the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Resource Management in Botswana 1 The President 1 I I Cabinet I I Parliament I I I I I MFDP I Office of the I MPAand PA I MFA I President I Other Ministries I 1 Other Ministries I 1 I I I MOA 11 MOH 11 MOE 11 MCI 11 ML&HA I I MMR&WA 11 MWT&C 1 I MLGL&H I Fisheries; ARB; I DWNP; Tourism WUC; DWA; NCS; DTRP; Forestry Geological Survey Lands; Landboards Senior Ministries MFDA - Ministry of Finance and Development Planning MPA&PA - Ministry of Presidential Affairs and Public Administration MFA - Ministry of Foreign Affairs Office of the President Line or Junior Ministries MOA - Ministry of Agriculture MOH - Ministry of Health MOE - Ministry of Education MCI - Ministry of Commerce and Industry ML&HA - Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs MMR&WA - Ministry of Mineral Resources and Water Affairs MWT&C - Ministry of Works, Transport and Communication MLGL&H - Ministry of Local Government, Lands and Housing Departments DWNP - Department of Wildlife and National Parks DWA - Department of Water Affairs ARB - Agricultural Resource Board WUC - Water Utilities Corporation (a parastatal) DTRP - Department of Town and Regional Planning NCS - National Conservation Strategy Source: Adapted from Mbaiwa, 1999. 186
Hence, while this legal provision allowed certain communities to continue hunting, the restrictions placed upon the hunting techniques and conserved species were perceived by many of the local communities as a further step in denying them the use of wildlife resources. This led to the development of increasingly negative attitudes towards wildlife conservation in Ngamiland district and the rest of the country as a whole (Mbaiwa, 1999). 5.4.2.2 The Fauna Conservation Act No. 47 of 1979 In 1979 the Fauna Conservation Act No. 47 was passed, which abolished the separate hunting regulations for each tribal area, consolidating them into a single set of regulations applicable throughout the entire country (Spinage, 1991; Mbaiwa, 1999). This law unified all tribal territory hunting regulations, resulting in the nationalism of hunting regulations in Botswana in an attempt to control licensing procedures in the country (Thakadu, 1997; Mbaiwa, 1999). According to White (1995), the impact of these changes on rural livelihoods was severe. Rural subsistence dwellers had to start competing with urban citizens for hunting licenses, most of whom were recreational and professional hunters. The 1979 Conservation Act also dropped the practice of reserving a substantial proportion of the hunting quota for local residents (Mbaiwa, 1999). According to White (1995), the decline in benefits derived by rural communities from the use of wildlife resources significantly contributed to the marked change in public attitudes and perceptions towards wildlife conservation over the past two decades. The Basarwa (San) communities of East Ngamiland District were particularly hard hit by this Act, as their livelihoods revolved around subsistence hunting activities (Mbaiwa, 1999). 5.4.2.3 Wildlife Administration By 1955 there was still no authority appointed to administer wildlife in Botswana. District Commissioners were responsible for issuing licenses for hunting, export of ivory, ostrich feathers and furs, and to make reports on the depredation of wildlife in their districts. The District Commissioner of Maun established the first hunting blocks in the Okavango Delta area, and initiated a booking system for sportsmen. On the 187
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;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
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;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
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8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
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REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
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Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
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ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
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SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
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Empirical evidence, however, does n
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norms of its people. To date, the g
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numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
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4. Establish the extent of natural
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detailed in chapter five. The insti
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destinations, concentrating on its
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serious academic consideration. The
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Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
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management strategies are implement
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Tourism should thus be regarded as
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exchange, investment, income and em
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problem. He states that it is time
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The first assumption is largely bas
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However, as Western (1993) points o
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Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
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tourism, the type of skills that ar
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Despite the various economic benefi
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Some cultural modifications due to
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2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
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However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
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or displacing another group of user
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protection of the environment was t
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These range from the numerous impac
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difficult to foresee and which refl
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carried unintentionally on the shoe
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Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
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waste is being developed or upgrade
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water, however, inhibits the natura
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arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
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1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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economic growth in developed countr
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infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
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also be described as a 'deep ecolog
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Having highlighted the general conc
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• • • • • • Follow ethi
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The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
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as ideas and technologies on the pa
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eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
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2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
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conceptualised as a global process
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alienated from the means of product
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extent that the quality of life wit
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The successful creation or inventio
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modern production, it has moved awa
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As previously discussed, the proces
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The origination of world-standardis
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attraction to less developed econom
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Hence, the government must take act
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develop with other sectors of the e
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Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
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hypothesised, further, that tourism
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Qualitative research within the fie
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4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
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4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
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4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
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development and changes in traditio
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Review of selected international an
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diminishing returns of extractive i
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Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
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ate and economic progress seldom pa
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percent growth targeted in Vision 2
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informal sector work, especially in
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Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
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Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
Page 159 and 160: 5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
Page 161 and 162: international controversy over its
Page 163 and 164: hectare minimum necessary for house
Page 165 and 166: the backbone of the rural economy.
Page 168 and 169: Botswana affords many possibilities
Page 171: Panhandle, the Okavango River then
Page 174 and 175: to the south, east and west (Ross,
Page 176 and 177: Fish populations in the entire Okav
Page 179 and 180: themselves in the main stream of th
Page 181 and 182: Presently in the Ngamiland district
Page 183 and 184: vendor, retailing, the production o
Page 185 and 186: third furrow planting and mechanica
Page 187 and 188: farmer who supplies crops to the vi
Page 189 and 190: I Unlike consumptive resource utili
Page 191 and 192: southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
Page 194 and 195: Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
Page 196 and 197: The leader in each San band or grou
Page 198 and 199: Descendants of San groups that live
Page 200 and 201: 5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
Page 202 and 203: payment of tribute as a way of ensu
Page 204 and 205: more rifles, European-made clothing
Page 206 and 207: wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
Page 208 and 209: However, Rey was anxious to establi
Page 212 and 213: other hand, veterinary officers wer
Page 214 and 215: • • • • As with other natur
Page 216 and 217: • Problems with solid waste dispo
Page 218 and 219: natural resources and to increase t
Page 220 and 221: ineffective in ensuring that all to
Page 222 and 223: development which emphasise the par
Page 224 and 225: The National Conservation Strategy
Page 226 and 227: The growth of tourism in the Okavan
Page 228 and 229: fifteen year period. The community-
Page 230 and 231: • The 5-year review policy left m
Page 232 and 233: government also provides 85 percent
Page 235 and 236: Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
Page 237 and 238: for several consecutive years, the
Page 239 and 240: and water, but fortunately the Bots
Page 241 and 242: It is in the context of the above t
Page 243 and 244: income, and presumably high spendin
Page 245 and 246: Although several researchers noted
Page 247 and 248: In order for local Botswana citizen
Page 249: Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
Page 252 and 253: Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
Page 254 and 255: earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
Page 256 and 257: eference to the Okavango Delta regi
Page 258 and 259: With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
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Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
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tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
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Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
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evenue collection from the various
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Despite these conflicting employmen
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According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
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Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
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CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
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natural resources of water and pris
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According to personal interviews co
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• • • • • • • • Dea
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Experience shows that some animals,
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inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
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control is vested with central gove
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conservation area. This led to conf
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Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
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7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
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Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
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Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
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Botswana because populations of bot
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Delta, while previously inhabitants
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facilities that do not have boats,
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• • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
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different products, wood is perhaps
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Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
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populations in the rivers have drop
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The importance of people remaining
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CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
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the wildlife populations and their
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no longer an important livelihood s
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• • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
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Leases are given for 15 year period
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Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
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7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
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at the same time allowing them to d
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eports on financial management and
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Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
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their land, etc., such as cash, mea
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7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
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8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
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tourists in an area provide a sourc
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are left to perform all the traditi
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8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
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the country. As a result, it is ass
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most of these impacts remain unchec
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According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
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8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
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permeability. Pollutants can theref
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iverine systems. According to Tache
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implement laws and regulations cont
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and resulted in the publication of
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lowest, and substantial proportions
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Angola considered the construction
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ministries most closely involved in
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most to lose if the Okavango in its
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• Development of monitoring syste
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Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
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CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
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circumstances, the impacts of touri
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For example, the government has gon
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As such, it is only recently that t
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According to Torres (1996), a wide
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of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
Page 416 and 417:
Even though Botswana has developed
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iodiversity conservation and rural
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overriding challenge facing authori
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As such, this study has revealed th
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The development of tourism in the O
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9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
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the Botswana government committed i
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Thirdly, almost the only interest e
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The following recommendations are p
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Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
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the entire Okavango River Basin, by
Page 440 and 441:
9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
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Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
Page 444 and 445:
Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
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Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
Page 487 and 488:
State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
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APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
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10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
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16. Do you think that the developme
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