Acquisition of Japanese Passives by Cantonese Speakers in Hong ...

Acquisition of Japanese Passives by Cantonese
Speakers in Hong Kong
WONG Yat-yu
A Research Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
in
Linguistics
@ The Chinese University of Hong Kong
June 2007
The Chinese University of Hong Kong holds the copyright of this research
paper. Any person(s) intending to use a part or whole of the materials in the
research paper in a proposed publication must seek copyright release from
the Dean of the Graduate School.

Abstract
The paper aims at investigating Cantonese native speakers’ Japanese interlanguage (JIL).
It studies how Japanese passives and the related topic structures are
successfully/unsuccessfully acquired by Cantonese native speakers, who learn English
as second language (L2) and Japanese as third language (L3) in Hong Kong. In previous
studies, acquisition of Japanese passives and topic structures by Cantonese speakers is
seldom investigated. One important related study is by Yip (1995), who suggests that
pseudo-passives can be analyzed as transfer of topic structures from Chinese to Chinese-
English interlanguage (CIL), because Chinese speakers are influenced by their mother
tongue, which is a topic-prominence language. She further discusses the learnability
problems posed by pseudo-passives in the interlanguage: the existence of pseudo-
passive in CIL can be seen as under-generation of passives on the one hand, and over-
generation of topic structures on the other. Based on Yip’s research, the present study
investigates how Japanese learners acquire passive structures and if they over-generate
topic structures in JIL. The experiment consists of a grammaticality judgment task and a
picture description task, which are designed to test Cantonese speakers’ knowledge of
passives and topic structures. The results of the experiment suggest that niyotte passives
and intransitive indirect passives are difficult for both advanced and intermediate level
learners to acquire. These can be explained by the uniqueness of niyotte passives which
are different from the other languages; and the negative L1 transfer in intransitive
indirect passives. Moreover, unlike over-generation of topic structures in CIL, the L2
learners under-generate topic structures in JIL. It is possible that the L2 learners are
influenced by the knowledge of English that subjects are obligatory in topic structures.
i

提要
本論文主要研究以廣東話為母語者的日語中間語言。研究對象以英語為第二語
言,再學習日語為第三語言。研究的重點在於學習者是否成功習得日語的被動式
及與其相關的主題結構語法。在以往的研究成果中甚少提及以廣東話為母語者習
得日語被動式及主題結構語法的情況。其中一項與本論文相關的重要研究是葉彩
燕的論文。葉提出假被動式出現在英語中間語言,可分析為以中文為母語者將中
文的主題結構語法轉移到英語被動式。這是因為他們受母語影響,而中文是主題
結構突出的語言。她進一步提出假被動式的出現是因為學習者將英文被動式特殊
化,同時將英文的主體結構語法概括化。在葉的研究基礎上,本論文主要研究日
語中間語言中的學習者習得被動式的情況與他們是否將主題結構語法概括化。研
究的實驗包括了文法判斷與看圖作句,以測試學習者對日語被動式及主題結構語
法的認識。實驗結果主要有以下兩點:首先,中上級學習者在習得niyotte被動式
與非及物間接被動式上有困難。這是由於獨特的niyotte被動式與其他語言相異;
以及第一語言對學習非及物間接被動式的負面影響。此外,學習者雖然在英語中
間語言中將主體結構語法概括化,卻在日語中間語言中將其特殊化。這可能是因
為學習者受到英語中主題結構句子必須要有主語的知識所影響。
ii

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my dissertation supervisor, Prof. Yip
Choy-yin Virginia, for her guidance and help with my research. I deeply appreciate her
patience and kindness. With her valuable suggestions and criticism, I have worked out
this project.
I am thankful to my many friends from Japanese Studies department. They are
generous to give me different opinions about Japanese. I must also say “thank you very
much” to Prof. Ho Chi-ming and Ms Kong Sung Tak, the Japanese teachers at the
university, for their most kind advice.
I would also like to express my appreciation to all Japanese learners who did the
experiment of the project. Without their kind help, the project would not be worked out.
years.
Last but not least, I want to say “thank you!’ to my parents who support me over the
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Table of Contents
Abstract (English)…………………………………………………………………....…i
Abstract (Chinese)……………….…………………………………………………......ii
Acknowledgement ...……………………………………………………………...…...iii
Table of Contents……………….………………………………………………..……iv
1. Introduction……………………………...……………………………………..1
1.1 Previous Research…………………………………………………………..1
1.1.1 Studies on the Acquisition of Japanese Passives…….…………….....1
1.1.2 Studies on the Acquisition of English Passives by Chinese Learners..2
1.2 Theory of Interlanguage………………...………………………………….3
2. Passive and Topic Constructions……………………………………………….4
2.1 Passive Constructions in Cantonese, Japanese and English………………..4
2.1.1 Passive Constructions in Cantonese………………………………..4
2.1.2 Passive Constructions in Japanese………………………………….6
2.1.3 Passive Constructions in English…………………………………...9
2.2 Topic Constructions in Cantonese, Japanese and English………………...10
2.2.1 Topic Constructions in Cantonese………………………………...10
2.2.2 Topic Constructions in Japanese…...……………………………..11
2.2.3 Topic Constructions in English………………………………...…12
2.3 Research Hypotheses……………………………………………………...13
3. Research Methodology………………………………………………………..14
3.1 Subjects……………………………………………………………………14
3.2 Test Design………………………………………………………………..15
3.2.1 The Grammaticality Judgment (GJ) Task……………………...…15
3.2.2 The Picture Description (PD) Task…………...…………………..19
3.3 Experimental Procedure and Test Scoring……...………………………...20
3.3.1 Pilot Study……...…………………………………………………20
3.3.2 Native Control………...…………………………………………..20
3.3.3 Implementation……………………………………………………21
3.3.4 Data Analysis……………………………………………………...21
iv

4. Results and Discussion………………………………………………………..22
4.1 Results of the Grammaticality Judgment (GJ) Task………………………22
4.2 Results of the Picture Description (PD) Task……………………………..24
4.3 Overall Results and Discussion…………………………………………...25
5. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….28
References………………...………………………………………………………30
Appendix A: Grammaticality Judgment Task………………………………….....34
Appendix B: Picture Description Task…………………………………………...39
Appendix C: Translation of Grammaticality Judgment Task……………………..43
Appendix D: Translation of Picture Description Task…………………………....52
v

1. Introduction
The research aims at investigating Cantonese native speakers’ Japanese
interlanguage (JIL). We investigate the extent to which Japanese passives and the
related topic structures are successfully acquired by intermediate and advanced
learners. Since the subjects learn English as second language (L2) and then Japanese
as third language (L3), both roles of first language (L1) and L2 transfer are
discussed. Moreover, Yip finds out that the existence of pseudo passive in Chinese
English interlanguage (CIL) is due to the learners over generalize the topic structure
and under generalized the passives. Based on Yip’s research, the study aims at
finding out if the Japanese learners also over generalize the topic structure.
In the present study, an experiment is designed consisting of a grammaticality
judgment task and a picture description task. The tasks are designed to test the JIL of
Cantonese native speakers. Two different levels of learners are recruited as the
subjects of the study, including intermediate and advanced level.
After the introduction in section one, the passives and topic constructions in
Cantonese, Japanese and English are discussed in section two. Information on the
subjects, the experimental materials and the procedures of the experiment are
presented in section three. Finally, the results, discussion and conclusions are
presented in section four and five.
1.1 Previous Research
1.1.1 Studies on the acquisition of Japanese passives
Although there are many studies on the acquisition of Japanese as a second language,
very few of them mention passives. One paper related to the acquisition of Japanese
passives by English native speakers is written by Watabe et al. (1991), who find that
1

the subjects in their study tend to misapply passives to non-human subjects. The
study gives evidence for negative L1 transfer. Another study related to the
acquisition of Japanese passives by English is done by Hara (2002), who finds that
niyotte passives are acquired by the learners later than ni passives. He also finds that
even for highly advanced level learners, the semantic differences between niyotte
passives and ni passives are not fully acquired.
Moreover, there is one study on the acquisition of Japanese passives by Cantonese
speakers in Hong Kong by Leung (2004), who finds positive L1 transfer. The
subjects perform well in judging grammatical sentences, which are similar to
Cantonese, including indirect passives. Leung argues that over-passivization in L2
English, is transferred to L3 Japanese. However, as no experiments related to English
overpassivization is carried out in the same research, empirical evidence for L2
negative transfer is lacking.
Although there are some studies about the acquisition of Japanese passives, none
of them mentioned pseudo-passive and topic structures in Japanese interlanguage.
There is certainly room left for the research of this topic.
1.1.2 Studies on the acquisition of English passives by Chinese learners
Yip (1995) investigates the acquisition of English passives by Chinese L2 learners.
She suggests that the subjects accept pseudo-passives in CIL because of the influence
of L1 Chinese, which is a topic-prominence language. She further explains that the
existence of pseudo-passive in CIL reflects under-generation of passives on the one
hand, and over-generation of topic structures on the other. The explanation is based
on the fact that in English, passives are a core construction in more situations than in
Cantonese, while topicalization is more common in Cantonese than in English.
2

Having the background of Yip’s work, I apply her theory to a different interlanguage,
JIL.
1.2 Theory of Interlanguage
Interlanguage is an important concept in second language acquisition theory. It refers
to the language system that “the learners construct out of the linguistic input to which
they have been exposed” (Larsen-Freemen & Long, 2000). It is the language system
which carries both characteristics of the target language and the learner’s mother
tongue. It exists at the intermediate stages where the learner has not yet fully
acquired the target language. A study of interlanguage can “characterize the
properties of interlanguage constructions” and thus, explain different acquisition
stages (Yip, 1995).
The study of interlanguage is developed from error analysis and more
comprehensive than error analysis. In error analysis, only the target language is used
to analyze learners’ knowledge. However, the study of interlanguage is based on
both learners’ mother tongue and target language. In the case of third language
acquisition, as in the present study, we also study learners’ L2. The possible
influence of L2 is considered when analyzing learners’ acquisition patterns. Thus,
the study of interlanguage gives a comprehensive framework to describe the
characteristics of learners’ knowledge of target language and explain different stages
in their development.
3

2. Passive and Topic Constructions
Before the experiment, Cantonese, Japanese and English passives and the related
topic constructions are introduced in this session. The analysis of different passives
and topic structures forms a foundation to explain the results of the experiment in
session four.
2.1 Passive Constructions in Cantonese, Japanese and English
2.1.1 Passive Constructions in Cantonese
There are four types of passive structure in Cantonese, including: direct passives,
indirect passives, resultative passives and adjectival passives. The passive structure
in Cantonese is marked by the word bei. Matthews and Yip (1994) points out that the
passive marker bei2 and an overt noun phrase are obligatory in the passive
construction in spoken Cantonese. The noun phrase is the agent of the action.
Direct Passives:
In (1), an example of active structure is presented, and a direct passive structure
with similar meaning is presented in (2) for comparison. The object is raised to the
subject position in (2).
(1) Ngo sik-zo toi soeng ge seoi-gwo.
I eat-PFV table on LP fruit
‘I ate the fruit on the table.’
(2) Toi soeng ge seoi-gwo bei ngo sik-zo.
table on LP fruit PASS I eat-PFV
‘The fruit on the table was eaten by me.’
4

Indirect Passives:
In Cantonese, indirect passives are different from direct passives. The subjects in
indirect passives do not correspond to the direct objects of the active sentences
(Matthews & Yip, 1994). For example, keoi ‘s/he’ in (3) does not correspond to the
object of cin ‘money’ but the possessor of the object.
(3) Keoi bei jan tau-zo cin.
s/he by person steal-PFV money
‘He has some money stolen (from him).’ (Matthews & Yip, 1994)
Resultative Passives:
Resultative passives are similar to indirect passives in Cantonese. They are different
from indirect passives by having a resultative verbal particle or adjective following
the passive verb which states a result from the action (Matthews & Yip, 1994). For
example, in (4), zung waai saai ‘spoil to a great extent’ is a passive verb followed by
an adjective which states a result.
(4) Nei go zai bei nei zung waai saai.
you CL son by you spoil bad PRT
‘Your son has been spoilt to death by you.’ (Matthews & Yip, 1994)
Adjectival Passives:
According to Matthews and Yip (1994), an adjectival passive in Cantonese is a
passive verb together with the bei phrase functions as an adjectival phrase. The
phrase, can modify a head noun, such as in (5), which bei phrase modify the noun
beisyu ‘secretary’.
5

(5) Bei lousai caau-zo ge beisyu.
by boss fire-PFV LP secretary
‘The secretary fired by the boss.’ (Matthews & Yip, 1994)
2.1.2 Passive Constructions in Japanese
There are four types of passive structure in Japanese, including: direct passives,
indirect passives, niyotte passives and causative passives.
Direct Passives:
The example (6) is an active sentence and (7) express a similar meaning by using
direct passive. In (7), the passive morpheme, rare, is inserted between the verb and
the tense marker; and the object is raised to the subject position.
(6) Taroo ga Hanako o agu-ta.
Taroo NOM Hanako ACC hit-PAST
‘Taroo hit Hanako.’
(7) Hanako ga Taroo ni nagu-rare-ta.
Hanako NOM Taroo by hit-PASS-PAST
‘Hanako was hit by Taroo.’
Indirect Passives:
Unlike direct passive, the verb does not have any grammatical relations with the
object (the initial NP) (Kanno, 1999). In (8), katoo san ‘Mr. Katoo’ does not have
direct grammatical relations with nige ‘run away’, but is affected by his wife’s
running away.
6

(8) Katoo san ga okusan ni nige-rare-ta.
Katoo Mr. NOM wife By run away-PASS-PAST
‘Mr. Katoo suffered from his wife’s running away.’ (Kanno, 1999)
Niyotte Passives:
For niyotte passive structure, the initial NPs cannot be the affectees. On the contrary,
for ni direct passive structure (direct passives), the initial NPs are the affectees. For
example, in (9), the abstract NP, kaikai ‘opening’, cannot be interpreted as affectee
(Tsujimura, 1996). Therefore, it is grammatical to use niyotte passive, but
ungrammatical to use ni direct passive.
(9) Kaikai ga gityoo niyotte sengens-are-ta.
opening NOM chairperson by announce-PASS-PAST
‘The opening of the meeting was announced by the chairperson.’
(Tsujimura, 1996)
Moreover, in some cases, it is grammatical to use either niyotte passives or ni
direct passives, but there is a difference in semantics. For example, in (10), the ni
direct passive sentence means sensei ‘teacher’ is affected by the students’ action,
while in (11), the niyotte passive sentence only describes the students’ action.
(10) Sensei ga gakusei ni hihans-are-ta.
teacher NOM student by criticize-PASS-PAST
‘The teacher was affected by his student’s criticizing him.’
(11) Sensei ga gakusei niyotte hihans-are-ta.
teacher NOM student by criticize-PASS-PAST
(Tsujimura, 1996)
‘The teacher was criticized by his student.’ (Tsujimura, 1996)
7

Furthermore, in other cases, it is grammatical to use ni direct passives, but
ungrammatical to use niyotte passives. For example, in (12), the passive verb mi-ra-
reta ‘be seen’ means the initial NP is affected. The meaning of verb clashes with
niyotte in semantics. Therefore, (12) is grammatical with ni direct passive while (13)
is ungrammatical with niyotte passive.
(12) Hana san wa nozokimisite-iru tokoro o Taro san ni mi-rare-ta.
Hana Ms TOP peep-ing as ACC Taro Mr. by see-PASS-PAST
‘Ms Hana was affected by being seen by Mr. Taro as she was peeping.’
(Hara, 2002)
(13) *Hana san wa nozokimisite-iru tokoro o Taro san ni yotte mi-rare-ta.
Hana Ms TOP peep-ing as ACC Taro Mr. by see-PASS-PAST
‘Ms Hana was affected by being seen by Mr. Taro as she was peeping.’
Causative passives:
(Hara, 2002)
The causative and passive constructions can be put together to form causative
passive in Japanese. For example, in (14), the causative morpheme, (m)ase, and the
passive morpheme, rare, are suffixes of the verb phrase and form a causative passive
sentence.
(14) Hanako ga Taroo ni issyukan yasumase-rare-ta.
Hanako NOM Taroo By for-a-week lay-off-CAU-PASS-PAST
‘Hanako was made by Taroo to take a leave of absence for a week.’
8
(Hara, 2002)

2.1.3 Passive Constructions in English
The English passives consist of the verb be followed by the past participle of the
main verb. An optional agentive by phrase can be used. There are direct passives,
adjective passives and causative passives in English.
Direct Passives:
(15) is an active sentence and (16) is a passive sentence with similar meaning. In (16)
the object, the English tests, is in the subject position.
(15) Mr. West marks the English tests.
(16) The English tests are marked by Mr. West. (De Devitiis G. et al, 1989)
Adjective Passives:
In English, a passive verb phrase can also act as an adjective. For example in (17),
damaged is a passivized verb which acts as an adjective to modify the noun,
furniture.
(17) He repairs damaged furniture. (Leung, 2004)
Causative Passives:
English also has causative-passives as illustrated in (18) where Mary is affected by
her car being tuned up.
(18) Mary has her car tuned up (by the mechanic) today. (Huang, 1999)
A comparison of different languages’ passives was conducted by Huang (1999).
He claims that Cantonese, English and Japanese have direct passives. Cantonese and
Japanese have indirect passive, but not English. Besides, both English and Japanese
have causative-passive form, but Cantonese does not.
9

2.2 Topic Constructions in Cantonese, Japanese and English
2.2.1 Topic Constructions in Cantonese
Chao (1980) states ‘the grammatical meaning of subject and predicate in a Chinese
sentence is topic and comment, rather than actor and action’. Although linguists
argue about the relationship between topic and subject in Chinese over the years, it is
clear that Chinese is a topic-prominence language. For example of Mandarin in (19),
qiqiu ‘ballon’ is the topic of the sentence while chui-po-le (blow-broken-Perf.) is the
comment. Similar to Mandarin, topic structures are also common in Cantonese. For
example, in Cantonese a verb can be nominalized in sentence initial and become the
topic of the sentence. For example in (20), gwo-hoi (cross-sea) is nominalized and
becomes the topic of the sentence.
(19) Qiqiu chui-po-le.
Balloon blow-broken-Perf
‘The balloon was popped.’ (Shi & Tang, 1999)
(20) Gwo hoi aa, daap-dei-tit zeou faai.
Cross sea PRT underground most fast
‘As far as crossing the harbour is concerned, the underground is the fastest.’
(Matthews & Yip, 1994: 67)
Moreover, a topic structure can express passive meaning without passive
morpheme. Matthews and Yip (1994) analyzed Cantonese topic structures where the
initial NP (noun phrase) is topicalized. The initial NP becomes the sentence topic,
such as in (21). Moreover, the subject in (21) is omitted. In Cantonese, zero pronouns
are allowed in the context.
10

(21) Go ceot hei jat-ding jiu tai.
That CL film must need see
‘That film has to be seen.’ (Matthews & Yip, 1994)
2.2.2 Topic Constructions in Japanese
There are two types of topic structures in Japanese. One is a base-generated topic
sentence (B-topic), while the other one is derived by movement (M-topic) (Nagai,
1990). The two types differ in the syntactic structures. In B-topic, the topic NP is not
an argument of any other element in the sentence, as in (22), the topic NP sakana
‘fish’ is not an argument of the predicate i-i ‘good’ (Nagai, 1990). On the contrary,
the topic NP is an argument of another element in the sentence, as in (23), the topic
NP sono hon ‘the book’ is an argument of the predicate yonde-i-ta ‘reading’ (Nagai,
1990).
(22) Sakana wa tai ga i-i.
Fish TOP red-snapper SUB good
‘As for fish, red snapper is good.’ (Nagai, 1990)
(23) Sono hon wa kinoo taroo ga yonde-i-ta.
The book TOP yesterday Taroo SUB read-ing-PSST
‘As for the book, Taroo was reading it yesterday.’ (Nagai, 1990)
As for B-topic, an NP is inserted into the topic position; while for M-topic, the
NP in object position is moved into the topic position (Nagai, 1990). B-topic
sentence has no passive meanings; while M-topic sentence carries passive meaning
and are similar to Cantonese topicalised structure which has passive meaning.
Moreover, similar to Cantonese, the subject in M-topic sentence is not obligatory as
(24).
11

(24) Sono hon wa kinoo yonmi-mashita.
The book TOP yesterday read-PSST
‘The book I read yesterday.’ (Nagai, 1990)
2.2.3 Topic Constructions in English
Although topic structures are not very productive in English, there are English
structures which are similar to Chinese and Japanese topic structures. For example,
in (25), the object “John” is raised from object position to the beginning of the
sentence and becomes the topic of the sentence. The English topic structures are
remarkably different from Chinese and Japanese topic structures, since the subjects
are obligatory in English (Yip, 1995).
(25) John, I like. (Yip, 1995)
2.3 Pseudo-passive as Topicalization in CIL
According to Yip (1995)’s CIL data, the Chinese ESL learners tend to accept
pseudo-passives, since they interpret them as topic structure. The subjects in the
topic structures are non-essential and not expressed. Yip further points out that
although the learners are able to produce a true passive, they still frequently choose
topic-comment form to express passive meaning. Thus, they judge pseudo-passive as
grammatical. Yip gives a typical example where the learner produces a grammatical
passive and a pseudo-passive in the same sentence as in (26). In the example, the first
passive is a well-formed passive, while the second passive is an ungrammatical
pseudo-passive.
(26) Most of food which is served in this restaurant have cooked already.
12

2.3 Research Hypotheses
The hypothesis of the present study is that the L3 learners are influenced by their
L1 (Cantonese) and L2 (English). We predict that niyotte passives are difficult for
them to acquire, as there are no similar structures in Cantonese or in English
passives. Besides, we predict that Japanese topic structures are also difficult for L3
learners. L3 learners may be influenced by L1 (Cantonese) and over-generate topic
structures, or they may be influenced by L2 (English) and under-generate topic
structures.
13

3. Research Methodology
The main method adopted for the research is an experiment which consists of a
grammaticality judgment task and a picture description task. The grammaticality
judgment task is used, since it is a quick and reliable way to collect the data of
learners’ mental structure for the study of JIL (Zhou, 1991). By collecting the data
from these tasks, we are able to find out the rates of Japanese learners’ correct
responses towards different passive structures and related structures. Besides, the
picture description task is chosen, as the data from the task further illustrate JIL. It
indicates whether the Japanese learners are able to produce different passive
structures or not when they are asked to describe the pictures in the task.
3.1 Subjects
A total of 44 subjects did the grammaticality judgment task and 28 subjects did the
picture description task. All the subjects are native Cantonese speakers and between
19 to 30 years old. 28 subjects who did both task one and two are in advanced level;
while 16 subjects who only did task one are in intermediate level of Japanese.
All advanced level subjects have passed the Japanese Language Proficiency Test
Level 1 (JLPT Level 1). The JLPT is a standardized test to evaluate and certify the
language proficiency of non-native Japanese speakers (Wilipedia). There are four
levels for the JLPT, from the beginning level 4 to advanced level 1. To pass level 1,
the learner has to know 10,000 vocabularies and reach advanced reading and
listening ability after approximate 900 study hours (Wilipedia).
All 16 intermediate level subjects are in a Japanese summer course which
prepares students for the Japanese Language Proficiency Level 3. To pass level 3, the
learners have to know 1,500 vocabularies and reach intermediate level in reading and
14

listening ability after approximate 300 study hours (Wilipedia). The subjects nearly
finish the course and have been taught all different types of passives and basic
knowledge of unaccusatives during the course. Other information on the advanced
and intermediate level subjects is summarized in the following table.
Year(s) studied in Japan One year (23), Two year (3),
Advanced level subjects (28) Intermediate level subjects (16)
Never (2)
Knowledge of linguistics Have learnt linguistics (4),
Never learn linguistics (24)
Never (16)
Table 3.1 Information on the advanced and intermediate level subjects
3.2 Test Design
3.2.1 The Grammaticality Judgment (GJ) Task
Have learnt linguistics (2),
Never learn linguistics (14)
The grammaticality judgment task consists of four different types of passive, a
topic structure and unaccusative sentences. The test design can be summarized in the
following table.
Types of structure Number of sentences in the task
Niyotte passives 4 grammatical
4 ungrammatical
Direct passives 8 grammatical
Topic structure 4 grammatical
4 ungrammatical
Indirect passives 2 grammatical
2 ungrammatical
Causative passives 2 grammatical
2 ungrammatical
Unaccusatives 2 grammatical
2 ungrammatical
Distracters 2 grammatical
6 ungrammatical
Table 3.2 Task design for different structures
There is a total of eight sentences for niyotte passives and direct passives. It is
because each niyotte passive is paired with a direct passive to form a minimal pair,
and there are two types in eight minimal pairs. One type is that both niyotte passive
15

and direct passive can be used as in (27) and (28). Another type is that only direct
passive can be used and niyotte passive is ungrammatical in the context as in (29)
and (30). In other words, there are four pairs for each type.
(27)インターネットは世界中の人々によって使われている。
Inta-netto wa sekai-zyu no hitobito ni-yotte tuka-warete-iru.
internet TOP world-in GEN people by use-PASS-ing
‘The internet has been (being) used by people all over the world.’
(28)インターネットは世界中の人々に使われている。
Inta-netto wa sekai-zyu no hitobito ni tuka-warete-iru.
internet TOP world-in GEN people by use-PASS-ing
(Hara, 2002)
‘The internet is in the state of being affected by having been used by people
all over the world.’ (Hara, 2002)
(29)*花さんは覗き見しているところを太郎さんによって見られた。
Hana san wa nozokimisite-iru tokoro o Taro san ni yotte mi-rare-ta.
Hana Ms TOP peep-ing as ACC Taro Mr. by see-PASS-PAST.
‘Ms Hana was affected by being seen by Mr. Taro as she was peeping.’
(30)花さんは覗き見しているところを太郎さんに見られた。
(Hara, 2002)
Hana san wa nozokimisite-iru tokoro o Taro san ni mi-rare-ta.
Hana Ms TOP peep-ing as ACC Taro Mr. by see-PASS-PAST
‘Ms Hana was affected by being seen by Mr. Taro as she was peeping.’
16
(Hara, 2002)

Besides, there are eight topic-comment sentences where wa and ga are used to
form four minimal pairs. Since wa is a topic marker while ga is a subject marker,
sentences with wa are grammatical while sentences with ga are ungrammatical. The
examples are listed below as (31) and (32).
(31)*すみません、探している本が図書館に返しました。
Sumimasen, sagasite-iru han ga tosyoukann ni kaesima-sita.
sorry, search-ing book NOM library GEN return-PAST
‘Sorry, the book that (you) are searching for has been returned to the
library.’
(32)すみません、探している本は図書館に返しました。
Sumimasen, sagasite-iru han wa tosyoukann ni kaesima-sita.
sorry, search-ing book TOP library GEN return-PAST
‘Sorry, the book that (you) are searching for has been returned to the library.’
Moreover, for each other type of passives and unaccusatives, four sentences are
constructured, including two grammatical and two ungrammatical sentences. Finally,
eight sentences are designed as distractors and the sentences are randomized to test
the knowledge of L2 learners. The following sentences are examples of other
structures and distractors.
Indirect Passives (Adversative Passives):
(33)加藤さんが奥さんに逃げられた。
Katou san ga oku-san ni nige-rare-ta.
Katou Mr. NOM wife by run away-PASS-PAST.
‘Mr. Katou was affected by being run away by his wife.’
17

(34)*主人は警察が写真を取られました。
Syujin wa keisatu ga syasin o to-rarema-sita.
landlord TOP police NOM photo ACC take-PASS-PAST.
‘The landlord was affected by being taken the photo by the police.’
Causative Passives:
(35)花子が太郎に一週間休ませられた。
Hanako ga Taro ni iccyukan yasu-mase-rare-ta.
Hanako NOM Taro by one week leave-CAU-PASS-PAST
‘Hanako was made by Taro to take one week leave.’
(36)*一年生は漢字が覚えさせられた。
Ichinesei wa kanji ga oboe-sase-rare-ta.
year 1 students TOP Chinese characters NOM remember-CAU-PASS-PAST
‘Year 1 students were made to remember the Chinese characters.’
Unaccusatives:
(37)*冬の晴れの日、雪が溶けられた。
Fuyu no hare no hi, yuki ga toke-rare-ta.
winter GEN sunny GEN day, snow NOM melt-PASS-PAST.
‘In a sunny winter day, the snow melted.’
(38)高い花瓶が割れました。
Distractors:
Takai kabin ga warema-sita.
expensive vase NOM break-PAST
‘The expensive vase was broken.’
(39)どこでお会いしたか、覚えていません。
Doko de oai-sita ka, oboeteima-sen.
Where in meet-PAST, remember-not.
‘(I) could not remember where (we) have been met.’
18

(40)*王さんがよく日本語を(が)分かる。
Ou san ga yoku nihongo o wakaru.
Ou Mr. NOM well Japanese ACC understand.
‘Mr. Ou can understand Japanese well.’
3.2.2 The Picture Description (PD) Task
A total of ten pictures are designed to make subjects to produce passives. There are
five targeted passive structures, including direct passives, transitive indirect passives,
intransitive indirect passives, causative passives and niyotte passives. Two pictures
are designed for each target structure.
Niyotte Passives:
(41)新しいコンピュータポログラムはポールさんによって作成されました。
Atarashii konpyuuta puroguramu wa pooru san niyotte sakusei-sare-masita.
new computer program TOP Paul Mr. by make-PASS-PAST
‘The new computer program was made by Mr. Paul.’
Transitive Indirect Passives:
(42) お母さんは息子に花を折られました。
Okasan wa musuko ni hana o o-rare-masita.
mother TOP son GEN flower ACC bend-PASS-PAST
‘Mother was affected by the flower being bended by the son.’
Intransitive Indirect Passives:
(43) 子供は雨に降られました。
Kotomo wa ame ni fu-rare-masita.
child TOP rain GEN fall-PASS-PAST
‘The child was affected by raining.’
19

Causative Passives:
(45) 私は友達に変なものを食べさせられました。
Direct Passives:
Watashi wa tomotachi ni he-na mono o tabe-sase-rare-masita.
I TOP friend GEN strange thing ACC eat-CAU-PASS-PAST.
‘I was made by the friend to eat strange thing.’
(46) 魚は猫に食べられた。
Sakana wa neko ni tabe-rare-masita.
fish TOP cat ACC eat-PASS-PAST.
‘The fish was eaten by the cat.’
3.3 Experimental Procedure and Test Scoring
3.3.1 Pilot Study
For the preparation of the two tasks, 48 sentences and 10 pictures are designed
and sent to two native Japanese speakers and two advanced level Japanese learners.
Based on the comments of the native Japanese speakers, amendments are made and
finally 44 sentences are used for the grammaticality judgment task and 10 pictures
are used for the picture description task.
3.3.2 Native Control
After the pilot study, the finalized task one and two are completed by five native
Japanese speakers. Two of them do not have linguistics knowledge and three of
them have solid linguistics knowledge, including two linguistics professors and one
linguistics student. Three native speakers completed the tasks through email, while
two completed the tasks in the presence of the author.
20

3.3.3 Implementation
Two methods were used to distribute the tasks. We sent the tasks to eighteen
advanced level subjects through email. Besides, the tasks were distributed in person
to ten advanced level subjects and sixteen intermediate level subjects. We distributed
the tasks to advanced level subjects during their free time and to intermediate level
subjects during their Japanese course. We answered questions such as the meaning of
vocabularies, but not the questions related to grammar.
3.3.4 Data Analysis
In scoring the grammaticality judgment task, 1 mark is given to the correct response
while 0 is given to the incorrect response. Probably grammatical / ungrammatical and
clearly grammatical / ungrammatical are put into the same category. Since only
eighteen advanced level subjects produce the target corrections of sentences which
are judged as ungrammatical, this part is omitted in the scoring. In scoring the picture
description task, the data are put into three categories which consist of correct
passive structure, incorrect passive structure and non-passive structure.
21

4. Results and Discussion
In this section, the results of grammaticality judgment task are firstly presented.
Then, the results of picture description task are discussed and finally, the overall
results are discussed. The data of subjects and native speakers are compared and
shown in tables as well as figures.
4.1 Results of the Grammaticality Judgment (GJ) Task
From the data shown in the table 4.1 and figure 4.1, the native speakers get nearly
100 percent of target responses in average (98%). The advanced level subjects’
scores are higher than the intermediate level subjects’. The advanced level subjects
produce 71 % of target responses on average while the intermediate level subjects
produce 60%.
Type of Test Structures Adv. (Advanced) Int. (Intermediate) Native
% of TR % of TR % of TR
Niyotte passive 58 43 95
Direct passive 78 71 98
Topic structure 65 49 100
Indirect passive 68 64 100
Causative passive 79 67 94
Unaccusative 80 66 100
Table 4.2 % of target responses (TR) of the test structures in GJ task
% of Target Responses
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Niyotte Passive
Figure 4.1 Results of GJ Task
Direct Passive
Topic Structure
Adv. Int. Native
Indirect Passive
Causative Passive
Type of Test Structures
Unaccusative
Figure 4.1 % of target responses of the test structures in GJ task
22

Moreover, figures 4.2 and 4.3 have shown the percentages of target responses by
advanced and intermediate level subjects separately. According to figure 4.2,
advanced level subjects scored low in judging the niyotte passives (58%), topic
structures (65%) and indirect passives (68%). They perform relatively well in
judging the direct passives (78%), causative passives (79%) and unaccusatives
(80%).
% of Target Responses
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Niyotte Passive
Figure 4.2 Results of GJ Task
58
Direct Passive
78
Topic Structure
65
Indirect Passive
68
Causative Passive
Type of Test Structures
79 80
Unaccusative
Adv.
Figure 4.2 Results of advanced level subjects in GJ task
Referring to figure 4.3, intermediate level subjects perform poorly in judging the
niyotte passives (43%) and topic structures (49%), and have better results regarding
the direct passives (71%), indirect passives (64%), causative passives (67%) and
unaccusatives (66%).
% of Target Responses
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Niyotte
Passive
Figure 4.3 Results of GJ Task
43
Direct
Passive
71
Topic
Structure
49
Indirect
Passive
64 67 66
Causative
Passive
Types of Test Structures
Figure 4.3 Results of intermediate level subjects in GJ task
Unaccusative
23
Int.

In figure 4.4, we compare the percentages of target responses of advanced and
intermediate level subjects. It is shown that in general, advanced level subjects
performed better than intermediate. However, the differences are not large. Besides,
the results of advanced level subjects show a similar pattern with those of
intermediate level subjects. Both of them had a low score on the niyotte passives and
topic structures.
% of Target Responses
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Niyotte Passive
Figure 4.4 Results of GJ Task
Direct Passive
Topic Structure
Indirect Passive
Causative Passive
Unaccusative
Type of Test Structures
Adv.
Figure 4.4 Comparison of results of advanced and intermediate level subjects in GJ task
4.2 Results of the Picture Description (PD) Task
The data of advanced level subjects and native speakers are summarized in table 4.2
and figure 4.5. Native speakers give target responses from 70 % to 100 %, while
advanced level subjects give target responses from 46 % to 90 %. In general,
advanced level subjects scored lower than native speakers, especially regarding
niyotte passives and causative passives. Besides, both advanced level subjects and
native speakers do not perform well referring to causative passives.
Type of Test Structures Adv. (Advance) Native
% of TR % of TR
Niyotte 46 80
Trans. Indirect 90 100
Intrans. Indirect 71 90
Causative 52 70
Direct 88 100
Table 4.2 % of target responses (TR) of the test structures in PD task
24
Int.

% of Target Responses
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Figure 4.5 Results of PD Task
Niyotte Trans.
Indirect
Intrans.
Indirect
Type of Test Structures
Causative Direct
Adv.
Native
Figure 4.5 % of target responses (TR) of the test structures in PD task
4.3 Overall Results and Discussion
Both advanced and intermediate level subjects are weak in judging niyotte passives
and topic structures. Regarding topic structures in the grammaticality judgment task,
the target responses of advanced level subjects is 65 percent and 49 percent for
intermediate level subjects. The results support the hypothesis that Japanese topic
structures are difficult for the L3 learners.
Since most of the subjects incorrectly reject the grammatical topic structure, it
seems that the subjects have under-generated Japanese topic structures. It can be
explained by the influence of L2 English. In English, subjects are obligatory in topic
structures. Unlike English grammar, the subjects are omitted in all test topic
structures. Therefore, the L3 learners may be influenced by their knowledge of
English and reject the topic structures. Another explanation is that the L3 learners
have not fully acquired the topic particle wa and the subject particle ga. They may
have mixed up two of them and fail to distinguish their different functions.
Therefore, they cannot judge the wa topic structures as grammatical.
25

Among six test structures, both advanced and intermediate level subjects perform
most poorly in the niyotte passives. In the grammaticality judgment task, advanced
level subjects get 58 %, while intermediate level subjects get 43 % target responses
for the niyotte passives. In addition, in picture description task, advanced level
subjects also scored lowest for the niyotte passive when compared with other
structures. The result supports the hypothesis that the niyotte passive is difficult for
the L3 learners. It is most likely that the L3 learners do not fully acquire the semantic
function of the niyotte phrase in the passives. They are not aware that the initial NPs
cannot be the affectees in niyotte passive sentences and fail to distinguish the
meaning of niyotte passives from ni direct passives.
Moreover, it is obvious that indirect passive structure is also difficult for the L3
learners. The advanced level subjects scored 68% of target responses and the
intermediate level subjects scored 64% in the grammaticality judgment task.
Although both Japanese and Cantonese have transitive indirect passives, only
Japanese has intransitive indirect passives. In contrast to Japanese, English does not
have indirect passives. Without similar structures in L1 and L2, intransitive indirect
passives are difficult for the L3 learners to acquire. Therefore, most of the L3
learners make incorrect judgments regarding the intransitive indirect passives in the
task. The results of the picture description task further support this view. The
subjects provide 90% target responses for the transitive indirect passives, but only
provide 71% target responses for the intransitive indirect passives.
In addition, it is notable that the results of advanced and intermediate level
subjects in the grammaticality judgment task have similar pattern and the differences
of the results between two levels are not statistically significant. Although the results
of advanced level subjects are higher than the intermediate, the improvements from
26

intermediate level to advanced level are not noticeable. The expectation is based on
the fact that advanced level subjects have passed the JLPT level 1 and intermediate
level subjects are preparing for the JLPT level 3. The difficulties of level 1 and 3
differ from each other to a large extent. However, it seems that after learning
passives and topic structures in level 3, the learners do not improve to a large extent
when they proceeded to level 1.
One shortcoming of the experiment can be found in the picture production task.
The subjects interpret the pictures in different ways. Therefore, some of them do not
think passive structures are needed to describe the pictures, especially regarding the
pictures designed for causative passives.
27

5. Conclusion
The present study has investigated the acquisition of Japanese passives and topic
structures by Cantonese native speakers in Hong Kong. It is clear that niyotte
passives and intransitive indirect passives are difficult for the learners to acquire.
Some pervious studies, such as Hara (2002)’s study, point out that niyotte passives
are especially difficult for learners with different native languages. The results of the
study support pervious research. One possible explanation is that niyotte passives in
Japanese are unique and different from other languages to a large extent; therefore, it
is difficult to learn. Besides, it is possible that niyotte passives are not adequately
taught in Japanese courses. Some subjects in the study comment that they do not
have any idea about niyotte passives because the Japanese teachers do not mention
this kind of passive in class.
The difficulty of learning intransitive indirect passives is not expected before the
experiment, because Leung (2004) points out that indirect passives are not difficult
for Cantonese learners. However, the results show that though the subjects scored
high for transitive indirect passives, they make many mistakes for intransitive
indirect passives. It is possible that they judge the indirect passives according to the
grammar of their mother tongue, Cantonese, which has transitive indirect passives,
but not intransitive indirect passives. Although there is positive L1 transfer in
learning transitive indirect passives, negative L1 transfer in learning intransitive
indirect passives is found at the same time.
Furthermore, the acquisition patterns of Japanese topic structures by Cantonese
speakers are different from the patterns of learners’ L2 English. Yip points out that
the Chinese learners over-generate the Chinese-based topic structures in English.
However, the Japanese learners under-generate the topic structures in Japanese.
28

Since all the subjects are in advanced level of English, they may be influenced by the
knowledge of English that subjects are obligatory in topic structures.
29

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33

Appendix A
Grammaticality Judgment Task
Task One
Please judge the following sentences as: 1. clearly grammatical 2. probably
grammatical 3. probably ungrammatical 4. clearly ungrammatical. Please put the
proper numbers in the brackets and make corrections if you judge the sentences
as 3. probably ungrammatical or 4. clearly ungrammatical.
1. インターネットは世界中の人々に使われている。 ( )
________________________________
2. 問題の重要性は市民によって理解されている。 ( )
________________________________
3. 王さんがよく日本語を分かる。 ( )
________________________________
4. 消えられない印象が残っていた。 ( )
________________________________
5. 先生が学生によって批判されました。 ( )
________________________________
6. 冬の晴れの日、雪が溶けられた。 ( )
________________________________
7. 今朝、新聞が読みました。 ( )
________________________________
8. 太郎さんは悪いときに友達に来られた。 ( )
________________________________
34

9. 先生が学生に批判されました。 ( )
________________________________
10. 政府の機密書類が田中に盗まれた。 ( )
________________________________
11. 通風のため、窓が開けました。 ( )
________________________________
12. インターネットは世界中の人々によって使われている。 ( )
________________________________
13. 買い物へ行くためのメモは書きました。 ( )
________________________________
14. 花さんは覗き見しているところを太郎さんに見られた。 ( )
________________________________
15. 花子さんはよく先生に褒められた。 ( )
________________________________
16. 太郎さんは悪いときに友達によって来られた。 ( )
________________________________
17. 残念なことに、香港大学は、三浦教授によって辞められた。( )
________________________________
18. 花子がコンピュータが使える。 ( )
________________________________
35

19. 残念なことに、香港大学は、三浦教授に辞められた。 ( )
________________________________
20. 来週、学校の運動会が行う。 ( )
________________________________
21. すみません、探している本が図書館に返しました。 ( )
________________________________
22. 忙しいですが、イギリスの旅行が計画しました。 ( )
________________________________
23. 高い花瓶が割れました。 ( )
________________________________
24. 買い物へ行くためのメモが書きました。 ( )
________________________________
25. 花子はその秘密が太郎に知られた。 ( )
________________________________
26. 今朝、新聞は読みました。 ( )
________________________________
27. 加藤さんが奥さんに逃げられた。 ( )
________________________________
28. 主人は警察が写真を取られました。 ( )
________________________________
36

29. 政府の機密書類が田中によって盗まれた。 ( )
________________________________
30. 先生が学生にクラスで泣かれた。 ( )
________________________________
31. すみません、探している本は図書館に返しました。 ( )
________________________________
32. 問題の重要性は市民に理解されている。 ( )
________________________________
33. 花子が太郎に一週間休ませられた。 ( )
________________________________
34. 私は先生にスピーチをされました。 ( )
________________________________
35. 花子が母に仕事を手伝わせられた。 ( )
________________________________
36. 忙しいですが、イギリスの旅行は計画しました。 ( )
________________________________
37. 一年生は漢字が覚えさせられた。 ( )
________________________________
38. 晩御飯のための魚が焼かれた。 ( )
________________________________
37

39. 花さんは覗き見しているところを太郎さんによって見られた。( )
________________________________
40. 花子さんはよく先生によって褒められた。 ( )
________________________________
41. 私は恋愛小説に感動された。 ( )
________________________________
42. いろいろ話があったが、意見がまとめられなかった。 ( )
________________________________
43. 王さんがよく日本語がわかる。 ( )
________________________________
44. 花子が太郎を殴られた。 ( )
________________________________
38

Appendix B
Picture Description Task
Task Two
Please finish the sentences according to the pictures and use the provided phrases.
Please do not change the orders of phrases.
新しいコンピュータプログラム ポールさん 作成する
新しいコンピュータプログラムは_______________________
アメリカ大陸 コロンブス 発見する
アメリカ大陸は______________________
39

お母さん 息子 花 折る
お母さんは____________________________
僕 花子 ケーキ 食べる
僕は___________________________________
田中さん 七十歳 息子 死ぬ
田中さんは_________________________________
40

子供 雨 降る
子供は_______________________________________
学生 先生 つまらない本 読む
学生は________________________________________
私 友達 変なもの 食べる
私は____________________________________
41

歌 美奈 歌う
歌は___________________________________
魚 猫 食べる
魚は____________________________________
42

Appendix C
Translation of Grammaticality Judgment Task
Note: The asterisk attached to a sentence number indicates ungrammaticality status
of the sentence.
Niyotte Passives and Direct Passives:
1. インターネットは世界中の人々によって使われている。
Inta-netto wa sekai-zyu no hitobito ni-yotte tuka-warete-iru.
Internet TOP world-in GEN people by use-PASS-ing.
‘The internet has been (being) used by people all over the world.’
2. インターネットは世界中の人々に使われている。
Inta-netto wa sekai-zyu no hitobito ni tuka-warete-iru.
Internet TOP world-in GEN people by use-PASS-ing.
‘The internet is in the state of being affected by having been used by people
all over the world.’
3. 問題の重要性は市民によって理解されている。
Mondai no zyuuyoosee wa shimin ni yotte rikai-sarete-iru
Issue GEN importance TOP citizens by understand-PASS-ing
‘The importance of the issue has been understood by the citizens.’
4. 問題の重要性は市民に理解されている。
Mondai no zyuuyoosee wa shimin ni rikai-sarete-iru.
Issue GEN importance TOP citizens by understand-PASS-ing.
‘The importance of the issue is under the state affected by having been
understood by the citizens.’
43

5. 先生が学生によって批判されました。
Sensei ga gakusei ni yotte hihan-dare-masita.
Teacher NOM student by criticize-PASS-PAST.
‘The teacher was criticized by the student.’
6. 先生が学生に批判されました。
Sensei ga gakusei ni hihan-dare-masita.
Teacher NOM student by criticize-PASS-PAST.
‘The teacher was affected by being criticized by the student.’
7. 政府の機密書類が田中によって盗まれた。
Seifu no kimitu syorui ga tanaka san ni yotte nusu-mare-ta.
Government GEN secret document NOM Tanaka by steal-PASS-PAST.
‘The government secret document has been stolen by Tanaka.’
8. 政府の機密書類が田中に盗まれた。
Seifu no kimitu syorui ga tanaka san ni nusu-mare-ta.
Government GEN secret document NOM Tanaka by steal-PASS-PAST.
‘The government secret document is under the state affected by having been
stolen by Tanaka.’
9. *花さんは覗き見しているところを太郎さんによって見られた。
Hana san wa nozokimisite-iru tokoro o Taro san ni yotte mi-rare-ta.
Hana Ms TOP peep-ing as ACC Taro Mr. by see-PASS-PAST.
‘Ms Hana was affected by being seen by Mr. Taro as she was peeping.’
44

10. 花さんは覗き見しているところを太郎さんに見られた。
Hana san wa nozokimisite-iru tokoro o Taro san ni mi-rare-ta.
Hana Ms TOP peep-ing as ACC Taro Mr. by see-PASS-PAST.
‘Ms Hana was affected by being seen by Mr. Taro as she was peeping.’
11. *花子さんはよく先生によって褒められた。
Hanako san wa yoku sensei ni yotte home-rare-ta.
Hanako Ms TOP always teacher by applaud-PASS-PAST.
‘Ms Hanako was always applauded by the teacher.’
12. 花子さんはよく先生に褒められた。
Hanako san wa yoku sensei ni yotte home-rare-ta.
Hanako Ms TOP always teacher by applaud-PASS-PAST.
‘Ms Hanako was always applauded by the teacher.’
13. *太郎さんは悪いときに友達によって来られた。
Taro san wa warui toki ni tomodachi ni yotte ko-rare-ta.
Taro Mr. TOP inconvenient time GEN by come-PASS-PAST.
‘Mr. Taro was affected by being visited by his friend at an inconvenient
time.’
14. 太郎さんは悪いときに友達に来られた。
Taro san wa warui toki ni tomodachi ni ko-rare-ta.
Taro Mr. TOP inconvenient time GEN by come-PASS-PAST.
‘Mr. Taro was affected by being visited by his friend at an inconvenient
time.’
45

15. *残念なことに、香港大学は、三浦教授によって辞められた。
Zennen-na koto ni hon kon daigaku wa Miura kyoujyu ni yotte yame-rare-ta.
Regrettably thing GEN Hong Kong University TOP Miura Professor by quit-
PASS-PAST.
‘Regrettably, Hong Kong University was affected by being quit by Professor
Miura.’
16. 残念なことに、香港大学は、三浦教授に辞められた。
Zennen-na koto ni hon kon daigaku wa Miura kyoujyu ni yotte yame-rare-ta.
Regrettably thing GEN Hong Kong University TOP Miura Professor by quit-
PASS-PAST.
‘Regrettably, Hong Kong University was affected by being quit by Professor
Miura.’
Topic Structures:
17. *すみません、探している本が図書館に返しました。
Sumimasen, sagasite-iru han ga tosyoukann ni kaesima-sita.
Sorry, search-ing book NOM library GEN return-PAST.
‘Sorry, the book that (you) are searching for has been returned to the library.’
18. すみません、探している本は図書館に返しました。
Sumimasen, sagasite-iru han wa tosyoukann ni kaesima-sita.
Sorry, search-ing book TOP library GEN return-PAST.
‘Sorry, the book that (you) are searching for has been returned to the library.’
19. *忙しいですが、イギリスの旅行が計画しました。
Isogasii-desu ga, Igirisu no ryouko ga keigakusima-sita.
46

Busy but, Britain GEN trip NOM plan-PAST.
‘Although (I was) busy, the trip to Britain was planned.’
20. 忙しいですが、イギリスの旅行は計画しました。
Isogasii-desu ga, Igirisu no ryouko wa keigakusima-sita.
Busy but, Britain GEN trip TOP plan-PAST.
‘Although (I was) busy, the trip to Britain was planned.’
21. *買い物へ行くためのメモが書きました。
Kaimono he iku tame no memo ga kakima-sita.
Shopping to go purpose GEN memo NOM write-PAST.
‘The memo for going to shopping was written.’
22. 買い物へ行くためのメモは書きました。
Kaimono he iku tame no memo wa kakima-sita.
Shopping to go purpose GEN memo TOP write-PAST.
‘The memo for going to shopping was written.’
23. *今朝、新聞が読みました。
Kesa, sinbun ga yomima-sita.
This-morning, newspaper NOM read-PAST.
‘This morning, the newspaper was read (by me).’
24. 今朝、新聞は読みました。
Kesa, sinbun wa yomima-sita.
This-morning, newspaper TOP read-PAST.
‘This morning, the newspaper was read (by me).’
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Indirect Passives (Adversative Passives):
25. 加藤さんが奥さんに逃げられた。
Katou san ga oku-san ni nige-rare-ta.
Katou Mr. NOM wife by run away-PASS-PAST.
‘Mr. Katou was affected by being run away by his wife.’
26. *主人は警察が(に)写真を取られました。
Syujin wa keisatu ga syasin o to-rarema-sita.
Landlord TOP police NOM photo ACC take-PASS-PAST.
‘The landlord was affected by being taken the photo by the police.’
27. *花子はその秘密が(を)太郎に知られた。
Hanako wa sono himitu ga Taro ni si-rare-ta.
Hanako TOP that secret NOM Taro by know-PASS-PAST.
‘Hanako was affected by being known that secret by Taro.’
28. 先生が学生にクラスで泣かれた。
Sensei ga gakusei ni kurasu de na-kare-ta.
Teacher NOM student by class in cry-PASS-PAST.
‘The teacher was affected by being cried by his student in the class.’
Causative Passives:
29. 花子が太郎に一週間休ませられた。
Hanako ga Taro ni iccyukan yasu-mase-rare-ta.
Hanako NOM Taro by one week leave-CAU-PASS-PAST.
‘Hanako was made by Taro to take one week leave.’
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30. *私は先生にスピーチをされました(させられました)。
Watashi wa sensei ni supi-chi o sa-rema-sita.
I TOP teacher by speech ACC give-PASS-PAST.
‘I was made by the teacher to give a speech.’
31. 花子が母に仕事を手伝わせられた。
Hanako ga haha ni shigoto o tetudai-wase-rare-ta.
Hanako NOM mother by job ACC help-CAU-PASS-PAST.
‘Hanako was made by her mother to help with the job.’
32. *一年生は漢字が(を)覚えさせられた。
Ichinesei wa kanji ga oboe-sase-rare-ta.
Year-one students TOP Chinese characters NOM remember-CAU-PASS-
PAST
‘Year-one students were made to remember the Chinese characters.’
Unaccusatives:
33. *晩御飯のための魚が焼かれた(焼けた)。
Bangohan no tame no sakana ga ya-kareta.
Dinner GEN for GEN fish NOM broil-PASS-PAST.
‘The fish was broiled for the dinner.’
34. *冬の晴れの日、雪が溶けられた(溶けた)。
Fuyu no hare no hi, yuki ga toke-rare-ta.
Winter GEN sunny GEN day, snow NOM melt-PASS-PAST.
‘In a sunny winter day, the snow melted.’
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35. 高い花瓶が割れました。
Takai kabin ga warema-sita.
Expensive vase NOM break-PAST.
‘The expensive vase was broken.’
36. 通風のため、窓が開けました。
Distractors:
Tsufu no tame, mato ga akema-sita.
Ventilation GEN propose, window NOM open-PAST.
‘For the propose of ventilation, the window was opened.’
37. *私は恋愛小説に感動された(感動した)。
Watashi wa reiai syousetsu ni kandou-sare-ta.
I TOP love novel by stir-PASS-PAST.
‘I was stirred by the love novel.’
38. いろいろ話があったが、意見がまとめられなかった。
Iroiro hanashi ga atta ga, iken ga matome-rare-na-katta.
A lot discuss NOM have but, opinions NOM together-PASS-not-PAST.
‘(We) discussed a lot, but the opinions could not be put together.’
39. どこでお会いしたか、覚えていません。
Doko de oai-sita ka, oboeteima-sen.
Where in meet-PAST, remember-not.
‘(I) could not remember where (we) have been met.’
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40. *王さんが(は)よく日本語を(が)分かる。
Ou san ga yoku nihongo o wakaru.
Ou Mr. NOM well Japanese ACC understand.
‘Mr. Ou can well understands Japanese.’
41. *花子が(は)コンピュータが使える。
Hanako ga kopyu-ta ga tuka-eru.
Hanako NOM computer NOM use-able.
‘Hanako is able to use computer.’
42. *花子が太郎を(に)殴られた。
Hanako ga Taro o naku-rare-ta.
Hanako NOM Taro ACC hit-PASS-PAST.\
‘Hanako was hit by Taro.’
43. *来週、学校の運動会が行う(行われる)。
Taisyu, gakkou no undou-kai ga okonau.
Next week, school GEN sport-festival NOM hold.
‘Next week, school’s sport festival will be held.’
44. *消えられない(消えない)印象が残っていた。
Kie-rare-nai insyou ga nokotte-ita.
Erase-PASS-not impression NOM remain-PAST.
‘The impression could not be erased and remained (in the mind).’
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Niyotte Passives:
Appendix D
Translation of Picture Description Task
新しいコンピュータプログラム ポールさん 作成する
New computer program Mr. Paul make
新しいコンピュータプログラムは______________________________________
アメリカ大陸 コロンブス 発見する
America continent Colombia discover
アメリカ大陸は______________________________________________________
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Transitive Indirect Passives:
お母さん 息子 花 折る
Mother son flower break
お母さんは__________________________________________________________
僕 花子 ケーキ 食べる
I Hanako cake eat
僕は________________________________________________________________
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Intransitive Indirect passives:
田中さん 七十歳 息子 死ぬ
Mr. Tanaka Seventy years old son die.
田中さんは__________________________________________________________
子供 雨 降る
Child rain down
子供は______________________________________________________________
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Causative Passives:
学生 先生 つまらない本 読む
Student teacher boiling book read
学生は______________________________________________________________
私 友達の家 変なもの 食べる
I friend’s home strange thing eat
私は________________________________________________________________
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Direct Passives:
歌 美奈 歌う
Song Mina sing
歌は________________________________________________________________
魚 猫 食べる
Fish cat eat
魚は________________________________________________________________
56