the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

Given the greater diversity of tourist and tourism types, tour company operations and
destination area characteristics, it is of little surprise that opinion in the tourism
literature on the specific and net effects of tourism on environmental quality can
appear confusing and, not infrequently, clearly contradictory. As with any industry,
the site-specific, activity-specific and dynamic nature of impacts makes
generalisation virtually impossible and, arguably, a redundant exercise (Hunter and
Green, 1995).
2.11.3 Impact Amelioration Measures
Butler (1991) provides a review and critique of measures which can be used to
lessen the pressure tourism places on the environment. According to Butler (1991),
there are four principal approaches to impact mitigation, namely, changing the tourist
type, changing the resource for resistance, education, and curbing tourist numbers.
Changing the tourist type, involves moving away from mass tourism to some form of
'alternative tourism', involving a different type of 'responsible' tourist who is willing to
pay for basic food and accommodation, on a small-scale, without the services and
facilities demanded by the traditional mass tourist. According to Butler (1991), this
amelioration measure is, however, ineffective for a number of reasons. Firstly, it is
argued that there are insufficient alternative tourists to supply all the tourist
destinations. Secondly, a significant proportion of the expenditure of such tourists is
made outside of the destination area. Thirdly, even the most environmentally
conscious tourist can bring about environmental degradation. Finally, there is also
the potential that small-scale alternative tourism operations may well grow and
change through time into potentially more destructive forms.
An alternative possibility is to try and change the resource base so that it is better
able to withstand the pressures from tourism. This could involve the laying of
reinforced and marked trails through a wildlife park, for example, to discourage
tourist exploration and reduce footpath erosion. Making the resource more resilient
may also be particularly appropriate in and around fragile heritage resources, such
as ancient monuments. Although not changing the resource base directly, the
provision of new infrastructure, such as sewage treatment works, can reduce
environmental degradation while the number of tourists remains constant (OECD,
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