et al

THESIS
THE COMPARATIVE STUDY ON TERMITE DIVERSITY OF MOIST EVERGREEN
FOREST AND DRY EVERGREEN FOREST IN CHANTHABURI PROVINCE
SAJIT CHUTIBHAPAKORN
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science (Agriculture)
Graduate School,
Kasetsart University
2002
ISBN 974-357-522-7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to express her sincere appreciation and gratitude to Dr.
Charunee Vongkaluang, Forest Products Expert, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok,
who is my thesis advisor for her kind guidance and valuable discussion throughout
the course of this study and this thesis. I am grateful to the other members of my
committee, Assistant Professor Dr. Nit Kirtibutr and Associate Professor Dr. Isara
Vongkaluang, for their kind encouragement and suggestions of the thesis.
My deep appreciate to Dr. Yupaporn Sornnuwat, the researcher of the Wood
Protection Section, Wood Products Research Division, Royal Forest Department,
Bangkok for her identification all of samples of termites from the study areas and for
her kind advice, and valuable comments and discussions.
I would like to thank the Royal Forest Department for granting permit to
conduct the research in Khao Kitchagoot National Park and Khao Soi Dao Wildlife
Sanctuary.
My sincere thank is extended to Dr. Chongrak Wachrinrat and his team from
Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University for their talent for
selection of the study sites and plant identification.
Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to my parents, my family and other
staffs of the Wood Protection Section, Wood Products Research Division, Royal Forest
Department, Bangkok, for their help and warm encouragement.
Sajit Chutibhapakorn
August 2002

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
INTRODUCTION
Objectives
LITERATURE REVIEW
Termites of Thailand
Classification
Distribution of Termites
Termites in the Tropical Rain Forest
Biology of Termite
The Forest of Thailand
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Methods
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Specification of Results from Collected Specimens
Diversity of Termite
Dominant Species
Termite Species in Relation to Seasonal Changes
CONCLUSION
LITERATURE CITED
APPENDIX
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Table
LIST OF TABLES
1 Termite genera and species recorded in two different forest types :
Moist evergreens forest and dry evergreen forest. MEF = moist
evergreen forest, DEF = dry evergreen forest, F = number of family,
SF = number of subfamily, G = number of genera, SP = number of
species.
2 Termite genera and species recorded in moist evergreen forest and
dry evergreen forest, eastern Thailand classified by their food
habitat. F = number of family, SF = number of subfamily, G =
number of genera, SP = number of species, W = Wood, W&L =
Wood and leaf, S/H = Soil or humus, L = Lichen.
3 Termite genera and species recorded in moist evergreen forest and
dry evergreen forest, eastern Thailand classified by their nest
habitat. F = number of family, SF = number of subfamily, G =
number of genera, SP = number of species, IW = Nest in wood, A =
Arboreal nest, E = Epigeal nest, S = Subterranean nest.
4 Diversity of termites in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen
forest of Chanthaburi Province, Thailand during cool – dry and hot –
dry season.
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Table
5 Frequency of termites recorded in each type of forest ecosystem
during cool-dry season and hot-dry season. MEF = moist evergreen
forest, DEF = dry evergreen forest, F = number of family, SF =
number of subfamily, G = number of genera, SP = number of
species.
6 Frequency of dominant species in moist evergreen forest and dry
evergreen forest during cool-dry season and hot-dry season.
7 Number of species of termites recorded in each type of forest
ecosystem during cool-dry season and hot-dry season.
Appendix Table
1 The data recording form used in the field work to determine
ecological niches of termites.
2 Climatic data in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest of
Chanthaburi Province.
3 The volume of water content, percentage of organic matter and soil
litter surface thickness in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen
forest.
4 The data recording form used in the field work to determine
ecological niches of termites.
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Appendix Table
5 The data recording form used in the field work to determine
ecological niches of termites.
6 Climatic data in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest of
Chanthaburi Province.
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Figure
1 The study site in moist evergreen forest.
2 The study site in dry evergreen forest.
LIST OF FIGURES
3 Model of sampling plots in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen
forest.
4 Species diversity of termite groups in the study sites (moist
evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest).
5 Species diversity of termite groups in moist evergreen forest (MEF)
and dry evergreen forest (DEF).
6 Species of termites in moist evergreen forest (MEF) and dry
evergreen forest (DEF).
7 Soldier and worker of Angulitermes, newly recorded of termite list of
Thailand. A: Whole body of soldier from above; B: Whole body of
worker from above; C: Whole body of soldier from side.
8 Termite species in differing food habitat in moist evergreen forest
(MEF) and dry evergreen forest (DEF).
9 Wood feeding termites. A: Cryptotermes; B: Microcerotermes
10 Wood and leaf feeding termites. A: Hypotermes; B: Macrotermes
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Figure
11 Soil or humus feeding termites. A: Termes; B: Dicuspiditermes.
12 Lichen feeding termites; Hospitalitermes.
13 Termite species in differing nest types in moist evergreen forest
(MEF) and dry evergreen forest (DEF).
14 Wood-dwelling termites. A: Cryptotermes; B: Glyptotermes.
15 Subterranean termites. A: Coptotermes; B: Ancistrotermes.
16 Arboreal nesting termites. A: Microcerotermes; B: Nasutitermes.
17 Epigeal nesting termites. A: Mound of Globitermes; B: Carton nest of
Microcerotermes; C: Mound of Macrotermes; D: Nest of Termes.
18 Frequency of dominant species in moist evergreen forest and dry
evergreen forest during cool-dry season and hot-dry season.
19 Dominant species in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen
forest. A: Soldier of Microcerotermes crassus (dominant species in
2 forest types); B: Soldier of Globitermes sulphureus (secondary
dominant in moist evergreen forest); C: Soldier of Ancistrotermes
pakestanicus (secondary dominant in moist evergreen forest); D:
Soldier of Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus.
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Figure
20 Number of species of termites recorded in each type of forest
ecosystem during cool-dry season and hot-dry season.
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THE COMPARATIVE STUDY ON TERMITE DIVERSITY OF MOIST EVERGREEN
FOREST AND DRY EVERGREEN FOREST IN CHANTHABURI PROVINCE.
INTRODUCTION
Thailand is situated within a tropical climatic zone that is governed by monsoon.
The vegetation of Thailand, being under the influence of a monsoonal climate is humid
tropical and vast areas are covered with luxuriant forests. Owing to the composite
nature of the physiography, the range of both latitude and longitude, and the variation in
temperature and rainfall the forest of Thailand vary considerably over the country.
Tropical evergreen forests in Thailand are occurred along the wet belt of the
country, usually where high rainfall (above 1,500 mm per annum) prevails, and is
strongly effected by the monsoon. It is scattered all over the country either on the
peneplains or the mountains. The tropical evergreen forest is divisible into 3 sub-types
as follow: Tropical rain forest or moist evergreen forest, Dry or semi-evergreen forest and
Hill or lower montane forest (Neal, 1967). Chanthaburi Province has distinguished forest
types that can be counted as representatives of tropical evergreen forest in the studied.
Termites are soil animals, which are super-abundant in the tropical and
subtropical regions. They can also be found widely spread in some areas of temperate
and occasionally occur in semi-arid environment (Lee and Wood, 1971; Wood and
Sands, 1978; Swift et al.,1979; Brian, 1983; Josens, 1985; Wilson, 1990). This
extraordinary abundance of termites is the result of their highly developed social
organization (Myles, 1988; Noirot, 1990; Wilson, 1990; Nalepa, 1994) and symbiosis with
microorganism (Martin, 1987; Wood and Thomas, 1989; Breznak and Brune, 1994).
Termites play an important role of super-decomposer (Matsumoto and Abe, 1979;
Collins, 1981; 1983; Martius, 1994) and carbon-nitrogen balancer in the tropical
terrestrial ecosystems of which they are a biotic constituent (Higashi et al., 1992), thus
forming the basis for a large food web (Deligne et al., 1981).

Termites are also named as ecosystem engineers (Jones et al., 1994; Lawton,
1994) that modify the soil structure by constructing mounds and subterranean nests
(Lee and Wood, 1971; Wood, 1988) providing many species of animals and plants with
diverse habitats (Glover et al., 1964).
Termites are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. The number
of species and their biomass are especially large in the tropical zone. In a wide range
of tropical climates, from savanna to rain forest, termites are believed to play an
important role on the turnover of organic matter and the maintenance and improvement
of soil fertility (Krishna and Weesner, 1969; 1970; Lee and Wood, 1971).
Some important studies were carried out on the abundance, distribution, feeding
habits and role of termites in the savannah ecosystem of West Africa (Wood et al., 1977)
and in lowland rain forest of west Malaysia (Abe and Matsumoto, 1979). In Thailand
Ahmad (1965) described 74 species of termites over the whole area of the country.
Morimoto (1973) presented paper deals with 90 species, of which four are new to
science and 13 are new to Thailand. Intanai (1987) recorded 25 species of termites in
robber plantation of Chanthaburi and Trat provinces which two species, Hypotermes
obcuriceps and Nasutitermes profuscipennis were the new record of Thailand. Davies
(1997) surveyed termite species richness in 2 types of dry deciduous dipterocarp forest
in Doi-Suthep-Pui National Park. The result recorded 10 and 13 termite species in fireprotected
and non fire-protected site. However no information has been available on the
termites diversity in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest and the ecosystem
which would govern the existing termites diversity in this part of the world especially in
Chanthaburi Province which represents eastern Thailand for the mentioned forest types.
2

Objectives
1. To survey and study the diversity of termites in moist evergreen forest and
dry evergreen forest.
2. To distinguish and characterize specific characters of forest types which
influence species diversity of termite in the study areas.
3. To prepare scientific note on ecological nitches of termite species collected
from the survey.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Termites of Thailand
Termites of Thailand had been very poorly investigated until the excellent
monograph made by Ahmad (1965). Holmgren (1913) first recorded five species of
termites of Thailand and Snyder (1949) listed six species in his catalogue of the termites
of the world. Ahmad’s monograph contains 74 species and 19 species were
enumerated by Harris (1968). Morimoto (1973) presented paper deals with 90 species,
of which four are new to science and 13 are new to fauna of Thailand. Watanabe et al.
(1984) listed 16 species of termites at Nam Prom, northeast of Thailand and their types
of mound and nest are described. Intanai (1987) found 25 species of termites belonging
to 13 genera in 6 subfamilies and 3 families which the following termites Hypotermes
obcuriceps and Nasutitermes profuscipennis were the first record in Thailand.
Altogether, 92 species of termites have been literally recorded from Thailand up to the
present.
Classification
In the animal kingdom termites are placed in a separate order of the class
Insecta, a order Isoptera which mean “equal-winged” (Isos in Greek meaning the same
and ptero meaning wings) on account that the winged adults having two pairs of wings
of similar shape and size (Hickin,1971; Eaton and Hale, 1993).
Termites, just the same as ants, have castes such as workers, soldiers and
winged reproductives. Due to their poor abdominal sclerization, especially in the worker
caste, they appear white and are usually often called “white ants” in most part of the
world (Pearce, 1999). But this common name is a misinterpret since they are only
distantly related to the true ants or Formicidae, though the two groups offer striking
analogies in structure and habits (Wilson, 1971).
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Snyder (1948) gave some of the other vernacular names for termites such as
“wood lice”, “hormigas blancas”, “comejen”, “cupim”, “carcoma” and “polilla” in the
Americas; “weisse Ameisen” and “fourmis blanches” in Europe; “anay” in the
Philippines; and “Rysmiere” in South Africa.
All of the termites together comprise the Order Isoptera. Several versions of
higher classification, dividing the order into either five or six families, have been offered
in recent years (Snyder, 1948; 1949; Krishna, 1969; Wilson, 1971). Emerson (1965)
recognized six families including Mastotermitidae, Kalotermitidae, Hodotermitidae,
Rhinotermitidae, Serritermitidae, and Termitidae. Higashi and Abe (1997); Pearce
(1999); Eggleton (2000) reported termite of the world to be consisted of about 2,200
species divided into two large groups: the lower termites (Mastotermitidae,
Kalotermitidae, Termopsidae, Hodotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae, and Serritermitidae) and
the higher termites (Termitidae), and seven families which includes:
1. Family Mastotermitidae
This group has one extant member, Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt, found
only in non-rain forest parts of northern Australia (Watson and Abbey, 1993).
2. Family Hodotermitidae
This group are an entirely Old World group of surface–foraging, grass–feeding
termites, found in habitats ranging from dry savanna to arid grassland (Johnson and
Wood, 1980).
3. Family Termopsidae
All had known species of this family nest and feed in rotting logs.
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4. Family Kalotermitidae
This family are referred to as dry-wood termites and includes the damp-wood
and powder-post termites (Borrer and Delong, 1971; Wilson, 1971) because they nest
primarily in wood, without soil connection. They were described to have evolved from
the Mastotermitidae (Krishna, 1970). Richards and Davies (1977) reported that this
family has over 250 species and Neotermes, Kalotermes and Glytotermes are the
important genera.
5. Family Rhinotermitidae
Eggleton (2000) described that this family are all wood feeders and are
distributed widely across tropical, subtropical and temperate regions although there are
no endemic genera in Africa. They also inhabit a very wide range of habitats from wet to
dry. Krishna (1970) divided this family into six subfamilies, almost all species are
subterranean termites and Coptotermes and Reticulitermes are major pests in Asia,
America and Europe.
6. Family Serritermitidae
Richards and Davies (1977) described that this family includes only Serritermes
serrifer from Brazil, with unusual falcate mandibles in adult and worker. This species has
been variously placed in the Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae.
7. Family Termitidae
This is the largest family of termites and consists of three-quarters of all known
species (Krishna, 1970; Richards and Davies, 1977). Krishna (1970) grouped this family
into 4 subfamilies; they are Amitermitinae, Termitinae, Macrotermitinae and
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Nasutitermitinae. Watson and Gay (1997) divided this family into 4 subfamilies; they are
Macrotermitinae, Apicotermitinae, Termitinae and Nasutitermitinae.
7.1 Subfamily Macrotermitinae
Darlington (1994) described that species within this subfamily, the fungusgrowing
termites, feed on a wide range of dead and living plant material (e.g. grass, leaf
litter, or wood) that is fully processed by their fungal symbiont (the basidiomycete,
Termitomyces) on fungus combs in the nest.
7.2 Subfamily Nasutitermitinae
Higashi and Abe (1997) explained that the Nasutitermitinae, which contain
more than 500 species nest in various sites such as in dead wood, on tree trunks, on the
ground, and in soil, and they consume various dead plant materials such as dead wood,
dead grasses, soil, dung, and also lichen. Nasutitermitinae commonly built their nests on
very high trees over 5-10 meters (arboreal nest) and feed on semi-decomposed leaf and
twigs in contact with soil or dead branches.
7.3 Subfamily Amitermitinae
Roonwal (1970) described that this subfamily is characterized by soldiers
with a subrectangular head generally having saber-shaped mandibles with a single
fairly prominent tooth or with the margin more or less serrated.
7.4 Subfamily Termitinae
Eggleton (2000) described that this group has characteristically
asymmetrical mandibles in the soldiers and generally either soil-wood interface feeders
7

or soil feeders. They are found throughout the tropics, but are most diverse in tropical
Australia (Miller, 1991) and tropical forests in the Malay Archipelago (Eggleton, 1997).
7.5 Subfamily Apicotermitinae
This termites are soldierless soil feeders that form diffuse underground nests
in the soil (Eggleton, 2000).
The lower termites (Mastotermitidae, Kalotermitidae, Termopsidae,
Hodotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae, and Serritermitidae) are characterized by the presence
of cellulolytic protozoa in their hindgut, and mainly consume wood, while the higher
termites (Termitidae) are characterized by the absence of those protozoa, and variously
consume a range of dead and decaying plant material including sound wood, standing
and fallen plant shoots and leaves, decaying wood, and soil (Wood, 1978).
According to their mode of living, termites were found to dwell in a variety of
habitats which are mostly shut out from light, i.e. in soil, inside wood, under cow dung, in
arboreal nests, etc. Roonwal (1970) grouped them as follows:
1. Wood-dwellers
The colony of wood-dwellers is confined throughout its life to wood, which is
usually above ground. This wood may be living or dead, which the swarming pair enters
to start a new colony.
- Dry-wood termites are able to flourish in dry, sound, seasoned wood.
- Damp-wood termites require wood with a constant high amount of
moisture as is to be found in dead or decaying logs and in tree-stumps in moist, cool
regions.
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2. Ground-dwellers
The colony of ground dwelling termites always lives at least partly in the
ground; the colonizing pair enter the earth or wood lying in the earth. Ground dweller
consists of 3 subgroups.
- Subterranean termites live underground, but build covered runways to
reach the wood above ground. Nests are built either in the soil underground or in wood
above ground.
- Mound builders construct conspicuous earthen mounds, which may
reach a height of about 3 m above the ground in the Orient and have characteristic
shapes varying with the species.
- Carton-nest-builders construct cellular nests of carton (a substance
made of a mixture of termite fecal matter, woody fragments, and sometimes earth) which
may be papery and fragile or woody and hard so as to require an axe to break open.
The carton nests may be arboreal or partly or wholly buried in the earth.
Distribution of Termites
Snyder (1948) explained that termites are widely distributed throughout the
word, and living species occur in all of the zoogeographical regions except the Arctic
and Antarctic. At present, the African or Ethiopian region is richest in number of species;
the Oriental fauna includes the next greatest number of kinds; then come the
Neotropical or tropical American and Australian zoogeographical regions with large
numbers of termite species; and finally the North American or Nearctic and Palaearctic
termite fauna, with relatively few different kinds. Species are most prevalent in the
regions where they originated; primitive kinds remain, and advanced species migrate.
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Collins (1997); Pearce (1999) explained that the world distribution of termites is
constrained primarily by temperature and moisture.
Krishna (1970) gave a unique combination of factors affecting the distribution of
termites, such as:
1. The great majority of termites can live only under tropical conditions, and
only a very few species have successfully invaded cold climates.
2. Termites live on a restricted diet of cellulose (wood, leaves, and humus) and
have not been able to radiate adaptively into various food niches.
3. Termites are soft bodied insects which much as a consequence live in a
closed environment, the nest, with regulated temperature and humidity, which limited in
their mobility.
4. Being social insect insects, termites are virtually limited in their means of
dispersal to the swarming period.
5. Even during swarming, termites are weak fliers and are not likely to disperse
over wide water gaps; mating occurs only after flight, and the likelihood is slim that both
a male and a female would be carried by wind over a long distance and land never
each other.
6. Termites are more vulnerable to predators than many other groups of
animals.
Termites in the Tropical Rain Forest
Tropical rain forests are the stronghold of the Isoptera. The Mastotermitidae,
Termopsidae and Hodotermitidae do not occur in rain forest. The Serritermitidae
includes only one little known species found in wooded savannas in Brazil (Emerson and
Krishna, 1975).
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The Kalotermitidae (dry wood termites) are often difficult to find, but probably
occur in small numbers in all rain forests. They may also be found on the forest floor
after tree falls.
The most important family of lower termites in rain forests is the Rhinotermitidae
(damp wood termites), which probably evolved in the Oriental region (Emerson, 1955).
Over 73% of termite species are in the higher termite family Termitidae and in terms of
species richness and population density they predominate in all tropical rain forests
(Collins, 1997).
Termites have an impact on rain-forest ecosystems in three main ways, with a
fourth possibility poorly understood (Collins, 1997). They are:
1. feeding on plant material, often of a very poor quality;
2. reproducing and providing material for predatory food chains;
3. physically translocating and chemically altering soils through their building
activities; and
4. fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
All of these factors are related to the abundance and biomass of termites in
forests, measurement of which is fundamental to a greater understanding of termite
ecology.
Biology of Termite
All termites are eusocial insect (Wilson, 1971). They are polymorphic and live in
large communities (Hickin, 1971; Richard and Davies, 1977). There are well over 2,500
different species of termites in the world (Pearce, 1999).
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Termites are sometimes called white ants, but they differ from the ants in several
ways. Termites are very soft-bodied and usually light-colored, while ants are hardbodied
and usually dark-colored; the front and hind wings of a termite are similar in size
and venation and are held flat over the abdomen at rest, but in ants the hind wings are
smaller than the front wings and have fewer veins, and the wings at rest are usually held
above the body. The abdomen in termites is broadly joined to the thorax, whereas in
ants it is constricted at the base and connected to the thorax by a narrow petiole. The
antennae of a termite are moniliform or filiform, while those of ants are elbowed (Borror
and Delong, 1971).
1. External morphology (Weesner, 1969)
The Isoptera have three distinct body regions : head, thorax, and abdomen.
1.1 The head: Important structures located on the head which are used for
identification are:
1.1.1 Dorsal and lateral structures
a. The head capsule.
b. The labrum.
c. The clypeus.
d. The antennae.
e. The compound eyes.
f. The ocelli.
g. The fontanelle. A small opening may be observed in the the
midline on the top of head, just behind or between the compound eyes.
1.1.2 Ventral structures
a. The mandibles.
b. The maxillae.
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c. The labium.
1.2 The thorax: The thorax is a complex structure with three distinct
segments: the prothorax (anteriorly), the mesothorax, and the metathorax, each bearing
a pair of legs. The mesothorax and metathorax also bear a pair of wings in the alate.
1.3 The abdomen: The abdomen includes ten segments with a set of
sclerotized plates: tergite, above, and sternites, below.
2. The castes of termites
Caste determination in the lower termites is based primarily on pheromones ; in
some of the higher termites it involves sex ; but the other factors remain unidentified
(Wilson, 1971).
A termite colony consists of three castes : workers or pseudoworker, soldiers
and reproductives (Krishna, 1969; Wilson, 1971; Pearce, 1999).
queens.
2.1 Reproductives (alates or swarmers)
These are the winged reproductives which can produce new kings and
2.1.1 Primary Reproductives
The members of this caste have two pairs of large membranous
wings which are shed after they have swarmed in the process of founding new colonies.
Their body is well sclerotized and more or less dark brown in colour, compound eyes
are fully developed and there are often paired ocelli. Primary reproductives are adapted
for a short aerial life, after which they pair and form the king and queen of a new colony.
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2.1.2 Supplementary Reproductives
The members of this caste have no aerial life, the body is usually
much less sclerotized and pigmented than in the primary reproductives and the
compound eyes are generally reduced. Growth of the wings is inhibited to varying
degree and they usually resemble wing-pads, though with some indications of venation.
The brain, frontal gland and reproductive system are also somewhat reduced in size.
Some authorities distinguish three kinds of supplementary reproductives: adultoid
supplementaries very similar in appearance to the primaries, nymphoid supplementaries
with short, pad-like wings, and ergatoid supplementaries without any wing rudiment.
Supplementary reproductives are not normally found in colonies
headed by the original primary reproductives.
2.2 Worker
True workers are absent from some termites, their place being taken by
nymphal stages or pseudergates. Where they occur, however, worker are numerically
the most important members of the community. They are usually pale in colour, with the
cuticle only slightly sclerotized, and they look more like nymphs than the adults of the
other castes. External sexual characters are hardly perceptible though workers may be
genetically male or female. The head is directed downwards; it is relatively wider than in
the reproductive castes but never as large as in soldiers. Compound eyes are
reasonably well-developed in the workers of the Hodotermitidae that forage above
ground in daylight, but are otherwise vestigial or absent. The thorax resembles that of
soldiers rather than reproductives. Specific characters are not clearly expressed and
unassociated worker termites may be difficult or impossible to identify.
They exhibit marked care for the eggs and young and in times of danger
may remove them to safer situations. They also feed and tend the queens, forage for
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food, often at a distance from the nest and, in the fungus-growing species, attend to the
cultivation of the “garden”.
2.3 Soldiers
There are structurally the most specialized members of the community, but
their occurrence in virtually all genera and certain features of intercastes suggest that
they are the primitive sterile caste. Four well-defined types of soldiers can be
distinguished:
2.3.1 mandibulate soldiers, the most frequent form, with large, powerful
mandibles that may assume striking or grotesque shapes;
2.3.2 nasute soldiers, in which the mandibles are vestigial but there is a
long median frontal nasus or rostrum, at the end of which the frontal gland openes; they
occur only in the Nasutitermitinae;
2.3.3 nasutoid soldiers, found among the Rhinotermitidae, produced into a
snout-like structure bearing a dorsal channel along which the secretion of the frontal
gland can flow;
2.3.4 phragmotic soldiers, found in the Kalotermitidae, whose head is a
strongly sclerotized, more or less plug-like structure that can be used to block the nest
openings and whose mandibles are reduced.
Like the workers, soldiers usually consist of genetic males and females, but
in some Termitidae caste and sex-determination seem to be associated : most
Nasutitermitinae have only male soldiers while in the Macrotermitinae and Termitinae
they are female.
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Soldiers are specialized in structure and behavior for the defence of the
colony, mainly against other insects-espicially ants- and vertebrate predators.
3. The termites community and its biology
3.1 Colony-founding
The typical method of founding new colonies is by the emission of swarms
of primary reproductives. Males and females leave the nest in about equal numbers
and may emerge in a continuous stream or a series of smaller batches. Swarming may
be diurnal or nocturnal according to the species, those which swarm at night being
frequently attracted to light. Swarming is often a seasonal occurrence of limited duration
or may occur at times over a rather long period e.g. many tropical species do so after
the first rains of the rainy season. After leaving the nest the alates fly weakly for a short
distance.
Attacks by birds, lizards and small mammals cause a high mortality among
swarming alates but the survivors, on completing their flight, cast their wings and on
encountering a dealate of the opposite sex show some epigamic behavior before
walking in tandem fashion (the male following the female) to seek a site where, in wood
or the ground, they excavate a small nuptial chamber in which copulation takes place.
At least in the higher termites, the whole series of acts beginning with the emission of the
swarm and ending with the establishment of the royal pair in the nuptial chamber are
closely linked together.
3.2 Growth of the colony
Egg-production by the primary queen is low at first 15 - 50 eggs may be laid
in the first season, of which some are eaten by the parents. Later, the fecundity
increases and mature queens of the Termitidae lay several thousand eggs per day (at
16

least over short periods) though far fewer are produced by queens of the primitive
families. The size attained by a mature colony is much smaller in the primitive genera.
On the other hand, colonies of the Termitidae may contain over a million individuals, all
derived from a single royal pair. The individuals produced in the early stages of a
colony are always of the sterile castes; alate reproductives develop later. Member of the
sterile castes probably live for 2-4 years. The longevity of the reproductive forms is not
know accurately; it may be 15-50 years in the higher forms but is shorter in primitive
families.
The Forest of Thailand
The climate of Thailand is humid tropical, being influence by seasonal monsoon
winds and by the local topography. Meteorologically, two types of climate are
recognized, that of the tropical rain forest and that of the tropical Savannah. The tropical
rain forest climate is characterized by uniformly high temperatures and heavy rainfall,
and by the absence of a distinct dry season. The Tropical Savannah climate has less
rainfall and comprises three seasons, cool dry, hot dry, and rainy. The cool dry season
extends from November to February, the hot dry season extends through March and
April and the rainy season covers the longest period from May to October.
The vegetation of Thailand, being under the influence of a monsoon climate is
humid tropical and vast areas are covers with luxuriant forests. Owing to the composite
nature of the physiography, the range of both latitude and longitude, and the variation in
temperature and rainfall the forest of Thailand vary considerably over the country
(Siripornnoppakun, 1989).
The forest of Thailand can be divided into two primary categories, which is
Evergreen and Deciduous.
1. Evergreen Forest
17

The evergreen forest is composed of a high proportion of species lacking a
leafless period. It can be subdivided into the four following type:
1.1 Tropical Evergreen Forest
1.2 Coniferous Forest
1.3 Swamp Forest
1.4 Beach Forest
1.1 Tropical Evergreen Forest
This type of forest occurs along the wet belt of the country, usually where
high rainfall (above 1,500 mm per annum) prevails, and is strongly affected by the
monsoon. It is scattered all over the country either on the peneplains or the mountains.
The tropical evergreen forest is again divisible into three sub-types as follow:
1.1.1 Tropical Rain Forest
1.1.2 Dry or Semi-Evergreen Forest
1.1.3 Hill or Lower Mountain Forest
1.1.1 Tropical Rain Forest
In the Chanthaburi or Southeastern and Peninsular Regions, where
impact of the monsoon is directly, the rainfall is very high (2500 mm up), and for this
reason nearly the whole of this area is covered with this type of forest.
The lower tropical rain forest occupies the peneplains and
hillslopes up to 600 m altitude. The forests so occurred are being two storied, the upper
story is composed of gigantic trees mostly of Dipterocarps (Dipterocarpus, Hopea,
Shorea, Ballanocarpus, Parashorea, and Anisoptera), and other such as Dyera,
18

Endospermum, Melanorrhoea, Mangifera, Swintonia, etc. The lower story is constituted
of tree of medium height and girth of genera Vatica, Talauma, Macaranga, Mallotus,
Glochidon, Syzygium, etc. Palm and vines are abundant, but bamboos are common in
much disturbed areas.
The upper tropical rain forest occupies the slope of 600 - 900 m
altitude, and are also two stories. The upper story is represented by a great propotion of
oaks and chestnut (Quercus, Lithocarpus and Castanopsis), interspersed with
Magnolia, Michelia, Syzygium, etc. The lower story is composed of Antidesma, Aglaia,
Bacaurea, etc. Palms are abundant, undergrowth is dense, climbers are few, and
scattered, but epiphyte are abundant. Trees are heavily covered with mosses, fern and
orchids. This is a transitional area between the hill evergreen or lower mountain forest,
which starts from the elevation of 1,000 m upwards.
1.1.2 Dry or Semi-Evergreen Forest
Generally, the dry evergreen forest has a structure similar to the
tropical rain forest but with more xeric climate. The species composition of this type
differs from the tropical rain forest because of different climate and physiography. The
dry evergreen forest is scattered throughout the country along the depressions on the
peneplain, along the valleys of low hill range of about 500 m elevation, or along streams
and rivulets. The rainfall where it occurs is between 1,000-2,000 mm. It is difficult to
define this forest type by elevation because it is usually found along the stream banks.
Characteristic tree species are Hopea odorata Roxb., H. ferrea Pierre, Anisoptera spp.,
and Dipterocarpus spp. Palm are scattered and belong to the genera of Callamus,
Areca, Livistona, Corypha, and Rhaphis (Siripornnoppakun, 1989).
1.1.3 Hill or Lower Mountain Forest
19

Hill or lower mountain forest is confined above an altitude of 1,000
m.; it is scattered all over the country, but mostly found in the northwestern highlands
(Siripornnoppakun, 1989). The atmospheric humidity is very high, which explain the
moss-clad trees; the precipitation is 1,500-2,000 mm annually. This forest type is
characterized by Quercus spp., Castanopsis spp., and Lithocarpus spp. Trees and
undergrowth are dense.
1.2 Coniferous Forest
This type of forest is a scattered in small pocket of the Northwest highlands
and the Khorat Plateau at elevation ranges of 400 to 1,300 m with poor acid soils. The
annual rainfall is about 100-1500 mm. Dominant trees species are Pinus merkusii Jungh
& Devriese, and P. kesiya Royle ex Gordon (Siripornnoppakun, 1989).
1.3 Swamp Forest
Along the depressions in low lying land, the estuaries and mud seashores, a
unique type of vegetation occurs. This type is more or less subjected to periodic
inundation, and is scattered in the wet region of the country, where the annual rainfall is
high (exceeding 2000 mm). Owing to the water-logged soil, certain species develop a
characteristic rooting system, bearing pheumatophores, they may up-end above the
ground as knob, or knee-root or prop-roots which sprout from the basal part of the stem
forming tangled masses to anchor it; others also develop buttress.
The forest can be physiographically classified into two sub-types, the Fresh
Water Swamp forest and the Mangrove Swamp forest.
1.3.1 Fresh water swamp forest. This type of forest is usually found along
depressions inland. The soil is either alluvial or sandy. If it is on alluvium the surface is
muddy and fen-like.
20

1.3.2 Mangrove swamp forest. Mangrove swamps are to be found along
the estuaries of river and the muddy coastlines, where the soil is deep alluvium with a
high saline content. The forest is daily inundated by the tide. In Thailand this type of
forest is very extensive on the West coasty starting from Satui and continuing northwards
to Ranong, and within the Gulf of Thailand occurs from Samut Sakron. In the southwest
to Trat in the southeast.
Species inhabiting this type of forest are semi-xerophytic; they are
occasionally submerged by seawater, of which they can make no use. The thick leathery
are characteristic, and serve the plants for water storage.
1.4 Beach Forest
On coastal sand dunes, rocky seashores and elevated seashore coat
another type of forest occurs; it is generally know as Beach forest. This type of forest is
most common along the East Coast, where the fullest impact of the wind, rain and waves
is felt. Even there, however, only small strips or patches of this vegetation type exist. See
the enclosed map.
2. Deciduous Forest
Along the dry belt of the country, where rainfall is lowest (under 1,000 mm), the
climate is more seasonal. The soil is either sandy or gravelly loam; it is sometimes
lateristic. The vegetation of these regions is classified as Deciduous, since trees shed
their leaves during the dry season. Trees growing in this type of forest tend to develop
growth or annual rings, a feature not often found in the species of the evergreen forest.
This forest is more or less subjected to ground fire during the dry season.
Deciduous forest can be sub-divided into three main sub-type:
2.1 Mixed Deciduous Forest
21

2.2 Dry Dipterocarp Forest
2.3 Savannah Forest
2.1 Mixed Deciduous Forest
This type of forest is usually composed of several deciduous species in a
mixed association, but in certain localities a single species may become predominant;
teak (Tectona grandis) is an example and forest in which this species predominates are
generally termed Teak forest for convenience.
Mixed Deciduous forests can also be classified into three sub-types,
based on the terrain and climatic conditions:
2.1.1 Moist Upper Mixed Deciduous
2.1.2 Dry Upper Mixed Deciduous
2.1.3 Lower Mixed Deciduous
2.1.1 Moist Upper Mixed Deciduous Forest. This type of forest occurs
between the elevations of 300 - 500 m. and is three storied in profile. The soil bearing
this forest is usually loamy, either calcareous or granitic. A small number of palms are to
be found scattered in this type of forest. Bamboo are also present.
2.1.2 Dry Upper Mixed Deciduous. Along the ridges at an elevation of
300 - 500 m., the vegetation becomes more open, due to the high rate of evaporation,
exposure and surface erosion and leaching of organic components of the soil. The soil
is either sandy loam or gravel.
The forest is also three storied. Species occurring in the former
type are also present but become rather stunted and crooked. The ground flora is
frequently destroyed by fire. This type of forest, especially when regularly disturbed by
22

man will degrade into a bamboo sward, which sometimes covers quite an extensive
area.
2.1.3 Lower Mixed Deciduous Forest. This forest type occurs in lowlying
country at an elevation of 50-300 m. in the dry zone, where the soil is colluvial and
either sandy loam or lateritic. As in the former type, the forest is three-storied. The
absence of Teak (Tectona grandis) from the upper story is a distinct characteristic and
serves as a criterion to differentiate this type from the Upper Mixed Deciduous in
Northern Thailand.
2.2 Dry Dipterocarp Forest
On undulating peneplains and ridges where the soil is either sandier
gravelly and subjected to extreme leaching and erosion, the vegetation is markedly
different. The predominant species belong to the family Dipterocarpaceae, hence the
name. The forest is rather open and can be considered as two-storied.
2.3 Savannah Forest
Savannah can be deemed the most extreme from of deciduous type, and
has originated subsequent to burning. It is most frequent in the northeastern region,
where shifting cultivation has been practiced from time immemorial. The soil is either
sandy or lateric. Rainfall is relatively low (50-500 mm.). Small patches of savannah of
different stages are scattered all over the region. The most extensive ones become vast
grassland, such as Thung Kula Rawng Hai in Sakol Nakhon.
23

1. Study sites
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Two sites of forest reserves were selected for the study. Khao Kitchagoot
National Park and Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary were selected as study sites. Both
sites are in Chanthaburi Province.
1.1 Khao Kitchagoot National Park
Khao Kitchagoot National Park locates in Amphur Makham, Chanthaburi
Province, Eastern Thailand (latitude 12 49’ N, 102 9’ E). This national park is part of
eastern forest complex. The topography of this site is a rather steep slope. The elevation
measurement is approximately from 120-1,085 m above mean sea level. The main forest
types are moist evergreen forest (Figure 1) and hill evergreen forest with densely
agricultural areas on the national park boundary.
The area is influenced mainly by two monsoons, namely the northeast and
southwest monsoons. Winter season occurs during November-February, the summer
season from March-April, and rainy season from May-October. During 1969-1998,
average annual rainfall was 2,865 mm, average relative humidity was 79% and average
temperature was 27.0 C (Wachrinrat et al., 2001 a).
1.2 Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary
Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary locates partly in Amphur Pong Num Rorn,
Amphur Makham and Amphur Tha-Mai, Chanthaburi Province, Eastern Thailand (latitude
13 05’ N, 102 10’ E). This wildlife sanctuary is also a part of eastern forest complex.
24

The topography of this site is also a rather steep slope. The elevation measurement is
approximately from 200-1,600 m above mean sea level. The main forest type is dry
evergreen forest (Figure 2) with agricultural areas and fruit orchards along the wildlife
sanctuary boundary.
The area is also influenced the northeast and southwest monsoons. Winter
season occurs during November-February, the summer season from March-April, and
rainy season from May-October. During 1978-1995, average annual rainfall was 1,517
mm, average relative humidity was 73% and average temperature was 27.0 C
(Wachrinrat et al., 2001 a).
2. Lay out of Sampling plots
The size of the sampling plots were 100 m x 100 m for each forest type. Sixty
sample plots or 60% of the study area were randomly surveyed in each forest type
(Figure 3). The survey was made 2 time at different season of the year: the cool – dry
season (December-January) and hot – dry season (April); starting from December 1999.
3. Tools and equipment
3.1 Vial 1-2 dram.
3.2 80% ethanol.
3.3 Forceps and chicken feathers.
3.4 Knives and axes.
3.5 Small hand-spade, shovel, pix-axe.
3.6 Plastic tray.
3.7 Stereo-microscope.
3.8 Identification key of Ahmad (1965), Morimoto (1973) and Tho (1992).
25

1. Survey and sampling methods.
Methods
1.1 Observations were made on every possible locations where termites would
occur such as tunneling and foraging characteristics: in living trees, branches and stem
or in broken branches or logs on ground.
1.2 Investigations were also made to every common food source of termites
such as tree stumps, wood debris and leaves and litters on ground.
1.3 Observation on nest characteristics was also exercised and the termite
habitats food sources and nest characteristics in each plot of each forest type were
recorded and mapping.
2. Sample collection
2.1 Samples were collected using forceps to collect as many different termite
castes as possible. Soldiers are the main caste used for identification, so it is important
to collect ample individuals when possible. Collecting termites were preserved in vials
containing 80% ethanol and location, date and name of collectors were labeled on
paper and put inside the vial.
2.2 Termite samples were identified using a stereo-microscope based on their
morphological key index of Ahmad (1965), Morimoto (1973) and Tho (1992).
26

3. Data analysis
Species diversity of termites in the study area calculated using number of termite
species in a subplot of moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest. The Shannon-
Weiner index was used with the following model (Shannon and Weaver, 1949; Pielou,
1975).
s
H’ = -Σp ilog ep i
i=1
Where as: H’ = the value of the Shannon-Wiener diversity index.
pi = the proportion of ith species in the whole community.
loge = the natural logarithm of pi. s = the number of species in the community.
Presence of a termite frequency in a subplot was counted as only once.
27

Figure 1 The study site in moist evergreen forest.
Figure 2 The study site in dry evergreen forest.
28

10
11 30 31 50 50 70 71 90 91
9 12 29 32 49 51 69 72 89 92
8 13 28 33 48 52 68 73 88 93
7 14 27 34 47 53 67 74 87 94
6 15 26 35 46 54 66 75 86 95
5 16 25 36 45 55 65 76 85 96
4 17 24 37 44 56 64 77 84 97
3 18 23 38 43 57 63 78 83 98
2 19 22 39 42 58 62 79 82 99
1 20 21 40 41 60 61 80 81
100
= Sample plots were randomly surveyed
Figure 3 Model of sampling plots in moist evergreen forest and
dry evergreen forest.
29

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Three hundred and forty five samples of termite were collected from moist
evergreen forest (MEF) at Khao Kitchagoot National Park and dry evergreen forest (DEF)
at Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary. Their morphological characteristics were
investigated base on the systematic keys of Ahmad (1965), Morimoto (1973) and Tho
(1992). Results revealed that totally 42 species belong to 20 genera, 8 subfamilies, 3
families were collected from these areas (Figure 4). The detail use in the identification
and the characteristics of each subfamily are described as follows:
No. of termites
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
4
Kalotermitinae
2
1
Rhinotermitinae
5
1 1
Coptotermitinae
4
Amitermitinae
No. of species
2
9
Macrotermitinae
Subfamily
5
13
Nasutitermitinae
3
No. of genera
4
Termitinae
4
2
Apicotermitinae
2
Figure 4 Species diversity of termite groups in the study sites (moist evergreen
forest and dry evergreen forest).
30

1. Subfamily Kalotermitinae
This is the wood-dwellers that confined throughout of their life in wood which is
usually above ground. The wood may be parts of living or dead tree of which the
swarming pair enters to start a new colony (Roonwal, 1970). Two genera and four
species of this subfamily were observed.
Glyptotermes and Cryptotermes are among the majority species of this
subfamily. Glyptotermes is a damp-wood termites which require wood with a constant
high amount of moisture and usually found in dead or decaying logs or tree stumps in
moist, cool regions while Cryptotermes is a dry-wood termite which able to flourish in
dry, sound, seasoned wood (Roonwal, 1970). Chhotani (1970) reported that
Cryptotermes is a dominant genus of Kalotermitidae that is a typical dry wood termite, it
is widely distributed in tropical region but tend to be confined to forests along coastal
and islands.
2. Subfamily Rhinotermitinae
This subfamily belongs to a relatively primitive family with a worldwide
distribution. It is speculated as being oriental in original (Emerson, 1955; Krishna, 1970).
Roonwal (1970) described that this subfamily attacks rotten wood, weathered timber,
dead branches and wounds of many trees including palms. This subfamily usually has
broad earth-covered galleries with irregular surface run on tree trunks and on wood work
in houses. Nests are constructed inside stumps of old trees, in wounds in forest trees at
ground level and in cavities in beams of wood. One genus and one species of this
subfamily were observed.
3. Subfamily Coptotermitinae
31

Roonwal (1970) described that every species in this subfamily attacks wood and
some of them are serious pests of woodwork in house. Nesting is generally underground
or inside the trunks of trees, in logs and stumps, between wooden boards, in house and
in railway carriages. One genus and five species of this subfamily were observed.
Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann, the most serious pest causing damage in
buildings or wooden constructions in Thailand (Sornnuwat, 1996). Roonwal (1970)
reported that this species is a serious pest of living rubber trees in Southeast Asia and
attacking bark and other portions, including the heartwood which often killing the plant.
It also attacks a few other species of trees. He also described that this species reach its
food it makes underground tunnels and, if necessary, covered runways of digested
wood and soil particles are made above ground.
4. Subfamily Macrotermitinae
This is the most important termite groups which play an important role in the
process of litter decomposition with higher weight specific consumption rates than other
termites (Collins, 1981; 1983). They feed on dead wood and leaves, often in relatively
fresh condition, by the action of their mutualistic fungi. These termites use only soil and
saliva to build their mound (Noirot, 1970) and play an important role in the turnover of
organic matter and the maintenance or improvement of soil fertility (Krishna and
Weesner, 1969; 1970). Five genera and nine species of this subfamily were observed.
5. Subfamily Amitermitinae
Roonwal (1970) described that this subfamily is characterized by soldiers with a
subrectangular head generally having saber-shaped mandibles with a single fairly
prominent tooth or with the margin more or less serrated. Two genera and four species
of this subfamily were observed.
32

Microcerotermes is the main genus found widely distributed over all the
zoogeographical regions except the Nearctic, this genus is wood-eating species and
carton-nest builders; construct cellular nest of carton (a substance made of a mixture of
termite fecal matter, woody fragments, and sometime earth). The carton nests may be
arboreal or partly or wholly buried in the earth (Roonwal, 1970).
Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland) was another termite in Amitermitinae widely
distributed in survey sites. Their dome shape mound always found above ground and
usually covered externally with thin layer of earth (Roonwal, 1970). Tho (1992) reported
their habitats to be widespread throughout the lowlands of Malaysia, especially on the
west coast. He described that this species was very common in rubber, coconut, oil
palm and sugar cane plantation.
6. Subfamily Nasutitermitinae
Higashi and Abe (1997) explained that the Nasutitermitinae, which contain more
than 500 species, nest in various sites such as in dead wood, on tree trunks, on the
ground, and in soil. They consume various dead plant materials such as dead wood,
dead grasses, soil, dung, and also lichen. Nasutitermitinae commonly built their nests on
very high trees over 5-10 meters (arboreal nest) and feed on semi-decomposed leaf and
twigs in contact with soil or dead branches. Three genera and 13 species of this
subfamily were observed.
Hospitalitermes is strictly oriental distribution and all the known species are free
foraging in their foraging behavior (Tho, 1992). Their nests are found in the forks of trees
and mudlike structure hang on their sides. The termite goes out foraging in marching
expedition. The food consists mainly of lichens and also of fungi and algae. The termites
undertake long foraging expeditions to distant place. After collecting the food in the
mouth, the workers return home sometime shortly before dawn, and in later stages the
procession consists of an outgoing and incoming stream side by side (Roonwal, 1970).
33

7. Subfamily Apicotermitinae
Noirot (1970) described that all termites in Apicotermitinae are humivores and
construct their nests in the soil. Noirot and Noirot-Timothee (1969) defined that humivore
is the eaters of humus having a regime which varies more from the primitive diet. It is
unknow just how these termites utilize the humus, but they probably use the more or less
decomposed vegetable debris, which it contains. In addition this subfamily are
soldierless and soil feeders that form diffuse underground nest in the soil (Roonwal,
1970; Eggleton, 2000). Two genera and two species of this subfamily were observed.
8. Subfamily Termitinae
Similar to the subfamily Apicotermitinae discussed previously, Termitinae are
humivores feeding on substrates such as dung and plant litter in various stages of
decomposition (Lee and Wood, 1971). They are usually classified as subterranean
termite and their nests are found situated underground excepted some genus such as
Termes cosmis Haviland which their nests are either partly buried in the ground or made
on branches of trees close to the ground or in the hollows of trees (Ahmad, 1965;
Roonwal, 1970). Four genera and four species of this subfamily were observed.
Specification of Results from Collected Specimens
Termites from the result obtained from the identification reported earlier were
further specified into 3 main groups as followed:-
1. Morphological characteristic.
2. Food habitat.
3. Nest habitat.
1. Termite genera and species classified by their morphological characteristics
34

1.1 Moist evergreen forest
Thirty-seven species of 19 genera and 8 subfamilies were recorded from
moist evergreen forest (Table1 and Figure 5):
1.1.1 Kalotermitinae: Three undetermined species of genus
Glyptotermes and 1 species of Cryptotermes.
1.1.2 Rhinotermitinae: One species of Schedorhinotermes
(Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus (Holmgren)).
1.1.3 Coptotermitinae: Three species of Coptotermes: Coptotermes
gestroi Wasmann, C. havilandi Holmgren and C. premrasmii Ahmad.
1.1.4 Amitermitinae: Two species of Microcerotermes and 1 species of
Globitermes (Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland)).
1.1.5 Macrotermitinae: Four species of Odontotermes, 2 species of
Macrotermes and 1 species each of Ancistrotermes, Microtermes and Hypotermes.
1.1.6 Nasutitermitinae: Five species of Nasutitermes, 4 species of
Bulbitermes and 3 species of Hospitalitermes.
1.1.7 Termitinae: One species each of genus Termes, Mirocapritermes
and Angulitermes were found in moist evergreen forest. Interestingly, Angulitermes was
report as the newly recorded termite of Thailand (Vongkaluang et al., 2001) (Figure 7).
1.1.8 Apicotermitinae: Two species of genus Speculitermes and
Euhamitermes.
1.2 Dry evergreen forest
Twenty-seven species of 15 genera and 7 subfamilies were recorded from
dry evergreen forest (Table1 and Figure 5):
1.1.1 Kalotermitinae: Two species each of Cryptotermes and
Glyptotermes.
35

1.1.2 Rhinotermitinae: One species of Schedorhinotermes
(Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus (Holmgren)).
1.1.3 Coptotermitinae: Three species of Coptotermes: Coptotermes
gestroi Wasmann, C. curvignathus Holmgren and one undetermined species of
Coptotermes.
1.1.4 Amitermitinae: Two species of Microcerotermes and 1 species of
Globitermes (Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland)).
1.1.5 Macrotermitinae: Two species of Odontotermes and 1 species
each of genus Macrotermes, Ancistrotermes, Microtermes and Hypotermes.
1.1.6 Termitinae: One species each of genus Termes and
Pericapritermes.
1.1.7 Nasutitermitinae: Six species of Nasutitermes and 4 species of
Bulbitermes.
36

TABLE 1 Termite genera and species recorded in two different forest types: moist
evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest. MEF = moist evergreen forest,
DEF = dry evergreen forest, F = number of family, SF = number of
subfamily, G = number of genera, SP = number of species.
Termite Genus and Species Forest types
(3F, 8SF, 20G, 42SP) MEF DEF
1. F. Kalotermitidae (2G, 4SP)
1.1 SF. Kalotermitinae
1. Cryptotermes thailandis Ahmad + +
2. Glyptotermes sp.1 + -
3. Glyptotermes sp.2 + +
4. Glyptotermes sp.3 + -
2. F Rhinotermitidae (2G, 6SP)
2.1 SF Rhinotermitinae (1G, 1SP)
5. Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus (Holmgren) + +
2.2 SF Coptotermitinae (1G, 5SP)
6. Coptotermes sp.1 - +
7. Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann + +
8. Coptotermes havilandi Holmgren + -
9. Coptotermes premrasmii Ahmad + -
10. Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren - +
3. F Termitidae (16G, 32SP)
3.1 SF Macrotermitinae (5G, 9SP)
11. Macrotermes annandalei (Silvestri) + +
12. Macrotermes maesodensis Ahmad + -
13. Microtermes obesi Holmgren + +
14. Ancistrotermes pakestanicus (Silvestri) + +
15. Hypotermes makhamensis Ahmad + +
16. Odontotermes sp.1 + -
17. Odontotermes proformosanus Ahmad + +
18. Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) + +
19. Odontotermes oblongathus Holmgren + -
3.2 SF Amitermitinae (2G,4SP)
20. Microcerotermes crassus Snyder + +
21. Microcerotermes distans (Haviland) + +
22. Microcerotermes annandalei Silvestri + -
23. Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland) + +
3.3 SF Apicotermitinae (2G,2SP)
24. Euhamitermes sp. + -
25. Speculitermes sp. + -
37

TABLE 1 (cont.) Termite genera and species recorded in two different forest types:
moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest. MEF = moist
evergreen forest, DEF = dry evergreen forest, F = number of family,
SF = number of subfamily, G = number of genera, SP = number of
species.
Termite Genus and Species Forest types
(3F, 8SF, 20G, 42SP) MEF DEF
3.4 SF Termitinae (4G, 4SP)
26. Termes cosmis Haviland + +
27. Pericapritermes sp.C - +
28. Mirocapritermes concaveus Ahmad + -
29. Angulitermes sp. + -
3.5 SF Nasutitermitinae (3G, 13SP)
30. Nasutitermes johoricus (John) + +
31. Nasutitermes matangensiformis (Holmgren) - +
32. Nasutitermes sp.1 + +
33. Nasutitermes sp.3 - +
34. Nasutitermes sp.4 - +
35. Nasutitermes sp.5 + +
36. Bulbitermes parapusillus Ahmad + +
37. Bulbitermes laticephalus Ahmad + +
38. Bulbitermes sp.1 + +
39. Bulbitermes sp.2 + +
40. Hospitalitermes ataramensis Prashad and Sen-Sarma + -
41. Hospitalitermes sp.3 + -
42. Hospitalitermes sp.4 + -
38

No. of species and genera
Results of survey as shown in Table 1 and Figure 5 revealed that moist
evergreen forest showed the higher number of termite species than dry evergreen forest
(having totally 36 species of 19 genera, 3 families to 27 species of 15 genera, 3
families).
No. of species
40
30
20
10
0
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
4
Kalotermitinae
2
37
1
Rhinotermitinae
1
3
Coptotermitinae
19
Figure 5 Species diversity of termite groups in moist evergreen forest (MEF)
and dry evergreen forest (DEF).
3
Nasutitermitinae
MEF
12
10
Macrotermitinae
Subfamily
9
6
MEF DEF
Forest types
No. of Species
Amitermitinae
3 3 3
DEF
Termitinae
2
2
Apicotermitinae
Figure 6 Species of termites in moist evergreen forest (MEF) and dry evergreen
forest (DEF).
27
No. of Genera
15
0
39

From the results which revealed that Glyptotermes (subfamily Kalotermitinae)
was found in higher number of species in moist evergreen forest than dry evergreen
forest (Table1 and Figure 6) might be due to the fact that moist evergreen forest having
higher average rainfall and relative humidity than dry evergreen forest (Wachrinrat et al.,
2001 a) and may be more suitable for Glyptotermes, which is the damp-wood termite, to
establish their colony.
The reason for the presence of Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus (Holmgren)
(subfamily Rhinotermitinae) in both forest types might be because these forest types
have ample rotten wood and litterfall including branches and stems (Wachrinrat et al.,
2001 b) for this termite to forage.
There are no difference in the number of species of subfamily Coptotermitinae in
moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest (Table 1 and Figure 6). Therefore it was
assumed that these 2 forest types probably contain sufficient amount of trees and wood
for these termites to forage.
Two species of Apicotermitinae were found specifically in moist evergreen forest
(Table 1 and Figure 6). Sawasdee et al. (2001) reported that the average depth of soil
litter surface thickness in moist evergreen forest was 7.40 cm that which thicker than dry
evergreen forest (5.68 cm). The average water content at the depth 0-15 cm in moist
evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest were 0.270 and 0.173 respectively.
Percentages of organic matter were 5.55% for moist evergreen forest and 3.99% for dry
evergreen forest. The information above lead to the speculation that moist evergreen
forest probably has appropriate soil organic matter and soil moisture for Apicotermitinae
to survive than dry evergreen forest.
Similar to the subfamily Apicotermitinae. Number of species of Termitinae was
found in higher degree in moist evergreen forest than in dry evergreen forest. Nests of
40

this subfamily are mostly found underground excepted Termes cosmis Haviland which
their nests are either partly buried in the ground or made on branches of trees close to
the ground or in the hollows of trees (Ahmad, 1965; Roonwal, 1970).
For subfamily Nasutitermitinae, three species of Hospitalitermes were found only
in moist evergreen forest it might be due to the food of this termite group consists mainly
of lichen (Roonwal, 1970). From these survey we can found this termites carry lichen in
their mouth particularly in moist evergreen forest. Abe (1979) reported that 2 species of
Hospitalitermes in Pasoh Forest were observed very commonly to collect scraping of
lichen usually on living tree trunks and sometimes on fallen trees. Wachrinrat et al. (2001
a) reported that moist evergreen forest has highest moisture that might be suitable for
Hospitalitermes to live.
41

0.5 mm.
A
Figure 7 Soldier and worker of Angulitermes, newly recorded of termite list
of Thailand. A: Whole body of soldier from above; B: Whole body
of worker from above; C: Whole body of soldier from side.
C
B
42

2. Termite group classified by their food habitat.
Classifications of this group generally relied on observations of the location of
foraging galleries on ground, under leaves, tree, branches, log or dead stumps and nest
in soil or above ground, also organic material carried to the nest for storage which
sometimes reflex in the color of worker abdomen. Termites collected in moist evergreen
forest and dry evergreen forest were classified into different groups based on food
habitat (Table 2) as follows:
2.1 Wood feeders
2.2 Wood and leaf feeders
2.3 Soil or humus feeders
2.4 Lichen feeders
43

Table 2 Termite genera and species recorded in moist evergreen forest and dry
evergreen forest, eastern Thailand classified by their food habitat. F =
number of family, SF = number of subfamily, G = number of genera, SP =
number of species, W = Wood, W&L = Wood and leaf, S/H = Soil or humus, L
= Lichen.
Termite Genus and Species Food habitat
(3F, 8SF, 20G, 42SP) W W&L S/H L
1. F. Kalotermitidae (2G, 4SP)
1.1 SF. Kalotermitinae
1. Cryptotermes thailandis Ahmad X
2. Glyptotermes sp.1 X
3. Glyptotermes sp.2 X
4. Glyptotermes sp.3 X
2. F Rhinotermitidae (2G, 6SP)
2.1 SF Rhinotermitinae (1G, 1SP)
5. Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus (Holmgren) X
2.2 SF Coptotermitinae (1G, 5SP)
6. Coptotermes sp.1 X
7. Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann X
8. Coptotermes havilandi Holmgren X
9. Coptotermes premrasmii Ahmad X
10. Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren X
3. F Termitidae (16G, 32SP)
3.1 SF Macrotermitinae (5G, 9SP)
11. Macrotermes annandalei (Silvestri) X
12. Macrotermes maesodensis Ahmad X
13. Microtermes obesi Holmgren X
14. Ancistrotermes pakestanicus (Silvestri) X
15. Hypotermes makhamensis Ahmad X
16. Odontotermes sp.1 X
17. Odontotermes proformosanus Ahmad X
18. Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) X
19. Odontotermes oblongathus Holmgren X
3.2 SF Amitermitinae (2G,4SP)
20. Microcerotermes crassus Snyder X
21. Microcerotermes distans (Haviland) X
22. Microcerotermes annandalei Silvestri X
23. Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland) X
3.3 SF Apicotermitinae (2G,2SP)
24. Euhamitermes sp. X
25. Speculitermes sp. X
44

Table 2 (cont.) Termite genera and species recorded in moist evergreen forest and dry
evergreen forest, eastern Thailand classified by their food habitat. F =
number of family, SF = number of subfamily, G = number of genera, SP
= number of species, W = Wood, W&L = Wood and leaf, S/H = Soil or
humus, L = Lichen.
Termite Genus and Species Food habitat
(3F, 8SF, 20G, 42SP) W W&L S/H L
3.4 SF Termitinae (4G, 4SP)
26. Termes cosmis Haviland X
27. Pericapritermes sp.C X
28. Mirocapritermes concaveus Ahmad X
29. Angulitermes sp. X
3.5 SF Nasutitermitinae (3G, 13SP)
30. Nasutitermes johoricus (John) X
31. Nasutitermes matangensiformis (Holmgren) X
32. Nasutitermes sp.1 X
33. Nasutitermes sp.3 X
34. Nasutitermes sp.4 X
35. Nasutitermes sp.5 X
36. Bulbitermes parapusillus Ahmad X
37. Bulbitermes laticephalus Ahmad X
38. Bulbitermes sp.1 X
39. Bulbitermes sp.2 X
40. Hospitalitermes ataramensis Prashad and Sen-Sarma X
41. Hospitalitermes sp.3 X
42. Hospitalitermes sp.4 X
2.1 Wood feeders
Termite in this group feeding on wood and woody litter, including dead
branches still attached to trees (Bignell and Eggleton, 2000) (Figure 9).
In moist evergreen forest 11 species of termites were wood feeding
termites. There are 4 species belong to subfamily Kalotermitinae, 1 species of subfamily
Rhinotermitidae, 3 species of subfamily Coptotermitinae and 3 species belong to
subfamily Amitermitinae.
45

Nine species of termites in dry evergreen forest were wood feeding
termite. There are 2 species of subfamily Kalotermitinae, 1 species of subfamily
Rhinotermitinae, 3 species of subfamily Coptotermitinae and 3 species of subfamily
Amitermitinae.
2.2 Wood and leaf feeders
This feeding group forage on leaves and small woody items and often
taken back and stored their food temporarily in the nest (Bignell and Eggleton, 2000)
(Figure 10).
Eighteen species of termites found in moist evergreen forest were wood
and leaf feeders. Nine species of this group from this forest type belong to subfamily
Nasutitermitinae and nine species belong to subfamily Macrotermitinae.
For dry evergreen forest, 16 species of termites were wood and leaf
feeders. Ten species from this forest type belong to subfamily Nasutitermitinae and six
species were Macrotermitinae.
2.3 Soil or humus feeders
These termites are humivores and live mostly in soil or subterranean nest
except Termes cosmis Haviland that built their nest on the ground, which is usually,
called epigeal nest (Figure 11).
In moist evergreen forest, five species of termites were soil or humus
feeders. Three species from this forest type belong to subfamily Termitinae and 2
species belong to Apicotermitinae.
46

Two species of termites in dry evergreen forest belonging to subfamily
Termitinae were soil or humus feeding termites.
2.4 Lichen feeders
Termite in this feeding group were observed very commonly to collect
scraping of lichen usually on living tree trunks and sometimes on fallen trees (Abe,
1979) (Figure 12).
Termites of this feeding group were found only in moist evergreen forest
which 3 species of genus Hospitalitermes belong to subfamily Nasutitermitinae.
No. of species
20
15
10
5
0
11
9
18
16
Wood Wood&leaves
Food habitat
Soil/humus Lichen
MEF
5
DEF
Figure 8 Termite species in differing food habitat in moist evergreen forest (MEF)
and dry evergreen forest (DEF).
2
3
0
47

Classification of feeding groups as shown in Figure 8 revealed that moist
evergreen forest showed the higher number of wood feeding group than dry evergreen
forest. Wachrinrat et al. (2001 a) reported that total aboveground biomass in moist
evergreen forest was 434.732 ton/ha which was higher than in dry evergreen forest
(340.558 ton/ha). Therefore this might be the reason that moist evergreen forest have a
highest number of species of wood feeding termites.
The number of wood and leaf feeding termites found in moist evergreen forest
were not much different from that of dry evergreen forest. This might due to the amount
of total litterfall in dry evergreen forest and moist evergreen forest that is the main supply
of food for this group was nearly equal in both forest types (Wachrinrat et al., 2001 b).
The results which revealed that soil or humus feeding termites were found in
higher number of species in moist evergreen forest than in dry evergreen forest might
be due to the fact that moist evergreen forest having higher organic matter and soil
moisture than dry evergreen forest (Sawasdee et al., 2001) and may be suitable for soil
or humus feeders to live.
Lichen feeding termites were found only in moist evergreen forest. Trees in moist
evergreen forest are covered with mosses, ferns and orchids (Siripronnoppakun, 1989)
and have higher moisture (Wachrinrat et al., 2001 a) that might be suitable for this
feeding group to live.
48

Figure 9 Wood feeding termites. A: Cryptotermes; B: Microcerotermes.
A
B
49

Figure 10 Wood and leaf feeding termites. A: Hypotermes; B: Macrotermes.
A
B
50

Figure 11 Soil or humus feeding termites. A: Termes; B: Dicuspiditermes.
A
B
51

Figure 12 Lichen feeding termites: Hospitalitermes.
A
52

3. Termite group classification by nest habitat.
All termite species have identifiable nests where colony members are housed
and protected. According to their mode of living, dwell in a variety of habitats, which are
mostly shut out from light, i.e., in soil, inside wood, in arboreal nests, etc. Termites
collected from this study were classified into different groups based on their nest habitat
(Table 3) as follows:
3.1 Wood-dwellers
3.2 Ground-dwellers
53

Table 3 Termite genera and species recorded in moist evergreen forest and dry
evergreen forest, eastern Thailand classified by their nest habitat. F =
number of family, SF = number of subfamily, G = number of genera, SP =
number of species, IW = Nest in wood, A = Arboreal nest, E = Epigeal nest,
S = Subterranean nest.
Termite Genus and Species Nest habitat
(3F, 8SF, 20G, 42SP) IW A E S
1. F. Kalotermitidae (2G, 4SP)
1.1 SF. Kalotermitinae
1. Cryptotermes thailandis Ahmad X
2. Glyptotermes sp.1 X
3. Glyptotermes sp.2 X
4. Glyptotermes sp.3 X
2. F Rhinotermitidae (2G, 6SP)
2.1 SF Rhinotermitinae (1G, 1SP)
5. Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus (Holmgren) X
2.2 SF Coptotermitinae (1G, 5SP)
6. Coptotermes sp.1 X
7. Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann X
8. Coptotermes havilandi Holmgren X
9. Coptotermes premrasmii Ahmad X
10. Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren X
3. F Termitidae (16G, 32SP)
3.1 SF Macrotermitinae (5G, 9SP)
11. Macrotermes annandalei (Silvestri) X
12. Macrotermes maesodensis Ahmad X
13. Microtermes obesi Holmgren X
14. Ancistrotermes pakestanicus (Silvestri) X
15. Hypotermes makhamensis Ahmad X
16. Odontotermes sp.1 X
17. Odontotermes proformosanus Ahmad X
18. Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) X
19. Odontotermes oblongathus Holmgren X
3.2 SF Amitermitinae (2G,4SP)
20. Microcerotermes crassus Snyder X X
21. Microcerotermes distans (Haviland) X
22. Microcerotermes annandalei Silvestri X
23. Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland) X
3.3 SF Apicotermitinae (2G,2SP)
24. Euhamitermes sp. X
25. Speculitermes sp. X
54

Table 3 (cont.) Termite genera and species recorded in moist evergreen forest and dry
evergreen forest, eastern Thailand classified by their nest habitat. F =
number of family, SF = number of subfamily, G = number of genera, SP
= number of species, IW = Nest in wood, A = Arboreal nest, E =
Epigeal nest, S = Subterranean nest.
Termite Genus and Species Nest habitat
(3F, 8SF, 20G, 42SP) IW A E S
3.4 SF Termitinae (4G, 4SP)
26. Termes cosmis Haviland X X
27. Pericapritermes sp.C X
28. Mirocapritermes concaveus Ahmad X
29. Angulitermes sp. X
3.5 SF Nasutitermitinae (3G, 13SP)
30. Nasutitermes johoricus (John) X
31. Nasutitermes matangensiformis (Holmgren) X
32. Nasutitermes sp.1 X
33. Nasutitermes sp.3 X
34. Nasutitermes sp.4 X
35. Nasutitermes sp.5 X
36. Bulbitermes parapusillus Ahmad X
37. Bulbitermes laticephalus Ahmad X
38. Bulbitermes sp.1 X
39. Bulbitermes sp.2 X
40. Hospitalitermes ataramensis Prashad and Sen-Sarma X
41. Hospitalitermes sp.3 X
42. Hospitalitermes sp.4 X
3.1 Wood-dwellers
This group was described by Roonwal (1970) to have their nest confined
throughout their lives wood which is usually above ground. Only subfamily
Kalotermitinae was found in present study (Figure 14).
Four species of termite in moist evergreen forest belong to subfamily
Kalotermitinae were wood-dwellers.
55

forest.
Two species of subfamily Kalotermitinae were found in dry evergreen
3.2 Ground-dwellers
The colony of ground dwelling termites always exists at least partly in the
ground; the colonized pair enters the earth or wood lying in the earth. The ground
dwellers can be further classified into 3 subgroups.
3.2.1 Subterranean termites
3.2.2 Arboreal nest
3.2.3 Epigeal nest
3.2.1 Subterranean termites
This termite group lives underground, but build covered runways to
reach the wood above ground. Nests are built either in the soil underground or in wood
above ground (Figure 15).
In moist evergreen forest, 16 species of termite were as
subterranean termites. One species belong to subfamily Rhinotermitinae, 3 species of
subfamily Coptotermitinae, 7 species of subfamily Macrotermitinae, 3 species belong to
subfamily Termitinae and 2 species of subfamily Apicotermitinae.
Eleven species of termites in dry evergreen forest were
subterranean termites. This group consists of 4 species belong to family
Rhinotermitinae, 5 species of Macrotermitinae and 2 species belong to subfamily
Termitinae.
3.2.2 Arboreal nest
56

Noirot (1970) described that this group usually having nest which
are constructed on trees, often at considerable heights, connected to the ground by
covered galleries which descend from the trunk of the tree where the nest is situated
(Figure 16).
Ten species of termite in moist evergreen forest were the termite
lived in arboreal nest. This group consists of 1 species of Microcerotermes belong to
Amitermitinae and 9 species belong to subfamily Nasutitermitinae.
For dry evergreen forest, 11 species of termites were recorded as
the termite lived in arboreal nest. This group consists of 1 species of Microcerotermes
belong to Amitermitinae and 10 species belong to subfamily Nasutitermitinae.
3.2.3 Epigeal nest
Bignell and Eggleton (2000) explained that this group of termites
usually have colony centered on the ground of standing tree or against the side of trees.
Their nests are usually well defined and highly complex species specific structures but
with a tendency to become more irregular as they age through erosion, additions and
occupation by secondary inhabitants (Figure 16).
In moist evergreen forest, 9 species of termite built epigeal nests.
This group consists of 2 species of Macrotermes (Macrotermitinae), 3 species belong to
subfamily Amitermitinae, 1 species of Termes (Termitinae) and 3 species of
Hospitalitermes belong to subfamily Nasutitermitinae.
Five species of termite in dry evergreen forest built epigeal nests.
This group consists of 1 species of Macrotermes (Macrotermitinae), 3 species of
Amitermitinae and 1 species of Termes, which belong to subfamily Termitinae.
57

No. of species
20
15
10
5
0
4
2
10
11
In wood Arboreal Epigeal Subterranean
Nest type
MEF
Similar to the reason explained earlier about subfamily Kalotermitinae. Numbers
of species of wood dwelling termites were found in higher degree in moist evergreen
forest than in dry evergreen forest. Subfamily Kalotermitinae classified into the wood
dwellers that confined throughout of their life in wood consisted of dry-wood termite
(Cryptotermes) and damp-wood termite (Gryptotermes) (Roonwal, 1970). The results
which revealed that Glyptotermes was found in higher number of species in moist
evergreen forest than dry evergreen forest might be due to the fact that in moist
evergreen forest having higher average rainfall and relative humidity than dry evergreen
forest and may be more suitable for Glyptotermes, damp-wood termite, to live.
Arboreal nesting termites were found in equal number of species in moist
evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest this might due to these forest types situated in
region of heavy rainfall. Lee and Wood (1971) reported that termite species that inhabit
9
5
DEF
Figure 13 Termite species in differing nest types in moist evergreen forest (MEF)
and dry evergreen forest (DEF).
16
11
58

egion of heavy rainfall, especially rain forest, maintenance of high humidity presents no
problems, but protection from flooding and excessive erosion may be important. Many
rain forest termites build arboreal nests, often with covered runways descending to the
soil.
Epigeal nesting termites were found in higher number of species in moist
evergreen forest than in dry evergreen forest. Three species of Hospitalitermes were
epigeal nesting termites which nested at the base of living tree and stump were found
only in moist evergreen forest and Macrotermes were found in higher number of species
in moist evergreen forest than in dry evergreen forest. Hesse (1955) found that the
moisture content of inhabited mounds of three East African species of Macotermes was
higher than that of adjacent uninhabited mound. The information above lead to the
speculation that moist evergreen forest which having higher average rainfall and relative
humidity more than dry evergreen forest may be more suitable for epigeal nesting
termites to live.
The results, which revealed that subterranean termite, were found in higher
number of species in moist evergreen forest than in dry evergreen forest (Figure 13)
might be related to report which showed that moist evergreen forest having more
organic matter and soil moisture than dry evergreen forest (Sawasdee et al., 2001).
Wachrinrat et al. (2001 a) reported that total aboveground biomass in moist evergreen
forest higher than that of dry evergreen forest. The information above lead to the
speculation that moist evergreen forest probably have more suitable soil organic matter,
soil moisture and are better feeding sites for subterranean termites to survive than dry
evergreen forest.
59

Figure 14 Wood-dwelling termites. A: Cryptotermes; B: Glyptotermes.
A
B
60

Figure 15 Subterranean termites. A: Coptotermes; B: Ancistrotermes.
A
B
61

A
Figure 16 Arboreal nesting termites. A: Microcerotermes; B: Nasutitermes.
62

Figure 17 Epigeal nesting termites. A: Mound of Globitermes; B: Carton nest
of Microcerotermes; C: Mound of Macrotermes; D: Nest of
Termes.
A
D
63

Diversity of Termite
The results recorded from moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest were
tabled and frequency of termites in cool-dry and hot-dry season of present study was
further computed. Diversity of the ecosystem of termite in the study area were presented
in Table 4 in term of frequency, number of species and also H’ index.
Table 4 Diversity of termites in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest of
Chanthaburi Province, Thailand during cool – dry and hot – dry season.
Parameter
Moist evergreen forest
Cool-dry Hot-dry
Dry evergreen forest
Cool-dry Hot-dry
Frequency (hits) of termites 243 222 231 234
No. of species 31 21 24 17
H’ index 2.415 2.284 2.121 1.67
Result of diversity index (H’ index) as shown in Table 4 reveal that moist
evergreen forest in cool-dry season showed the highest number of diversity index, which
consistent with highest number of termite species found in moist evergreen forest.
Dominant Species
Table 5 showed the frequency of termites recorded in each type of forest
ecosystem during cool-dry season and hot-dry season. Results from the study also
revealed the dominant species of termite in each forest type and season (Table 6 and
Figure 18).
64

Table 5 Frequency of termites recorded in each type of forest ecosystem during cooldry
season and hot-dry season. MEF = moist evergreen forest, DEF = dry
evergreen forest, F = number of family, SF = number of subfamily, G = number
of genera, SP = number of species.
Type of vegetation
Termite
DEF MEF
Genus and Species CoolHotCoolHotdrydrydrydry 1. F. Kalotermitidae (2G, 4SP)
1.1 SF. Kalotermitinae 5 2 3 1
1. Cryptotermes thailandis Ahmad 4 - 1 -
2. Glyptotermes sp.1 - - 1 -
3. Glyptotermes sp.2 1 2 - 1
4. Glyptotermes sp.3 - - 1 -
2. F Rhinotermitidae (2G, 6SP)
2.1 SF Rhinotermitinae (1G, 1SP) 7 14 13 30
5. Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus (Holmgren) 7 14 13 30
2.2 SF Coptotermitinae (1G, 5SP) 4 3 4 8
6. Coptotermes sp.1 - 2 - -
7. Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann 2 - 3 2
8. Coptotermes havilandi Holmgren - - - 1
9. Coptotermes premrasmii Ahmad - - 1 5
10. Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren 2 1 - -
3. F Termitidae (16G, 32SP)
3.1 SF Macrotermitinae (5G, 9SP) 48 26 59 58
11. Macrotermes annandalei (Silvestri) 11 9 3 4
12. Macrotermes maesodensis Ahmad - - 1 -
13. Microtermes obesi Holmgren 3 - 1 2
14. Ancistrotermes pakestanicus (Silvestri) 12 8 25 30
15. Hypotermes makhamensis Ahmad 10 7 11 9
16. Odontotermes sp.1 - - - 2
17. Odontotermes proformosanus Ahmad 7 2 6 5
18. Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) 5 - 11 6
19. Odontotermes oblongathus Holmgren - - 1 -
3.2 SF Amitermitinae (2G,4SP) 129 140 118 94
20. Microcerotermes crassus Snyder 108 126 84 67
21. Microcerotermes distans (Haviland) - 1 - -
22. Microcerotermes annandalei Silvestri - - 1 -
23. Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland) 21 13 33 27
3.3 SF Apicotermitinae (2G,2SP) - - 1 2
24. Euhamitermes sp. - - - 1
25. Speculitermes sp. - - 1 1
3.4 SF Termitinae (4G, 4SP) 1 1 4 0
26. Termes cosmis Haviland 1 - 2 -
27. Pericapritermes sp.C - 1 - -
28. Mirocapritermes concaveus Ahmad - - 1 -
29. Angulitermes sp. - - 1 -
65

Table 5 (cont.) Frequency of termites recorded in each type of forest ecosystem during
cool-dry season and hot-dry season. MEF = moist evergreen forest,
DEF = dry evergreen forest, F = number of family, SF = number of
subfamily, G = number of genera, SP = number of species.
Type of vegetation
Termite
DEF MEF
Genus and Species CoolHotCoolHotdrydrydrydry 3.5 SF Nasutitermitinae (3G, 13SP) 37 48 41 29
30. Nasutitermes johoricus (John) 14 15 14 16
31. Nasutitermes matangensiformis (Holmgren) 1 3 1 -
32. Nasutitermes sp.1 3 1 1 -
33. Nasutitermes sp.3 1 - - -
34. Nasutitermes sp.4 1 - 1 -
35. Nasutitermes sp.5 2 - 3 -
36. Bulbitermes parapusillus Ahmad 9 17 9 3
37. Bulbitermes laticephalus Ahmad 2 12 4 5
38. Bulbitermes sp.1 1 - 2 -
39. Bulbitermes sp.2 3 - 5 -
40. Hospitalitermes ataramensis Prashad and Sen-Sarma - - 1 -
41. Hospitalitermes sp.3 - - - 4
42. Hospitalitermes sp.4 - - - 1
Table 6 Frequency of dominant species in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen
forest during cool-dry season and hot-dry season.
Dominant species
MEF
Cool-dry Hot-dry
DEF
Cool-dry Hot-dry
1. Microcerotermes crassus Snyder 84 67 108 126
2. Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland) 33 27 21 13
3. Ancistrotermes pakestanicus (Silvestri) 25 30 12 8
4. Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus
(Holmgren)
13 30 7 14
66

Frequency of termite
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
126
108
84
67
33 27 25 30 30
21
13
12
8 13
7
14
Microcerotermes crassus Globitermes sulphureus Ancistrotermes
pakestanicus
Dominant species
M cool-dry
M hot-dry
D cool-dry
D hot-dry
Schedorhinotermes
medioobscurus
Figure 18 Frequency of dominant species in moist evergreen forest and dry
evergreen forest during cool-dry season and hot-dry season.
In this study, the dominant species was determined from the frequency of
termites found within the study areas. Any species found over 20 spots from each area
were considered as dominant species. Result obtained from the mentioned
characteristic revealed that Microcerotermes crassus Snyder (Figure 19 A) is dominant
species in both moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest. Moist evergreen forest
in cool-dry season showed the frequency of this species more than hot-dry season. On
the contrary, dry evergreen forest in cool-dry season showed the frequency less than
hot-dry season.
The results also revealed that Microcerotermes crassus Snyder was found as a
dominant species in both of moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest. This might
be due to the fact that this termite has adaptive ability to several conditions.
67

Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland) (Figure 19 B) is a secondary dominant
species in moist evergreen forest both of 2 seasons but in dry evergreen forest this
species is a secondary dominance only in cool-dry season.
According to the results shown in Figure 18 revealed that Globitermes
sulphureus (Haviland) is a secondary dominant species in moist evergreen forest both
of 2 seasons. Ahmad (1965) mentioned that this termite is one of the most common
mound-building termites of Thailand.
Ancistrotermes pakestanicus Silvestri (Figure 19 C), the fungus growing
termites, were found to be another secondary dominant species particularly in moist
evergreen forest, they were also found in dry evergreen forest in both seasons but in
less frequency which was not enough to be considered as dominance.
Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus (Holmgren) (Figure 19 D) were found as
dominance only in hot-dry season of moist evergreen forest (30 times were found).
68

0.5 mm. A 0.5 mm.
B
0.5 mm.
C
1.0 mm.
Figure 19 Dominant species in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest.
A: Soldier of Microcerotermes crassus (dominant species in 2 forest
types); B: Soldier of Globitermes sulphureus (secondary dominant in
moist evergreen forest); C: Soldier of Ancistrotermes pakestanicus
(secondary dominant in moist evergreen forest); D: Soldier of
Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus.
D
69

Termite Species in Relation to Seasonal Changes
Results of survey as shown in Table 7 and Figure 20 revealed that in moist
evergreen forest, the number of species in subfamily Kalotermitinae, Amitermitinae,
Macrotermitinae, Termitinae and Nasutitermitinae that tend to decrease in hot-dry
season. While the number of species in subfamily Coptotermitinae and Apicotermitinae
increase in hot-dry season. There is no difference in the number of species in subfamily
Rhinotermitinae in 2 seasons.
In dry evergreen forest, the number of species in subfamily Kalotermitinae,
Macrotermitinae and Nasutitermitinae tend to decrease in hot-dry season while the
number of species in Amitermitinae increase in hot-dry season. There is no difference in
the number of species in subfamily Rhinotermitinae, Coptotermitinae and Termitinae in 2
seasons.
Table 7 Number of species of termites recorded in each type of forest ecosystem
during cool-dry season and hot-dry season.
Number of species
Subfamily
Moist evergreen forest Dry evergreen forest
Cool-dry Hot-dry Cool-dry Hot-dry
Kalotermitinae 3 1 2 1
Rhinotermitinae 1 1 1 1
Coptotermitinae 2 3 2 2
Macrotermitinae 8 7 6 4
Amitermitinae 3 2 2 3
Apicotermitinae 1 2 0 0
Termitinae 3 0 1 1
Nasutitermitinae 10 5 10 5
70

No. of species
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Kalotermitinae
3
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
Rhinotermitinae
Coptotermitinae
M cool-dry
3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
Amitermitinae
Macrotermitinae
8
7
6
4
3
1 1
0
2
1
0 0
Termitinae
Subfamily
M hot-dry D cool-dry
Apicotermitinae
D hot-dry
Results indicated that species diversity and species richness of termite in moist
evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest decreased in hot-dry season. Soil moisture
has much more effect to species richness and termite activity than temperature and
relative humidity (Pearce, 1999). In eastern Thailand the climatic condition particularly
temperature and relative humidity among season is not much different excepted for
rainfall (Wachrinrat et al., 2001 a). Report on volume of water content at depth 0-15 cm
in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest of the study site were 0.207 and
0.173 respectively (Sawasdee et al., 2001). During the survey in hot-dry season (April)
there was heavy rainfall and might have decreased termite richness and activity in this
study.
10
Nasutitermitinae
Figure 20 Number of species of termites recorded in each type of forest
ecosystem during cool-dry season and hot-dry season.
10
5 5
71

CONCLUSION
1. Three hundred and forty five samples of termite were collected from moist
evergreen forest at Khao Kitchagoot National Park and dry evergreen forest at Khao Soi
Dao Wildlife Sanctuary identification of surveyed samples resulted three families, 8
subfamilies, 20 genera and 42 species.
2. Results of the survey revealed that moist evergreen forest showed the higher
number of termite species than dry evergreen forest (37 species of 19 genera to 27
species of 15 genera).
3. Moist evergreen forest having higher average rainfall and relative humidity
than dry evergreen forest and might be suitable for termite in subfamily Kalotermitidae,
Macrotermitidae and Nasutitemitinae to establish their colony.
4. Moist evergreen forest probably has more appropriate soil organic matter
and soil moisture for termites in subfamily Apicotermitinae and Termitinae to survive than
dry evergreen forest.
5. There is no different in the number of species of subfamily Rhinotermitinae,
Coptotermitinae and Amitermitinae in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest. It
was therefore, assumed that these two forest types probably contain sufficient amount of
trees, wood and litterfall for these termites to forage.
6. Classification of termites base on their food habitat resulted into four different
termite group as followed:
6.1 Wood feeders
6.2 Wood and leaf feeders
6.3 Soil or humus feeders
72

6.4 Lichen feeders
7. Classification of termites base on their nest habitat resulted into two major
groups as followed:
7.1 Wood dwellers
7.2 Ground dwellers; The ground dwellers can be further classified into 3
sub-groups:
7.2.1 Subterranean termites
7.2.2 Arboreal nesting termites
7.2.3 Epigeal nesting termites
8. Number of diversity index (H’ index) of moist evergreen forest was higher
than dry evergreen forest in both cool-dry and hot-dry seasons. And, consequently
number of diversity index of moist evergreen forest was found to be highest in cool-dry
season.
9. Microcerotermes crassus Snyder was found as first dominant species in
both moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest. Globitermes sulphureus
(Haviland) is the secondary dominant species in both moist evergreen forest and dry
evergreen forest. Ancistrotermes pakestanicus (Silvestri) which is a fungus growing
termites revealed themselves as another dominant species in moist evergreen forest.
10. Identification of specimen from different time of survey revealed that
seasonal changed did not have much effect to species richness of termite in all study
sites. Species diversity and species richness or termite activity tend to be lower in hotdry
season (April).
73

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82

APPENDIX
83

Appendix Table 1 The data recording form used in the field work to determine ecological niches of termites.
Date
Plot No
Termite
species
Nest on
living
tree
Nest on
ground
Mound
Tunnel
on living
tree
Tree
stump
Wood
debris
Leave
litter
log In soil
Mushroom
fungus
garden
Sign of
termite
attack
Enemies
Remark
Termite Present
many little
Case

Appendix Table 2 Climatic data in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest of
Chanthaburi Province 1/ .
Climatic data Moist evergreen forest Dry evergreen forest
Average annual rainfall (mm.) 2,865 mm. 1,517 mm.
Relative humidity (%) 79% 73%
Average temperature (°C) 27 °C 27 °C
Data from : 1/ Wachrinrat et al. (2001 a)
Appendix Table 3 The volume of water content, percentage of organic matter and soil
litter surface thickness in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen
forest 1/ .
Parameter Moist evergreen forest Dry evergreen forest
Volume of water content
(depth 0-15 cm)
0.207 0.173
Organic matter
(depth 0-15 cm)
5.55 3.99
Soil litter thickness (cm.) 7.40 5.68
Data from : 1/ Sawasdee et al. (2001)
85

Appendix Table 4 Dominant trees in moist evergreen forest and dry evergreen forest 1/ .
Dominant Trees Moist evergreen forest Dry evergreen forest
- F. ANNONACEAE
1. Alphonsea elliptica Hook.f.&Thoms. - ✓
- F. CEASALPINIACEAE
2. Saraca declinata Miq. - ✓
- F. EBENACEAE
3. Diospyros dictyoneura Hiern. - ✓
4. Diopyros pendula Hasselt ex Hassk. ✓ -
5. Diospyros rubra Lec. - ✓
- F. ICACINACEAE
6. Gonocaryum lobbianum Kurz
- F. LAURACEAE
7. Crytocarya scortechnii - ✓
8. Cyathocalyx martabanicus Hook.f.&th. - ✓
- F. MELIACEAE
9. Walsura robusta Roxb. - ✓
- F. MIMOSACEAE
10. Archidendron guocense (Pierre) ✓ -
- F. MYRISTICACEAE
11. Knema globularia Warb. ✓ -
12. Knema laurina Warb. ✓ -
- F. MYRTACEAE
13. Cleistocalyx operculatus Merr.& Perry ✓ -
14. Syzygium cf. diospyrifolium S.N.Mitra ✓ -
15. Syzygium lineatum Merr.& L.M.Perry ✓ -
- F. OLACACEAE
16. Strombosia javanica Bl. ✓ ✓
- F. SAPINDACEAE
17. Xerospermum laevigatum Radlk. ssp. - ✓
- F. STERCULIACEAE
18. Pterygota alata R.Br. - ✓
19. Scaphium macropodum Beaumee ✓ -
Data from : 1/ Wachrinrat et al. (2001 a)
86

Appendix Table 5 Total aboveground biomass and total litterfall in moist evergreen
forest and dry evergreen forest, Chanthaburi Province.
Parameter Moist evergreen forest Dry evergreen forest
Total Biomass (ton. ha -1 ) 1/
434.732 340.558
Total litterfall (kg. ha -1 ) 2/
6,627.85 7,771.63
Data from : 1/ Wachrinrat et al. (2001 a)
2/ Wachrinrat et al. (2001 b)
Appendix Table 6 Quatitative characteristics of each sample plot in evergreen forest at
Chanthaburi Province, only trees with DBH ≥ 4.5 m. are included 1/ .
Parameter Moist evergreen forest Dry evergreen forest
No. of species (sp.) 135 138
No. of individuals (no.ha -1 ) 1,510 1,355
Mean DBH (cm) 13.67 13.07
Mean height (m) 11.45 9.54
Basal area (%) 0.4799 0.3995
Data from : 1/ Wachrinrat et al. (2001 a)
87