the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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example, the implementation of the 'high-cost, low-volume' tourism policy focuses predominantly on the conservation of the Delta; and • Tourism encourages cultural exchange and diversity. Many tourism operators in the Okavango Delta regard the cultural exchanges that occur through tourism as being positive, particularly for the local population, rather than being a destructive force, as it is often assumed (Mbaiwa, 2002). However, there are equally as many individuals in the Okavango who regard tourism as having a seriously negative impact on the area and its people. The improvement of infrastructure and other social amenities, brought about by tourism growth has resulted in both Maun and Shakawe becoming semi-urbanised. This has in turn led to the escalation of several social problems in the area which are directly linked to the development of the Delta's tourism industry. These include changes in dress patterns as local inhabitants, particularly the young, begin to adopt foreign dress codes which can often be culturally unacceptable, especially to the elderly. Through the demonstration effect, local inhabitants, particularly in areas such as Maun, often start consuming the same foods as tourists, replacing their traditional staples with imported, foreign foods, bought from shops. With the growth of Maun, and to a far lesser extent Shakawe, prostitution in the Okavango Delta has also increased. Although not yet as prevalent as in areas such as Gaborone and Francistown, prostitution is slowly growing in areas in the Delta frequently visited by tourists. Such areas include, in particular, bars and restaurants in Maun such as the Sedia Hotel and Bull and Bush Restaurant and Bar. Prostitution in Maun is a direct result of the urbanization of the town, which was/is largely influenced by the growth of tourism in the Okavango. Prostitution is also associated with the breakdown of local culture. Even though Botswana is generally described as being a crime-free country, crime in Maun is noted to be on the increase (Table 8.1). According to Cooper et al (1998), the link between tourism and crime is difficult to establish. For example, does crime increase in an area where tourism has developed simply because of the associated increase in population density, or is it more specifically associated with tourism itself. Cooper et al (1998) further note that the presence of large numbers of 344
tourists in an area provide a source for illegal activities including drug trafficking, robbery and violence. In Maun, the increase in crime can be attributed both to the influence of tourism and the rate of urbanization. Apart from the peri-urban villages of Mogoditshane, Tlokweng and Bobonong in Botswana, Maun's population has grown faster than that of any other village/town in the country. Other infrastructural developments such as hotels and lodges, wholesale and retail centres, and telecommunications have also dramatically increased over the last decade. The growth of Maun in terms of population, trade and infrastructure is also directly associated with the increase in crime in the town (Mbaiwa, 2002). Table 8.1: Reported Crime Statistics in Maun, 1999 to 2001 Year Reported Cases of Theft Other Total Reported Cases Annual rate 01 Increase (%) 1999 431 2343 2774 2000 501 2568 3069 10 2001 642 3429 4071 25 Total 1574 8340 9914 17.5 Source: Adapted From Mbaiwa, 2002. Table 8.1 Shows that crime increased by 17.5 percent between 1999 and 2001 in Maun. Petty theft was noted by the Maun Police Station Commander as being the most common crime in the town. Drug trafficking, which is usually associated with tourism was reported to be almost non-existent in Maun (Mbaiwa, 2002). 8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Delta The levels of out-migration in the Ngamiland District from rural agricultural villages to the major towns in the region have increased drastically since the early 1990s. The population of Maun increased by some 38,9 percent from 26 768 in 1991 to 43 776 in 2001, and similar situations are present in Shakawe and Etsa 6. The tourism industry has contributed to this rural-urban migration. The growth of tourism in the Okavango Delta, especially Maun, has led to significant infrastructure development and resultant employment opportunities. These include opportunities in the tourism industry itself, as well as in the retail, trade, wholesale, transportation, education and 345
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;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
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;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
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8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
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REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
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Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
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ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
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SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
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Empirical evidence, however, does n
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norms of its people. To date, the g
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numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
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4. Establish the extent of natural
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detailed in chapter five. The insti
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destinations, concentrating on its
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serious academic consideration. The
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Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
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management strategies are implement
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Tourism should thus be regarded as
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exchange, investment, income and em
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problem. He states that it is time
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The first assumption is largely bas
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However, as Western (1993) points o
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Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
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tourism, the type of skills that ar
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Despite the various economic benefi
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Some cultural modifications due to
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2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
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However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
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or displacing another group of user
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protection of the environment was t
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These range from the numerous impac
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difficult to foresee and which refl
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carried unintentionally on the shoe
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Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
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waste is being developed or upgrade
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water, however, inhibits the natura
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arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
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1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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economic growth in developed countr
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infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
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also be described as a 'deep ecolog
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Having highlighted the general conc
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• • • • • • Follow ethi
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The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
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as ideas and technologies on the pa
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eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
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2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
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conceptualised as a global process
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alienated from the means of product
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extent that the quality of life wit
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The successful creation or inventio
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modern production, it has moved awa
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As previously discussed, the proces
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The origination of world-standardis
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attraction to less developed econom
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Hence, the government must take act
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develop with other sectors of the e
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Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
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hypothesised, further, that tourism
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Qualitative research within the fie
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4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
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4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
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4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
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development and changes in traditio
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Review of selected international an
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diminishing returns of extractive i
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Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
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ate and economic progress seldom pa
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percent growth targeted in Vision 2
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informal sector work, especially in
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Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
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Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
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5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
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international controversy over its
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hectare minimum necessary for house
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the backbone of the rural economy.
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Botswana affords many possibilities
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Panhandle, the Okavango River then
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to the south, east and west (Ross,
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Fish populations in the entire Okav
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themselves in the main stream of th
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Presently in the Ngamiland district
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vendor, retailing, the production o
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third furrow planting and mechanica
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farmer who supplies crops to the vi
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I Unlike consumptive resource utili
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southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
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Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
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The leader in each San band or grou
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Descendants of San groups that live
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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payment of tribute as a way of ensu
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more rifles, European-made clothing
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wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
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However, Rey was anxious to establi
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Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
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other hand, veterinary officers wer
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• • • • As with other natur
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• Problems with solid waste dispo
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natural resources and to increase t
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ineffective in ensuring that all to
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development which emphasise the par
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The National Conservation Strategy
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The growth of tourism in the Okavan
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fifteen year period. The community-
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• The 5-year review policy left m
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government also provides 85 percent
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Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
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for several consecutive years, the
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and water, but fortunately the Bots
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It is in the context of the above t
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income, and presumably high spendin
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Although several researchers noted
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In order for local Botswana citizen
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Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
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Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
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earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
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eference to the Okavango Delta regi
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With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
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Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
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tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
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Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
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evenue collection from the various
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Despite these conflicting employmen
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According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
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Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
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CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
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natural resources of water and pris
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According to personal interviews co
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• • • • • • • • Dea
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Experience shows that some animals,
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inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
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control is vested with central gove
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conservation area. This led to conf
Page 318 and 319: Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
Page 320 and 321: 7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
Page 322 and 323: Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
Page 324 and 325: Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
Page 326 and 327: Botswana because populations of bot
Page 328 and 329: Delta, while previously inhabitants
Page 330 and 331: facilities that do not have boats,
Page 332 and 333: • • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
Page 334: different products, wood is perhaps
Page 337 and 338: Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
Page 339 and 340: populations in the rivers have drop
Page 341 and 342: The importance of people remaining
Page 343 and 344: CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
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Page 349 and 350: • • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
Page 351 and 352: Leases are given for 15 year period
Page 353 and 354: Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
Page 355 and 356: 7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
Page 357 and 358: at the same time allowing them to d
Page 359 and 360: eports on financial management and
Page 361 and 362: Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
Page 363 and 364: their land, etc., such as cash, mea
Page 365 and 366: 7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
Page 367: 8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
Page 371 and 372: are left to perform all the traditi
Page 373 and 374: 8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
Page 375 and 376: the country. As a result, it is ass
Page 377 and 378: most of these impacts remain unchec
Page 379 and 380: According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
Page 381 and 382: 8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
Page 383 and 384: permeability. Pollutants can theref
Page 385 and 386: iverine systems. According to Tache
Page 387 and 388: implement laws and regulations cont
Page 389 and 390: and resulted in the publication of
Page 391 and 392: lowest, and substantial proportions
Page 393: Angola considered the construction
Page 396 and 397: ministries most closely involved in
Page 398 and 399: most to lose if the Okavango in its
Page 400 and 401: • Development of monitoring syste
Page 402 and 403: Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
Page 404 and 405: CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
Page 406 and 407: circumstances, the impacts of touri
Page 408 and 409: For example, the government has gon
Page 410 and 411: As such, it is only recently that t
Page 412 and 413: According to Torres (1996), a wide
Page 414 and 415: of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
Page 416 and 417: Even though Botswana has developed
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iodiversity conservation and rural
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overriding challenge facing authori
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As such, this study has revealed th
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The development of tourism in the O
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9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
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the Botswana government committed i
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Thirdly, almost the only interest e
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The following recommendations are p
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Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
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the entire Okavango River Basin, by
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9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
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Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
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Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
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Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
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State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
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APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
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10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
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16. Do you think that the developme
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