no bore or tank sites
available.
The burn would be from the south-west; in other words, burning into
the property. There is thus less chance of the fire getting away into
neighbouring properties.
The dense mallee in Mallee Paddock could give a better grazing
response once burnt, but there are lots of dunes that would be best
left unburnt, and the fire would not be as easy to manage
(firebreaks, water, neighbours, etc.).
WOODY WEED CONTROL
Destruction, or at least active containment, of the two small
patches of woody weeds is essential to protect the grazing
productivity of the rest of the property.
Because of the small area of the woody weeds, an intensive
control program can be carried out with the costs being
apportioned over the remainder of the productive country, since
this action will prevent spread.
CLEARING AND OPPORTUNITY CROPPING
Clearing should be undertaken only after serious consideration.
Options are limited and depend on the resources and location of the
property (e.g., favourable rainfall zone, stable soils, etc.).
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Open Plains
Open Mallee
Dense Mallee with
well-spaced sandhills
Dense Mallee with close
sandhills
Dense Mallee
Watered area
Woody weed infestation

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Development of open mallee or open plains country may be cheapest
initially, but increase in returns will not be as high as developing the
dense mallee.
Clearing of some of the level, dense mallee in the north-east corner of
Bore Paddock should result in a greater increase in production. The soil
in this area may be expected to be better for low rainfall crop
production. Also, this area is already fenced on two sides. However, it
is isolated from the homestead, lacks a water supply and is adjacent to
large expanses of undeveloped country which will act as a harbour for
crop predators.
Cropping to control the patch of woody weeds near the house should
be considered as, although small, this area is adjacent to water and the
homestead, and percentage increase in return would be high.
WATER
A further watering point at the eastern end of Road Paddock is
essential. Water from here could be piped into Joe's Paddock as well.
Piping of water away from the bore site is recommended to reduce the
concentration of stock on the country around the bore. It would also
make more of the property available for grazing.
A pipeline/trough system from the house tank (depending on its
capacity) into Joe's Paddock, or the establishment of a watering point
(tank or bore) in this paddock is, recommended.
Extension of water into Mallee Paddock is not justified unless this
country is developed.

RANGE CONDITION AND ASSESSMENT
It is important to be able to identify the condition or 'health'
of your rangeland if you are to make proper decisions on its use.
Mallee is fairly resilient in its uncleared state; changes in condition
may therefore be difficult to detect. Good condition in the various
types of mallee has not as yet been documented. However, those
experienced in the area will have a feeling for what 'good condition'
is. For example in saltbush mallee, any decline in the edible shrubs
(saltbushes and bluebushes) should be apparent, and would be a sign
of declining condition.
Being aware of pasture condition is simply a matter of
knowing:
what it is like now
what its potential is
whether it is changing, and if so
whether the trend is upwards (improving towards its
potential) or downwards.
There are three levels at which you can observe your country in
order to assess its condition - looking at it (observing), developing a
photographic record (recording), and measuring changes (measuring).
1. OBSERVING
Become aware of what you are looking at. The pasture's basic
condition can be masked by factors such as recent grazing history,
season, rainfall and fire history. By recognising the effects of these
factors, as well as basic features which indicate condition, you can
begin to assess your pasture.
Features Indicating Condition
Principal Indicators
What species are present? Check for edible perennials (although only a
minor component of most types of mallee, they are important) and for
weeds such as wild sage (Salvia verbenaca) and onion weed. Is there a
wide variety of species present? Are there any woody weeds
(narrow-leaf hopbush, punty bush [Cassia eremophila], turpentine
[Eremophila sturtii])? Can you see any signs of erosion? Is there an
organic (mossy) crust on the soil surface?
Features Which May Mask Condition
Effect of Grazing
Is there a browse line? Any evidence of dung?
Are aerial parts of plants missing?
Effect of Season
Some species are abundant at certain times of the year or after certain
events - e.g., speargrasses are abundant after good winter rain. Pasture
condition is different to seasonal condition.
Effect of Fire
Can you tell if the country has been burnt recently? Some species
(known as fire increasers) are more abundant after a fire and can
indicate how long ago the fire occurred e.g., a herbage flush will last
for two to three years after a fire. Desert poplar (Codonocarpus
cotinifolius), which establishes after a fire, will grow for fifteen years
or so.
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2. RECORDING
Being aware of what you are looking at is a good start to range
condition assessment, but it is not enough. As most changes are
gradual and easily overlooked, it is a good idea to start taking
photographs at the same place over a period of

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years. A photograph will record not only the details we forget, but
also those details overlooked in the first place. The main
requirement when taking a photo in a paddock is to take it at the same
spot, in the same direction, and at the same angle. To do this, it is
necessary to mark a permanent site (photopoint).
3. MEASURING
Photographs often do not show
• the degree of change (quantity changes), and
• the type of change (quality changes).
The simplest method of measuring these changes in quality and
quantity of vegetation is by step-pointing. Step-pointing is a tested
scientific method for estimating vegetation cover and is sensitive
enough to identify significant changes in vegetative composition.
Step-pointing involves pacing along a line and recording the ground
cover directly under a mark at the toe of your boot at each step.
Further details on photo-assessment and step-pointing can be
found in Range Note No. 4, produced by the Soil Conservation
Service.
The main aim of photo-assessment and step-pointing is to
note changes in the pasture. Do not ignore the effect of season.
Many species may 'explode' in number only when the right conditions
come about. During 'off' seasons such species may not be evident;
however, this does not necessarily mean they are totally absent from
the pasture.
It is important to be aware of the density of woody weeds
(shrubs such as narrow-leaf hopbush, turpentine, Punty bush, etc.).
They can encroach relatively unnoticed, particularly during good
seasons when they can be masked by a tall grass cover. They are
easiest to control when they are establishing as seedlings rather than
when they are fully grown.
Soil erosion is another factor to check when comparing
consecutive photos. Although accelerated erosion in uncleared mallee
is uncommon, it can occur, and if you can recognise it in its early
stages and adjust your stocking rates accordingly, you can avoid
serious degradation. Points to look for include:
evidence of soil movement, particularly on very sandy soils
scalding and rifling around drainage depressions
erosion along tracks in sloping country.
Erosion is most likely to occur during or immediately
after drought.
If rangeland is in good condition, an organic crust may be present
on the soil surface, erosion will be minimal, undesirable species such as
woody weeds will be sparse or absent, and a wide variety of species
including good forage species will be present. However, because
seasons are very variable, not all such species will be abundant or even
present at any one time. It is the pasture mix which is important in
assessing condition, not necessarily the bulk of pasture present.
The health and production of your stock, and the health and
stability of your mallee soils, are directly dependent on the health and
production of your pasture. It is often too late to adequately resolve a
problem if you wait until stock condition starts to deteriorate. It is far
better to be able to act as soon as pasture condition is seen to
deteriorate. In this way you are safeguarding your stock as well as
your basic resources - the pasture and the soil.
Taking account of the pasture condition, the effect of
season, the fire history, and any other relevant factors . . .

There is a wide range of assistance available to you as a rangeland
manager. The Soil Conservation Service has produced a number of
publications relevant to rangeland management. These include:
Plants of Western New South Wales - a comprehensive record
illustrating and describing the plants of the area
Range Notes - leaflets covering topics relevant to western NSW
such as stocking rates, pasture assessment and soil types
Soil Notes - leaflets on a range of topics, including wind erosion
and fire control of woody weeds
Rangeland Reviews - reviews of information relevant to the
various types of rangeland country
Woody Weeds - Their Ecology and Control - detailed
information on methods of controlling woody weeds,
particularly by fire.
In addition, soil conservationists are available to give
professional advice on any matter relating to soil and land
management. This includes the provision of Property Resource Plans,
which show land types, fences, watering points and tracks. They also
contain a report which describes land types, suggests land
management options and assesses carrying capacity of land types and
paddocks.
As well, there are several other publications that may be helpful:
Management of Australia's Rangelands by G.N. Harrington,
A.D. Wilson and M.D. Young, CSIRO. Chapters 10 and 15 (on
fire and mallee) are particularly recommended
The Use of Trees and Shrubs in the Dry Country of Australia by
N. Hall et al. Aust. Govt. Publishing Service. This book covers
a wider range of topics than the title suggests.
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Compiled by Sue Jacobs, from a review of the Mallee
Rangelands by Rob Scriven, and material contributed by rangeland
researchers and advisers in western NSW Graphic design by George
Biagioni. ISBN 0 7305 5564 X. Produced with funds from the
National Soil Conservation Program, 1988.