the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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In recognition of the need to improve the productive capacity of resource-poor farmers in the traditional arable sector, the Ministry of Agriculture in Botswana has, over the years, implemented a number of development-orientated programmes with the sole aim of promoting and improving the sector by providing an enabling environment for farmers and producers. These programmes include the Arable Land Development Programme (ALDEP) and Arable Rainfed Agricultural Programme (ARAP), Service to Livestock Owners in Communal Areas (SLOCA), the Bull Subsidy Scheme, the Artificial Insemination fund, the Agricultural Extension Fund No. 10 (AE 10), and other agricultural projects funded under the Financial Assistance Policy (FAP). The success of these programmes in improving the sectors productivity has been minimal, mainly due to: • The absence of clear and monitorable sector-wide strategies and plans; • Poor targeting of subsidies and poor performance of farmers; • Unfavourable agro-c1imatic conditions, characterised by low and erratic rainfall and endemic droughts which make rainfed crop production risky; and • Constraints to the development of irrigated agriculture due to uncertain and scattered water resources, low borehole yields, competition for water with other sectors and lack of a clear policy on apportionment of water for agricultural use, including irrigation (Republic of Botswana Government White Paper 1, 2002). 5.2.9 Environmental and Natural Resources Botswana is endowed with many environmental and natural resources, which form the basis of its dualistic economy of modern and traditional sectors. Among the more common resources, land, wood and veld products, wildlife, livestock, water and mineral resources are predominant. Apart from minerals, all other resources have been a source of subsistence in rural Botswana for a very long time, and still remain 140
the backbone of the rural economy. In particular, livestock has been a major contributor to the national economy (Sekhwela, 1990). Botswana also contains large, open rangelands with a vast population of wildlife. Wildlife, birds, amphibians, aquatic mammals, fish and plant life are considered important natural resources in Botswana, as much of the country's tourism industry is dependent upon such resources. Wildlife, fish and veld products also have a direct and indirect impact on the socio-economic lives of many people living in Botswana, particularly in the rural areas. The Okavango Delta is an important tourism resource, and, together with the Chobe, Linyanti and Limpopo rivers, form an important surface water resource. These waterways have significant biological, hydrological and economic value to the country as a whole (http://www.lead.org ...htm; Mbaiwa, 1999). Forest reserves in Botswana include the widespread potential for fuelwood extraction and a small amount of saw timber in the north-east of the country. Areas containing the particularly valuable mophane (Colophospermum mopane) trees spread to the north east and north west region, while morula (Scherocarya birrer) trees grow in the north and west. The baobab (Adansonia digitata) which can live to a great age with a circumference of more than thirty metres is also dominant in the north. There are several forest reserves in the Chobe district, the northern Nata state lands and the area north of the Okavango Delta. Here, limited woodland stands containing Rhodesian Teak (mkusi) (Baikaeia plurijuga) and mukwa (Pterocarpus angolensis) are found (http://www.botswana-online... htm). Botswana's forests and woodlands represent an important natural resource in terms of providing the majority of the rural population with a wide range of benefits, entailing the supply of wood for energy, construction, building and crafts; the supply of non-wood forest products such as honey, bees-wax, fruits, medicine, fodder and habitat for wildlife and livestock, and maintaining the environmental balance. However, these resources have lately come under increasingly severe pressure form over-exploitation, and other natural phenomena such as drought and fire. The greatest challenge is to foster sustainable utilisation of these resources to ensure a continuous flow of goods and services from these forests without irreversibly 141
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;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
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;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
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8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
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REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
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Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
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ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
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SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
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Empirical evidence, however, does n
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norms of its people. To date, the g
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numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
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4. Establish the extent of natural
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detailed in chapter five. The insti
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destinations, concentrating on its
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serious academic consideration. The
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Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
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management strategies are implement
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Tourism should thus be regarded as
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exchange, investment, income and em
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problem. He states that it is time
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The first assumption is largely bas
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However, as Western (1993) points o
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Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
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tourism, the type of skills that ar
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Despite the various economic benefi
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Some cultural modifications due to
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2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
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However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
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or displacing another group of user
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protection of the environment was t
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These range from the numerous impac
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difficult to foresee and which refl
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carried unintentionally on the shoe
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Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
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waste is being developed or upgrade
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water, however, inhibits the natura
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arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
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1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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economic growth in developed countr
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infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
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also be described as a 'deep ecolog
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Having highlighted the general conc
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• • • • • • Follow ethi
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The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
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as ideas and technologies on the pa
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eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
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2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
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conceptualised as a global process
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alienated from the means of product
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extent that the quality of life wit
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The successful creation or inventio
Page 113 and 114: modern production, it has moved awa
Page 115 and 116: As previously discussed, the proces
Page 117 and 118: The origination of world-standardis
Page 119 and 120: attraction to less developed econom
Page 121 and 122: Hence, the government must take act
Page 123 and 124: develop with other sectors of the e
Page 125 and 126: Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
Page 127 and 128: hypothesised, further, that tourism
Page 129 and 130: Qualitative research within the fie
Page 131 and 132: 4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
Page 133 and 134: 4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
Page 136 and 137: 4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
Page 138: development and changes in traditio
Page 141: Review of selected international an
Page 144 and 145: diminishing returns of extractive i
Page 146 and 147: Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
Page 148 and 149: ate and economic progress seldom pa
Page 150 and 151: percent growth targeted in Vision 2
Page 152 and 153: informal sector work, especially in
Page 154 and 155: Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
Page 156 and 157: Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
Page 159 and 160: 5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
Page 161 and 162: international controversy over its
Page 163: hectare minimum necessary for house
Page 168 and 169: Botswana affords many possibilities
Page 171: Panhandle, the Okavango River then
Page 174 and 175: to the south, east and west (Ross,
Page 176 and 177: Fish populations in the entire Okav
Page 179 and 180: themselves in the main stream of th
Page 181 and 182: Presently in the Ngamiland district
Page 183 and 184: vendor, retailing, the production o
Page 185 and 186: third furrow planting and mechanica
Page 187 and 188: farmer who supplies crops to the vi
Page 189 and 190: I Unlike consumptive resource utili
Page 191 and 192: southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
Page 194 and 195: Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
Page 196 and 197: The leader in each San band or grou
Page 198 and 199: Descendants of San groups that live
Page 200 and 201: 5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
Page 202 and 203: payment of tribute as a way of ensu
Page 204 and 205: more rifles, European-made clothing
Page 206 and 207: wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
Page 208 and 209: However, Rey was anxious to establi
Page 210 and 211: Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
Page 212 and 213: other hand, veterinary officers wer
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• • • • As with other natur
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• Problems with solid waste dispo
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natural resources and to increase t
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ineffective in ensuring that all to
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development which emphasise the par
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The National Conservation Strategy
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The growth of tourism in the Okavan
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fifteen year period. The community-
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• The 5-year review policy left m
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government also provides 85 percent
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Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
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for several consecutive years, the
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and water, but fortunately the Bots
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It is in the context of the above t
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income, and presumably high spendin
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Although several researchers noted
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In order for local Botswana citizen
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Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
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Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
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earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
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eference to the Okavango Delta regi
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With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
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Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
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tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
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Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
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evenue collection from the various
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Despite these conflicting employmen
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According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
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Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
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CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
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natural resources of water and pris
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According to personal interviews co
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• • • • • • • • Dea
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Experience shows that some animals,
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inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
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control is vested with central gove
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conservation area. This led to conf
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Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
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7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
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Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
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Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
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Botswana because populations of bot
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Delta, while previously inhabitants
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facilities that do not have boats,
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• • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
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different products, wood is perhaps
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Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
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populations in the rivers have drop
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The importance of people remaining
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CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
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the wildlife populations and their
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no longer an important livelihood s
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• • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
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Leases are given for 15 year period
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Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
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7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
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at the same time allowing them to d
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eports on financial management and
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Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
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their land, etc., such as cash, mea
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7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
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8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
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tourists in an area provide a sourc
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are left to perform all the traditi
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8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
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the country. As a result, it is ass
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most of these impacts remain unchec
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According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
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8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
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permeability. Pollutants can theref
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iverine systems. According to Tache
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implement laws and regulations cont
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and resulted in the publication of
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lowest, and substantial proportions
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Angola considered the construction
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ministries most closely involved in
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most to lose if the Okavango in its
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• Development of monitoring syste
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Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
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CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
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circumstances, the impacts of touri
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For example, the government has gon
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As such, it is only recently that t
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According to Torres (1996), a wide
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of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
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Even though Botswana has developed
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iodiversity conservation and rural
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overriding challenge facing authori
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As such, this study has revealed th
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The development of tourism in the O
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9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
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the Botswana government committed i
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Thirdly, almost the only interest e
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The following recommendations are p
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Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
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the entire Okavango River Basin, by
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9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
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Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
Page 444 and 445:
Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
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Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
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State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
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APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
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10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
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16. Do you think that the developme
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