the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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inhabitants of the Okavango Delta region hold the view that as wildlife resources and land belong to the central government, and not the local communities, they are not able to see how the existence of wildlife in the Okavango Delta, or anywhere else in Botswana, can be used to possibly benefit them. A study was conducted in 1999 by Mbaiwa, on the prospects for sustainable wildlife resource utilisation and management in east Ngamiland District, focusing on the three villages of Khwai, Mababe and Sankuyo (see Figure 5.4 in chapter five), located on the eastern edge of the Okavango Delta. All three of these villages are involved in the Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) Programme. A total of 95 local inhabitants (32 from Khwai, 31 from Mababe, and 32 from Sankuyo) were interviewed in these three villages by Mbaiwa, regarding their attitudes and perceptions towards wildlife and its conservation in the Okavango Delta area. According to Mbaiwa (1999), 62.1 percent of the 95 people interviewed stated that they derive no household benefits from either wildlife resources or tourism in their area. Only 37.9 percent felt that wildlife benefits do accrue to households in these three villages (Table 7.2) Table 7.2: Household Benefits From Wildlife Resources in the Villages of Khwai, Mababe and Sankuyo (1999) Village Benefits No Benefits Total Khwai 9 (28.1%) 23 (71.9%) 32 (100%) Mababe 6 (19.4%) 25 (80.0%) 31 (100%) Sankuyo 21 (65.6%) 11 (34.4%) 32 (100%) Total 36 (37.9%) 59 (62.1%) 95 (100%) Source: Adapted from Mbaiwa, 1999, p. 100. The figures in table 7.2 show that there is a disparity in responses between the three villages of Khwai, Mababe and Sankuyo regarding the wildlife benefits. This is due to the fact that, at the time of the Mbaiwa (1999) study, limited wildlife benefits were starting to accrue to individuals in the villages of Sankuyo and Khwai, in the form of employment. In Sankuyo, there are 66 people employed in the safari company, Crocodile Camp Safaris, which has leased the Sankuyo concession area for 288
commercial hunting ventures. In Khwai, approximately nine locals are employed in the Tsaro Elephant Lodge and Khwai River Lodge. Employees from both these villages perform tasks such as skinning animals from hunts, house keeping, cooking, and one man from Khwai is employed as a driver and tour guide. In Mababe, no one is employed in any wildlife related activity (Mbaiwa, 1999). As such, there is a direct correlation between individual benefits received from wildlife or any other resource, and people's perception of it, and its importance. According to the 50 local inhabitants personally interviewed in the Okavango Delta between 2003 and 2004, approximately 86 percent (43 individuals) felt that benefits from wildlife, in the form of revenue, accrue exclusively to the Botswana Government, safari hunters and tour operators. Only 7 (14 percent) stated that some of the benefits also accrue to the local inhabitants of Ngamiland District. While many of the inhabitants of the Okavango Delta are aware of the potential benefits wildlife resources can bring, these wildlife returns are mostly not realized at the household level. 7.2.2.2 Role of Local Communities in Wildlife Management The attitudes of local communities living in wildlife areas are largely influenced by the degree of ownership of, and benefits received from, the wildlife in their area. The local communities in the Ngamiland District do not have any major policy-making function, nor are they included in the formulation of management plans in any significant way, regarding wildlife utilization and management in their district. Referring to the three villages of Sankuyo, Khwai and Mababe, Mbaiwa (1999) noted that 93.7 percent of the 95 locals interviewed stated that the government never consults or involves their respective villages or communities in the formulation of wildlife management laws or policies, even if the law or policy directly affects them. Only 6.3 percent claimed that the government involves locals in management plans. Furthermore, it is generally felt that government officials in Ngamiland only inform local communities of such wildlife laws and policies just prior to their implementation, usually through a Kgotla meeting. This situation is echoed by Barnes (1998) who argues that most of Botswana's wildlife resources are public property and hence 289
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;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
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;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
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8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
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REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
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Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
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ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
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SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
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Empirical evidence, however, does n
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norms of its people. To date, the g
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numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
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4. Establish the extent of natural
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detailed in chapter five. The insti
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destinations, concentrating on its
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serious academic consideration. The
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Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
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management strategies are implement
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Tourism should thus be regarded as
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exchange, investment, income and em
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problem. He states that it is time
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The first assumption is largely bas
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However, as Western (1993) points o
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Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
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tourism, the type of skills that ar
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Despite the various economic benefi
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Some cultural modifications due to
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2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
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However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
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or displacing another group of user
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protection of the environment was t
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These range from the numerous impac
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difficult to foresee and which refl
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carried unintentionally on the shoe
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Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
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waste is being developed or upgrade
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water, however, inhibits the natura
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arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
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1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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economic growth in developed countr
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infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
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also be described as a 'deep ecolog
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Having highlighted the general conc
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• • • • • • Follow ethi
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The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
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as ideas and technologies on the pa
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eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
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2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
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conceptualised as a global process
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alienated from the means of product
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extent that the quality of life wit
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The successful creation or inventio
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modern production, it has moved awa
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As previously discussed, the proces
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The origination of world-standardis
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attraction to less developed econom
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Hence, the government must take act
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develop with other sectors of the e
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Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
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hypothesised, further, that tourism
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Qualitative research within the fie
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4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
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4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
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4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
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development and changes in traditio
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Review of selected international an
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diminishing returns of extractive i
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Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
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ate and economic progress seldom pa
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percent growth targeted in Vision 2
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informal sector work, especially in
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Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
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Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
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5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
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international controversy over its
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hectare minimum necessary for house
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the backbone of the rural economy.
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Botswana affords many possibilities
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Panhandle, the Okavango River then
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to the south, east and west (Ross,
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Fish populations in the entire Okav
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themselves in the main stream of th
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Presently in the Ngamiland district
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vendor, retailing, the production o
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third furrow planting and mechanica
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farmer who supplies crops to the vi
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I Unlike consumptive resource utili
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southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
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Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
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The leader in each San band or grou
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Descendants of San groups that live
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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payment of tribute as a way of ensu
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more rifles, European-made clothing
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wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
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However, Rey was anxious to establi
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Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
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other hand, veterinary officers wer
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• • • • As with other natur
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• Problems with solid waste dispo
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natural resources and to increase t
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ineffective in ensuring that all to
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development which emphasise the par
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The National Conservation Strategy
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The growth of tourism in the Okavan
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fifteen year period. The community-
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• The 5-year review policy left m
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government also provides 85 percent
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Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
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for several consecutive years, the
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and water, but fortunately the Bots
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It is in the context of the above t
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income, and presumably high spendin
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Although several researchers noted
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In order for local Botswana citizen
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Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
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Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
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earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
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eference to the Okavango Delta regi
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With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
Page 262: most direct economic impacts of tou
Page 265 and 266: Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
Page 267 and 268: tend to vary in terms of standards
Page 269 and 270: Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
Page 271 and 272: validated by the Tawana Land Board
Page 273 and 274: companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
Page 275 and 276: Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
Page 277 and 278: Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
Page 279 and 280: indicates that Botswana has more ar
Page 281 and 282: 6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
Page 283 and 284: weakest with agriculture, construct
Page 285 and 286: As noted earlier, the greater major
Page 287 and 288: Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
Page 289 and 290: evenue collection from the various
Page 291 and 292: Despite these conflicting employmen
Page 294 and 295: According to the study carried out
Page 296 and 297: management positions in the tourism
Page 298 and 299: Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
Page 300 and 301: Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
Page 302 and 303: CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
Page 304 and 305: natural resources of water and pris
Page 306 and 307: According to personal interviews co
Page 308 and 309: • • • • • • • • Dea
Page 310 and 311: Experience shows that some animals,
Page 314 and 315: control is vested with central gove
Page 316 and 317: conservation area. This led to conf
Page 318 and 319: Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
Page 320 and 321: 7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
Page 322 and 323: Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
Page 324 and 325: Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
Page 326 and 327: Botswana because populations of bot
Page 328 and 329: Delta, while previously inhabitants
Page 330 and 331: facilities that do not have boats,
Page 332 and 333: • • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
Page 334: different products, wood is perhaps
Page 337 and 338: Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
Page 339 and 340: populations in the rivers have drop
Page 341 and 342: The importance of people remaining
Page 343 and 344: CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
Page 345 and 346: the wildlife populations and their
Page 347 and 348: no longer an important livelihood s
Page 349 and 350: • • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
Page 351 and 352: Leases are given for 15 year period
Page 353 and 354: Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
Page 355 and 356: 7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
Page 357 and 358: at the same time allowing them to d
Page 359 and 360: eports on financial management and
Page 361 and 362: Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
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their land, etc., such as cash, mea
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7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
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8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
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tourists in an area provide a sourc
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are left to perform all the traditi
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8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
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the country. As a result, it is ass
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most of these impacts remain unchec
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According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
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8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
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permeability. Pollutants can theref
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iverine systems. According to Tache
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implement laws and regulations cont
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and resulted in the publication of
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lowest, and substantial proportions
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Angola considered the construction
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ministries most closely involved in
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most to lose if the Okavango in its
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• Development of monitoring syste
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Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
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CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
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circumstances, the impacts of touri
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For example, the government has gon
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As such, it is only recently that t
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According to Torres (1996), a wide
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of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
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Even though Botswana has developed
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iodiversity conservation and rural
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overriding challenge facing authori
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As such, this study has revealed th
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The development of tourism in the O
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9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
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the Botswana government committed i
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Thirdly, almost the only interest e
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The following recommendations are p
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Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
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the entire Okavango River Basin, by
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9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
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Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
Page 444 and 445:
Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
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Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
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Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
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State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
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APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
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10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
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16. Do you think that the developme
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