the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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not regard community-based tourism as a good idea, stated that they had received no direct benefits from the CBNRM programme. Their view was that community based tourism is only of benefit to members of community-based organisations and expatriate safari companies operating in the area (Mbaiwa, 2002). 7.3.5 The Local Natural Resource Institutional Framework in the Okavango Delta Access to, and management of, natural resources and participation in tourism by rural communities is carried out through local institutions known as Community Based Organisations (CBOs) or trusts. Community-Based Organisations or trusts are a prerequisite for communities to be allocated a Controlled Hunting Area and a wildlife quota by the DWNP (Mbaiwa, 2002; Mbaiwa, 2004). Community trusts or organisations, as local institutions, provide leadership in the use of land and resources such as wildlife for tourism purposes by participating communities. As such, CBOs are registered trusts that provide a locally controlled institutional framework in tourism development in the Okavango Delta. CBOs co-ordinate tourism activities for their respective communities. The operations of CBOs are guided by a constitution which addresses issues of membership, organisation and duties for each CBO (Mbaiwa, 2002). In order for a community to establish a legal Community Based Organisation, the election of a village representative group and registration with the Botswana Government is required. Once the community has formed a legally recognisable Trust and developed a Land Use Plan, it can apply for a lease over the relevant piece of land, usually a Controlled Hunting Area (CHA), within a Wildlife Management Area (WMA), with the Tribal Land Board. Each CHA contains a wildlife off-take quota designated by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks. However, some CHAs within protected areas have a hunting quota of zero, while other CHAs are designated for community use only. The Community Based Organisation can then choose to sub-lease the use-rights of their land and hunting quota to a private tourism company for photographic or hunting safaris, and this has the potential to bring in substantial income to rural areas (Boggs, 2000; Sorensen, 2003). 326
Leases are given for 15 year periods, and if the Community Based Organisation chooses to sub-lease to a private safari operator, the area is put up for tender and interested parties submit a proposal to a technical committee, consisting of representatives from various governmental bodies. The technical committee selects the three most suitable proposals and the community can then make selections. Joint venture agreements are then often established to allow for training and capacity building with the understanding that the full management of the area will revert to the community after 15 years. Leases are arranged on the basis of 1 - 1 3 - 5 - 5 years, and after the end of each period, the community can decide whether to put out the area for the re-tender or renew the joint venture agreements. While this tender design was created to protect the communities from mismanagement, corruption and maltreatment, it has unfortunately also served to encourage extortion and bribery (Boggs, 2000; Sorensen, 2003). The process required for communities to gain rights over their resources is complex, particularly since the areas they inhabit are generally very rural, and the communities are poor and under-educated. They therefore need assistance in understanding their CBNRM rights and responsibilities, establishing committees and navigating the application procedure. NGOs play an important role in facilitating this process, by providing technical advice on natural resource management, organisational development and fund-raising. Today, ten NGOs offer CBNRM related services to communities in Botswana, and help implement the CBNRM project (Rozemeijer, 2003; Sorensen, 2003). The establishment of trusts should be considered to be one of the successes of the CBNRM programme in Botswana. The establishment of trusts among other issues indicates an organised institutional arrangement aimed at involving local people in resource management and tourism development in the Okavango Delta. This is in line with the ideals of sustainable development which stress that all people should be involved in any socio-economic and political development that affects their lives (Mbaiwa, 2004). 327
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;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
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;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
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8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
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REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
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Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
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ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
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SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
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Empirical evidence, however, does n
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norms of its people. To date, the g
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numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
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4. Establish the extent of natural
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detailed in chapter five. The insti
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destinations, concentrating on its
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serious academic consideration. The
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Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
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management strategies are implement
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Tourism should thus be regarded as
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exchange, investment, income and em
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problem. He states that it is time
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The first assumption is largely bas
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However, as Western (1993) points o
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Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
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tourism, the type of skills that ar
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Despite the various economic benefi
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Some cultural modifications due to
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2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
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However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
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or displacing another group of user
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protection of the environment was t
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These range from the numerous impac
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difficult to foresee and which refl
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carried unintentionally on the shoe
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Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
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waste is being developed or upgrade
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water, however, inhibits the natura
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arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
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1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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economic growth in developed countr
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infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
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also be described as a 'deep ecolog
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Having highlighted the general conc
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• • • • • • Follow ethi
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The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
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as ideas and technologies on the pa
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eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
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2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
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conceptualised as a global process
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alienated from the means of product
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extent that the quality of life wit
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The successful creation or inventio
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modern production, it has moved awa
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As previously discussed, the proces
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The origination of world-standardis
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attraction to less developed econom
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Hence, the government must take act
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develop with other sectors of the e
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Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
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hypothesised, further, that tourism
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Qualitative research within the fie
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4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
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4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
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4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
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development and changes in traditio
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Review of selected international an
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diminishing returns of extractive i
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Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
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ate and economic progress seldom pa
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percent growth targeted in Vision 2
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informal sector work, especially in
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Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
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Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
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5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
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international controversy over its
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hectare minimum necessary for house
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the backbone of the rural economy.
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Botswana affords many possibilities
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Panhandle, the Okavango River then
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to the south, east and west (Ross,
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Fish populations in the entire Okav
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themselves in the main stream of th
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Presently in the Ngamiland district
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vendor, retailing, the production o
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third furrow planting and mechanica
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farmer who supplies crops to the vi
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I Unlike consumptive resource utili
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southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
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Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
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The leader in each San band or grou
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Descendants of San groups that live
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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payment of tribute as a way of ensu
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more rifles, European-made clothing
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wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
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However, Rey was anxious to establi
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Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
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other hand, veterinary officers wer
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• • • • As with other natur
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• Problems with solid waste dispo
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natural resources and to increase t
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ineffective in ensuring that all to
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development which emphasise the par
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The National Conservation Strategy
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The growth of tourism in the Okavan
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fifteen year period. The community-
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• The 5-year review policy left m
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government also provides 85 percent
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Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
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for several consecutive years, the
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and water, but fortunately the Bots
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It is in the context of the above t
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income, and presumably high spendin
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Although several researchers noted
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In order for local Botswana citizen
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Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
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Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
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earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
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eference to the Okavango Delta regi
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With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
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Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
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tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
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Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
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evenue collection from the various
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Despite these conflicting employmen
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According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
Page 300 and 301: Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
Page 302 and 303: CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
Page 304 and 305: natural resources of water and pris
Page 306 and 307: According to personal interviews co
Page 308 and 309: • • • • • • • • Dea
Page 310 and 311: Experience shows that some animals,
Page 312 and 313: inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
Page 314 and 315: control is vested with central gove
Page 316 and 317: conservation area. This led to conf
Page 318 and 319: Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
Page 320 and 321: 7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
Page 322 and 323: Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
Page 324 and 325: Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
Page 326 and 327: Botswana because populations of bot
Page 328 and 329: Delta, while previously inhabitants
Page 330 and 331: facilities that do not have boats,
Page 332 and 333: • • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
Page 334: different products, wood is perhaps
Page 337 and 338: Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
Page 339 and 340: populations in the rivers have drop
Page 341 and 342: The importance of people remaining
Page 343 and 344: CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
Page 345 and 346: the wildlife populations and their
Page 347 and 348: no longer an important livelihood s
Page 349: • • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
Page 353 and 354: Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
Page 355 and 356: 7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
Page 357 and 358: at the same time allowing them to d
Page 359 and 360: eports on financial management and
Page 361 and 362: Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
Page 363 and 364: their land, etc., such as cash, mea
Page 365 and 366: 7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
Page 367 and 368: 8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
Page 369 and 370: tourists in an area provide a sourc
Page 371 and 372: are left to perform all the traditi
Page 373 and 374: 8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
Page 375 and 376: the country. As a result, it is ass
Page 377 and 378: most of these impacts remain unchec
Page 379 and 380: According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
Page 381 and 382: 8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
Page 383 and 384: permeability. Pollutants can theref
Page 385 and 386: iverine systems. According to Tache
Page 387 and 388: implement laws and regulations cont
Page 389 and 390: and resulted in the publication of
Page 391 and 392: lowest, and substantial proportions
Page 393: Angola considered the construction
Page 396 and 397: ministries most closely involved in
Page 398 and 399: most to lose if the Okavango in its
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• Development of monitoring syste
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Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
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CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
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circumstances, the impacts of touri
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For example, the government has gon
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As such, it is only recently that t
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According to Torres (1996), a wide
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of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
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Even though Botswana has developed
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iodiversity conservation and rural
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overriding challenge facing authori
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As such, this study has revealed th
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The development of tourism in the O
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9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
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the Botswana government committed i
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Thirdly, almost the only interest e
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The following recommendations are p
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Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
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the entire Okavango River Basin, by
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9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
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Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
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Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
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Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
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Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
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APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
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Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
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State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
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APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
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10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
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16. Do you think that the developme
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