the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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4. Establish the extent of natural resource use by the tourist hotels/lodges/safari camps in the Okavango Delta. This will provide insights into existing linkages between tourism development and the impact on an area's natural resource base. 5. Identify tourist demand for the utilisation of natural resources in the Okavango Delta. This will provide insights into the ensuing pressures placed on social, environmental and economic structures in meeting that demand. 6. Identify viable alternatives for creating and strengthening positive linkages between tourism and the sustainable management and utilisation of natural resources in the Okavango Delta. The tourism aspect of the study will concentrate on the entire Okavango Delta region of Botswana, including the main tourist destinations of Maun, the Panhandle area and Moremi Game Reserve. The resource management aspect of the study will focus on past and present forms of resource utilization practiced by the local inhabitants scattered throughout the Delta area, the implementation of government policy regarding resource use, past and present relationships between tourism and resource utilisation, and the impact of tourism on the area's resources and local communities. The study will concentrate on the areas natural resources which include wildlife, pristine thirst land and wetland environments, and water courses, on which the entire Okavango Delta tourism industry is based. This study will attempt to define the factors that influence tourism's role in the management of the Okavango Delta's natural resources of wildlife, vegetation and water. This will provide a framework to determining the impacts of tourism on the Okavango Delta's natural resources. This will include an examination of changes in land use, resource use, rural income, trade, consumption patterns, demographics, production patterns and infrastructure developments. This project will also identify viable alternatives for creating and strengthening positive linkages between tourism and the sustainable management and utilisation of natural resources in the Okavango Delta. 8
The concept of sustainable utilisation, specifically from an environmental perspective will be dealt with, in the project. This will focus on tourism's role in the utilisation of, and impact on, a region's natural resources. Sustainable utilisation requires the long term protection and preservation of resources. However, there is increasing concern over the extent to which tourism damages and alters natural resources and environments compared to the levels of protection it provides. The growth of tourism in the Okavango Delta region has led to unprecedented economic growth and has also partly contributed to the conservation of the area's natural resources. However, the tourism industry in the Delta is also characterised by the emergence of 'enclave tourism,' where the 'foreign owned' tourism industry is established to meet the demands of foreign tourists and generally fails to take into account the needs and demands of the surrounding local communities. This has led to the increasing loss of resources by the local population to the international tourism industry. This study will focus, in part, on the possibility and options for local communities to gain control over the utilisation of natural resources through the development of Community Based Natural Resource Management initiatives. This will focus on the integration of people and their environments in attempting to bring about sustainable development and rural upliftment, as well as resource preservation and protection. In attempting to understand the nature and role of the development of the global tourism industry on host destinations and societies, one cannot ignore tourism's impact on the environment and natural resources in different localities. This project will focus on the relationship between capitalist development initiatives and the environment. It will analyse the negotiation and competition that occurs between the global, humanistically orientated forces of tourism and the local environments and natural resources that this industry utilises. This thesis comprises nine chapters. A review of literature focusing on the tourism industry and its impacts, natural resource utilisation and management, and sustainable development is presented in chapter two. Chapter three details the theoretical framework within which this stUdy is located. The methods undertaken, conceptual framework and design of the study is presented in chapter four. An overview of the country of Botswana, and the study area, the Okavango Delta is 9
Page 1 and 2: ;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
Page 3 and 4: ;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
Page 7 and 8: 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
Page 9 and 10: 5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
Page 11 and 12: CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
Page 13 and 14: 8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
Page 15 and 16: REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
Page 17 and 18: Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
Page 19 and 20: LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
Page 21 and 22: ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
Page 23: SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
Page 26 and 27: Empirical evidence, however, does n
Page 28 and 29: norms of its people. To date, the g
Page 30 and 31: numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
Page 34 and 35: detailed in chapter five. The insti
Page 36 and 37: destinations, concentrating on its
Page 38 and 39: serious academic consideration. The
Page 40 and 41: Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
Page 42 and 43: management strategies are implement
Page 44 and 45: Tourism should thus be regarded as
Page 46 and 47: exchange, investment, income and em
Page 48 and 49: problem. He states that it is time
Page 50 and 51: The first assumption is largely bas
Page 52 and 53: However, as Western (1993) points o
Page 54: Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
Page 57 and 58: tourism, the type of skills that ar
Page 59 and 60: Despite the various economic benefi
Page 61 and 62: Some cultural modifications due to
Page 63 and 64: 2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
Page 65 and 66: However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
Page 67 and 68: or displacing another group of user
Page 69 and 70: protection of the environment was t
Page 71 and 72: These range from the numerous impac
Page 73 and 74: difficult to foresee and which refl
Page 75 and 76: carried unintentionally on the shoe
Page 77 and 78: Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
Page 79 and 80: waste is being developed or upgrade
Page 81 and 82: water, however, inhibits the natura
Page 83 and 84:
arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
Page 85 and 86:
1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
Page 87 and 88:
economic growth in developed countr
Page 89 and 90:
infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
Page 91 and 92:
also be described as a 'deep ecolog
Page 93 and 94:
Having highlighted the general conc
Page 95 and 96:
• • • • • • Follow ethi
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The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
Page 99 and 100:
as ideas and technologies on the pa
Page 101 and 102:
eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
Page 103 and 104:
2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
Page 105 and 106:
conceptualised as a global process
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alienated from the means of product
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extent that the quality of life wit
Page 111 and 112:
The successful creation or inventio
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modern production, it has moved awa
Page 115 and 116:
As previously discussed, the proces
Page 117 and 118:
The origination of world-standardis
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attraction to less developed econom
Page 121 and 122:
Hence, the government must take act
Page 123 and 124:
develop with other sectors of the e
Page 125 and 126:
Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
Page 127 and 128:
hypothesised, further, that tourism
Page 129 and 130:
Qualitative research within the fie
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4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
Page 133 and 134:
4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
Page 136 and 137:
4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
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development and changes in traditio
Page 141:
Review of selected international an
Page 144 and 145:
diminishing returns of extractive i
Page 146 and 147:
Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
Page 148 and 149:
ate and economic progress seldom pa
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percent growth targeted in Vision 2
Page 152 and 153:
informal sector work, especially in
Page 154 and 155:
Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
Page 156 and 157:
Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
Page 159 and 160:
5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
Page 161 and 162:
international controversy over its
Page 163 and 164:
hectare minimum necessary for house
Page 165 and 166:
the backbone of the rural economy.
Page 168 and 169:
Botswana affords many possibilities
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Panhandle, the Okavango River then
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to the south, east and west (Ross,
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Fish populations in the entire Okav
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themselves in the main stream of th
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Presently in the Ngamiland district
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vendor, retailing, the production o
Page 185 and 186:
third furrow planting and mechanica
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farmer who supplies crops to the vi
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I Unlike consumptive resource utili
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southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
Page 194 and 195:
Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
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The leader in each San band or grou
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Descendants of San groups that live
Page 200 and 201:
5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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payment of tribute as a way of ensu
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more rifles, European-made clothing
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wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
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However, Rey was anxious to establi
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Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
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other hand, veterinary officers wer
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• • • • As with other natur
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• Problems with solid waste dispo
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natural resources and to increase t
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ineffective in ensuring that all to
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development which emphasise the par
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The National Conservation Strategy
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The growth of tourism in the Okavan
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fifteen year period. The community-
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• The 5-year review policy left m
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government also provides 85 percent
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Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
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for several consecutive years, the
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and water, but fortunately the Bots
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It is in the context of the above t
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income, and presumably high spendin
Page 245 and 246:
Although several researchers noted
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In order for local Botswana citizen
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Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
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Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
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earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
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eference to the Okavango Delta regi
Page 258 and 259:
With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
Page 265 and 266:
Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
Page 267 and 268:
tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
Page 287 and 288:
Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
Page 289 and 290:
evenue collection from the various
Page 291 and 292:
Despite these conflicting employmen
Page 294 and 295:
According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
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Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
Page 302 and 303:
CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
Page 304 and 305:
natural resources of water and pris
Page 306 and 307:
According to personal interviews co
Page 308 and 309:
• • • • • • • • Dea
Page 310 and 311:
Experience shows that some animals,
Page 312 and 313:
inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
Page 314 and 315:
control is vested with central gove
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conservation area. This led to conf
Page 318 and 319:
Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
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7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
Page 322 and 323:
Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
Page 324 and 325:
Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
Page 326 and 327:
Botswana because populations of bot
Page 328 and 329:
Delta, while previously inhabitants
Page 330 and 331:
facilities that do not have boats,
Page 332 and 333:
• • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
Page 334:
different products, wood is perhaps
Page 337 and 338:
Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
Page 339 and 340:
populations in the rivers have drop
Page 341 and 342:
The importance of people remaining
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CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
Page 345 and 346:
the wildlife populations and their
Page 347 and 348:
no longer an important livelihood s
Page 349 and 350:
• • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
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Leases are given for 15 year period
Page 353 and 354:
Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
Page 355 and 356:
7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
Page 357 and 358:
at the same time allowing them to d
Page 359 and 360:
eports on financial management and
Page 361 and 362:
Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
Page 363 and 364:
their land, etc., such as cash, mea
Page 365 and 366:
7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
Page 367 and 368:
8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
Page 369 and 370:
tourists in an area provide a sourc
Page 371 and 372:
are left to perform all the traditi
Page 373 and 374:
8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
Page 375 and 376:
the country. As a result, it is ass
Page 377 and 378:
most of these impacts remain unchec
Page 379 and 380:
According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
Page 381 and 382:
8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
Page 383 and 384:
permeability. Pollutants can theref
Page 385 and 386:
iverine systems. According to Tache
Page 387 and 388:
implement laws and regulations cont
Page 389 and 390:
and resulted in the publication of
Page 391 and 392:
lowest, and substantial proportions
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Angola considered the construction
Page 396 and 397:
ministries most closely involved in
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most to lose if the Okavango in its
Page 400 and 401:
• Development of monitoring syste
Page 402 and 403:
Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
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CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
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circumstances, the impacts of touri
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For example, the government has gon
Page 410 and 411:
As such, it is only recently that t
Page 412 and 413:
According to Torres (1996), a wide
Page 414 and 415:
of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
Page 416 and 417:
Even though Botswana has developed
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iodiversity conservation and rural
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overriding challenge facing authori
Page 422 and 423:
As such, this study has revealed th
Page 424 and 425:
The development of tourism in the O
Page 426 and 427:
9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
Page 428 and 429:
the Botswana government committed i
Page 430 and 431:
Thirdly, almost the only interest e
Page 432 and 433:
The following recommendations are p
Page 434 and 435:
Activities common at this time incl
Page 436 and 437:
knowledge to bring about sustainabl
Page 438 and 439:
the entire Okavango River Basin, by
Page 440 and 441:
9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
Page 442 and 443:
Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
Page 444 and 445:
Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
Page 485 and 486:
Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
Page 487 and 488:
State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
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APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
Page 493 and 494:
10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
Page 495:
16. Do you think that the developme
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