the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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payment of tribute as a way of ensuring their control over the utilisation of wildlife in their territories (Mbaiwa, 1999). 5.4.1.10 The Kgotla and Natural Resource Management in the Okavango Delta The people of Ngamiland District, with the exception of the San communities, had the Kgotla which served as the most important traditional institution in relation to natural resource utilisation and management. The Kgotla is a traditional Tswana village assembly where all members of the community are allowed to attend and discuss issues that affect them. It was traditionally the most democratic institution amongst Tswana society, where everyone was allowed to express his or her view without inhibition. The Kgotla could be used as a court and a public place for society to discuss ideas, policies and projects to be implemented for the benefit of the whole community. The local chief was the head and chairman of the Kgotla, commanding respect amongst all members of his community (Mbaiwa, 1999). In the pre-colonial period in Botswana, local traditions and customs regarding natural resource management and use were discussed at the Kgotla. There were unwritten laws governing hunting, gathering and the collection and harvesting of any veld product. These laws were implemented and enforced by the community chiefs through the Kgotla system. The Kgotla was therefore used as a regulating institution or body in resource utilisation. This formalised institution existed, to varying degrees amongst all the Bantu-speaking groups in the Ngamiland region, while the San groups held only casual meetings, probably due to their low level of population and political development when compared to their Bantu-speaking neighbours. The Batawana communities had such a traditional institution when they arrived in Ngamiland District, however it was more developed and sophisticated in comparison to any of the other Bantu-groups which already inhabited the area. The Kgotla institution and all the cultural respect attached to it by the individual tribes or clans facilitated the sustainable management of natural resources in the local environment (Mbaiwa, 1999). 178
5.4.1.11 Introduction of European Trade into the Okavango Delta Region The traditional natural resource utilisation and management systems in the Okavango Delta region and Ngamiland District were severely affected and altered by the arrival of Europeans and their subsequent trade expansion into the region. In the 1850s, Dr. David Livingstone arrived in the now Ngamiland district in northern Botswana and introduced European trade into the area, of which ivory was the main commodity. At the time, ivory was being exported via the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa to India and Europe (Campbell, 1997). Campbell (1995) states that during the next fifty years, after the first arrival and introduction of trade by Dr. Livingstone in the Ngamiland district, vast numbers of wildlife were destroyed. By 1900, hunting throughout Botswana had reduced the country's vast elephant herds of some 400 000 animals to just a few thousand. These were confined to the protected tsetse areas of the Okavango, Chobe and Limpopo Rivers where wagons previously could not travel (Campbell, 1997). The commercialisation of wildlife and the resultant introduction of a monetary economy altered the local community's attitudes and perceptions towards wildlife resources in Ngamiland District and throughout the country as a whole. Wildlife resources such as ivory, ostrich feathers, spotted cat skins, hippopotamus and rhinoceros whips, giraffe and kudu remains, etc., on which communities had previously depended for their livelihoods, under a regulated system of usufruct and shared rights access, all took on new value (Campbell, 1997). Local chiefs began to see profit in the commercial hunting activities of the foreigners, turning a blind eye to the subsistence needs and values that were so important to their local communities (Mbaiwa, 1999). European trade in the now Ngamiland district and Botswana as a whole introduced and spread the use of guns at an alarming rate. For example, by 1874 Chief Moremi of the Batawana is believed to have personally owned more than 2 000 'modern' rifles, which he issued to his tribesmen to hunt on his behalf. Another estimate places the total number of rifles in Ngamiland at the time at 8 000. These rifles were generally used to hunt the larger species of wildlife so that the trophies, ivory, hippopotamus and giraffe hide, furs and ostrich feathers could be exchanged for 179
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;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
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;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
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8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
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REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
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Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
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ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
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SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
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Empirical evidence, however, does n
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norms of its people. To date, the g
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numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
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4. Establish the extent of natural
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detailed in chapter five. The insti
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destinations, concentrating on its
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serious academic consideration. The
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Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
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management strategies are implement
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Tourism should thus be regarded as
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exchange, investment, income and em
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problem. He states that it is time
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The first assumption is largely bas
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However, as Western (1993) points o
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Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
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tourism, the type of skills that ar
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Despite the various economic benefi
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Some cultural modifications due to
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2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
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However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
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or displacing another group of user
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protection of the environment was t
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These range from the numerous impac
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difficult to foresee and which refl
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carried unintentionally on the shoe
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Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
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waste is being developed or upgrade
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water, however, inhibits the natura
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arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
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1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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economic growth in developed countr
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infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
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also be described as a 'deep ecolog
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Having highlighted the general conc
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• • • • • • Follow ethi
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The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
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as ideas and technologies on the pa
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eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
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2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
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conceptualised as a global process
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alienated from the means of product
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extent that the quality of life wit
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The successful creation or inventio
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modern production, it has moved awa
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As previously discussed, the proces
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The origination of world-standardis
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attraction to less developed econom
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Hence, the government must take act
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develop with other sectors of the e
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Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
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hypothesised, further, that tourism
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Qualitative research within the fie
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4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
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4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
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4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
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development and changes in traditio
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Review of selected international an
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diminishing returns of extractive i
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Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
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ate and economic progress seldom pa
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percent growth targeted in Vision 2
Page 152 and 153: informal sector work, especially in
Page 154 and 155: Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
Page 156 and 157: Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
Page 159 and 160: 5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
Page 161 and 162: international controversy over its
Page 163 and 164: hectare minimum necessary for house
Page 165 and 166: the backbone of the rural economy.
Page 168 and 169: Botswana affords many possibilities
Page 171: Panhandle, the Okavango River then
Page 174 and 175: to the south, east and west (Ross,
Page 176 and 177: Fish populations in the entire Okav
Page 179 and 180: themselves in the main stream of th
Page 181 and 182: Presently in the Ngamiland district
Page 183 and 184: vendor, retailing, the production o
Page 185 and 186: third furrow planting and mechanica
Page 187 and 188: farmer who supplies crops to the vi
Page 189 and 190: I Unlike consumptive resource utili
Page 191 and 192: southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
Page 194 and 195: Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
Page 196 and 197: The leader in each San band or grou
Page 198 and 199: Descendants of San groups that live
Page 200 and 201: 5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
Page 204 and 205: more rifles, European-made clothing
Page 206 and 207: wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
Page 208 and 209: However, Rey was anxious to establi
Page 210 and 211: Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
Page 212 and 213: other hand, veterinary officers wer
Page 214 and 215: • • • • As with other natur
Page 216 and 217: • Problems with solid waste dispo
Page 218 and 219: natural resources and to increase t
Page 220 and 221: ineffective in ensuring that all to
Page 222 and 223: development which emphasise the par
Page 224 and 225: The National Conservation Strategy
Page 226 and 227: The growth of tourism in the Okavan
Page 228 and 229: fifteen year period. The community-
Page 230 and 231: • The 5-year review policy left m
Page 232 and 233: government also provides 85 percent
Page 235 and 236: Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
Page 237 and 238: for several consecutive years, the
Page 239 and 240: and water, but fortunately the Bots
Page 241 and 242: It is in the context of the above t
Page 243 and 244: income, and presumably high spendin
Page 245 and 246: Although several researchers noted
Page 247 and 248: In order for local Botswana citizen
Page 249: Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
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Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
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earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
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eference to the Okavango Delta regi
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With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
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Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
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tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
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Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
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evenue collection from the various
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Despite these conflicting employmen
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According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
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Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
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CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
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natural resources of water and pris
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According to personal interviews co
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• • • • • • • • Dea
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Experience shows that some animals,
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inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
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control is vested with central gove
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conservation area. This led to conf
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Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
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7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
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Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
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Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
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Botswana because populations of bot
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Delta, while previously inhabitants
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facilities that do not have boats,
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• • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
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different products, wood is perhaps
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Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
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populations in the rivers have drop
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The importance of people remaining
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CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
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the wildlife populations and their
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no longer an important livelihood s
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• • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
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Leases are given for 15 year period
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Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
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7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
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at the same time allowing them to d
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eports on financial management and
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Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
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their land, etc., such as cash, mea
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7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
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8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
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tourists in an area provide a sourc
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are left to perform all the traditi
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8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
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the country. As a result, it is ass
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most of these impacts remain unchec
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According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
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8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
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permeability. Pollutants can theref
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iverine systems. According to Tache
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implement laws and regulations cont
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and resulted in the publication of
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lowest, and substantial proportions
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Angola considered the construction
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ministries most closely involved in
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most to lose if the Okavango in its
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• Development of monitoring syste
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Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
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CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
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circumstances, the impacts of touri
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For example, the government has gon
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As such, it is only recently that t
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According to Torres (1996), a wide
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of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
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Even though Botswana has developed
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iodiversity conservation and rural
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overriding challenge facing authori
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As such, this study has revealed th
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The development of tourism in the O
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9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
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the Botswana government committed i
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Thirdly, almost the only interest e
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The following recommendations are p
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Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
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the entire Okavango River Basin, by
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9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
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Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
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Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
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Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
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State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
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APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
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10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
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16. Do you think that the developme
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