the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

xenophobia in the area, which has the potential to alienate the sector, resulting in
the loss of foreign investors and economic returns (Ashley, 2000).
As Cooper et al (1993) highlight, tourism cannot be exported to consumers. The
consumers must visit the destination to experience the tourism product, and in doing
so they act as a stimulus for social change. The impact of tourism development, and
the resultant 'rural-urban' migration in the Okavango Delta has had extreme social
effects on rural local inhabitants and communities. The 'demonstration effect' is a
direct social impact, caused by the development of tourism in rural areas. This
occurs when tourists influence changes in the behaviour of host communities
(Cooper et aI, 1993). Language is one way in which host communities can remain
distinct from the visitors. However, the language of the hosts will inevitably change
to accommodate the tourists as members of the host society who learn the language
of the tourists are more employable and valuable to the tourism industry (Martha,
1993). Changes in language from traditional dialects to English and Setswana, dress
and consumption patterns are evident in all the towns in the region.
With regard to local employment, the Okavango Delta's tourism industry is
dominated by foreign ownership, investment and participation, to such an extent that
any meaningful participation by local citizens is becoming increasingly impossible.
According to Schneider (1993), the tourism industry is seasonal and therefore
employs people on a temporary or part-time basis. As Blank (1989) and Williams
and Shaw (1991) also highlight, tourism employees are usually laid off work during
the low season. As a result, the tourism industry cannot provide secure, meaningful
jobs for many local residents, and their bargaining power for better wages and
conditions is reduced. The formal employment of Batswana in the Delta's tourism
industry consists of low-paying, unskilled labour, which provides little prospect for
economic improvement or promotion. The foreign ownership of this sector is
increasingly leading to the loss of resource control by the local population, as the
industry, and the resources upon which it is based, are reserved for the consumption
by non-locals. The foreign domination of the Delta's tourism industry has also led to
increased wage differentials between expatriate and local tourism employees.
Foreign employees' earn up to 30 percent more than their local counterparts for the
same job.
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