the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synthesis and Analysis 4.9.1 Qualitative Data Analysis Data obtained during in-depth interviews was predominantly qualitative in nature, hence requiring a method of qualitative data analysis. One such method, which was utilised for this study, is the method of grounded theory. According to Neuman (2000), grounded theory is "...theory that is built from data or grounded in the data" (p. 146). Within the method of grounded theory, data is organised into analytical categories that address the relevant research questions, that take into consideration the research literature, and which will allow the greatest amount of data to be coded without forcing them into categories or having categories that are so sprawling as to be virtually meaningless. This consists of the initial stage of grounded theory analysis, after which further data is collected with a view to refining the analytical categories (Arksey and Knight, 1999; Tompkins, 2002). Data collected from both the qualitative and quantitative surveys was stored and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) programme. The subjects of tourism and natural resource management, as areas of study, are vast and present numerous complexities and dimensions which must be considered and related to the research topic. As a result of this, the interviewees selected for this study are not from a homogenous group, as a varied range of types and levels of expertise and knowledge were required to obtain relevant data. Different questions were administered to each interviewee, based on their area of expertise and activity, which necessitated an interpretation of the interviews according to the themes which arise from the conceptual framework (Figure 4.2) in order to synthesise some of the primary concerns of this complex area of study (Tompkins, 2002). This study, therefore, primarily utilised the element within the accepted grounded theory analysis procedure, that grounded theory "...start(s) out with a research question and little else" (Neuman, 2000, p. 144, cited in Tompkins, 2002). As a result, the methodology for data analysis was developed as follows: 112
4.9.2 Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework (Figure 4.2) was derived from preliminary readings for the research topic, which defines the scope of the literature review in chapter two, where its theoretical elements are considered. The elements of the framework that deal with tourism, natural resource management and their related socio-economic and environmental impacts specifically related to the area of study are presented in chapter five. The framework is grounded in the concept that collaborative resource utilisation and management based on concepts of sustainability and local/community based development are critical to the long-term preservation of the area's natural resources and the future growth of the tourism industry. International, national and regional policies, act and protocols contribute to a means of developing and reaching solutions to resource management constraints and problems. However, such instruments must be integrated with the emerging principles of environmental and natural resource management (de Chazournes, 1998). These principles provide a framework for resource management institutions, while national law gives effect to these principles and ensures the rights of local users are upheld. As such, an integration of legal instruments and natural resource management principles can aid the development of collaborative management systems for areas, such as the Okavango Delta, whose economic mainstay is reliant upon the utilisation of natural resources (Tompkins, 2002). The conceptual framework, therefore, essentially comprises both elements of legislation and resource management and tourism theory, as well as the practical elements of resource utilisation and management and its resultant impacts. An analysis of selected international environmental conservation agreements and national governmental policies and Acts were analysed from sources including the text of the agreements, policies and Acts themselves, scientific papers, conference session proceedings, project proposals and natural resource management reviews. The major themes that arise from the conceptual framework include: national and regional management structures present in the area of study; tourism management in the area of study; natural resource management in the area of study; and the related socio-economic and environmental impacts resulting from tourism 113
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;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
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;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
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8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
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REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
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Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
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ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
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SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
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Empirical evidence, however, does n
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norms of its people. To date, the g
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numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
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4. Establish the extent of natural
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detailed in chapter five. The insti
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destinations, concentrating on its
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serious academic consideration. The
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Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
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management strategies are implement
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Tourism should thus be regarded as
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exchange, investment, income and em
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problem. He states that it is time
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The first assumption is largely bas
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However, as Western (1993) points o
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Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
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tourism, the type of skills that ar
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Despite the various economic benefi
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Some cultural modifications due to
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2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
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However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
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or displacing another group of user
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protection of the environment was t
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These range from the numerous impac
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difficult to foresee and which refl
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carried unintentionally on the shoe
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Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
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waste is being developed or upgrade
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water, however, inhibits the natura
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arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
Page 85 and 86: 1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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Page 89 and 90: infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
Page 91 and 92: also be described as a 'deep ecolog
Page 93 and 94: Having highlighted the general conc
Page 95 and 96: • • • • • • Follow ethi
Page 97 and 98: The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
Page 99 and 100: as ideas and technologies on the pa
Page 101 and 102: eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
Page 103 and 104: 2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
Page 105 and 106: conceptualised as a global process
Page 107 and 108: alienated from the means of product
Page 109 and 110: extent that the quality of life wit
Page 111 and 112: The successful creation or inventio
Page 113 and 114: modern production, it has moved awa
Page 115 and 116: As previously discussed, the proces
Page 117 and 118: The origination of world-standardis
Page 119 and 120: attraction to less developed econom
Page 121 and 122: Hence, the government must take act
Page 123 and 124: develop with other sectors of the e
Page 125 and 126: Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
Page 127 and 128: hypothesised, further, that tourism
Page 129 and 130: Qualitative research within the fie
Page 131 and 132: 4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
Page 133 and 134: 4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
Page 138: development and changes in traditio
Page 141: Review of selected international an
Page 144 and 145: diminishing returns of extractive i
Page 146 and 147: Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
Page 148 and 149: ate and economic progress seldom pa
Page 150 and 151: percent growth targeted in Vision 2
Page 152 and 153: informal sector work, especially in
Page 154 and 155: Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
Page 156 and 157: Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
Page 159 and 160: 5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
Page 161 and 162: international controversy over its
Page 163 and 164: hectare minimum necessary for house
Page 165 and 166: the backbone of the rural economy.
Page 168 and 169: Botswana affords many possibilities
Page 171: Panhandle, the Okavango River then
Page 174 and 175: to the south, east and west (Ross,
Page 176 and 177: Fish populations in the entire Okav
Page 179 and 180: themselves in the main stream of th
Page 181 and 182: Presently in the Ngamiland district
Page 183 and 184: vendor, retailing, the production o
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third furrow planting and mechanica
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farmer who supplies crops to the vi
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I Unlike consumptive resource utili
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southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
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Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
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The leader in each San band or grou
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Descendants of San groups that live
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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payment of tribute as a way of ensu
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more rifles, European-made clothing
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wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
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However, Rey was anxious to establi
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Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
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other hand, veterinary officers wer
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• • • • As with other natur
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• Problems with solid waste dispo
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natural resources and to increase t
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ineffective in ensuring that all to
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development which emphasise the par
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The National Conservation Strategy
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The growth of tourism in the Okavan
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fifteen year period. The community-
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• The 5-year review policy left m
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government also provides 85 percent
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Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
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for several consecutive years, the
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and water, but fortunately the Bots
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It is in the context of the above t
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income, and presumably high spendin
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Although several researchers noted
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In order for local Botswana citizen
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Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
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Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
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earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
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eference to the Okavango Delta regi
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With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
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Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
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tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
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Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
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evenue collection from the various
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Despite these conflicting employmen
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According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
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Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
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CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
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natural resources of water and pris
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According to personal interviews co
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• • • • • • • • Dea
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Experience shows that some animals,
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inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
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control is vested with central gove
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conservation area. This led to conf
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Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
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7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
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Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
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Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
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Botswana because populations of bot
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Delta, while previously inhabitants
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facilities that do not have boats,
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• • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
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different products, wood is perhaps
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Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
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populations in the rivers have drop
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The importance of people remaining
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CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
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the wildlife populations and their
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no longer an important livelihood s
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• • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
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Leases are given for 15 year period
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Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
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7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
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at the same time allowing them to d
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eports on financial management and
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Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
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their land, etc., such as cash, mea
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7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
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8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
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tourists in an area provide a sourc
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are left to perform all the traditi
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8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
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the country. As a result, it is ass
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most of these impacts remain unchec
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According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
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8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
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permeability. Pollutants can theref
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iverine systems. According to Tache
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implement laws and regulations cont
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and resulted in the publication of
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lowest, and substantial proportions
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Angola considered the construction
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ministries most closely involved in
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most to lose if the Okavango in its
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• Development of monitoring syste
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Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
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CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
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circumstances, the impacts of touri
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For example, the government has gon
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As such, it is only recently that t
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According to Torres (1996), a wide
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of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
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Even though Botswana has developed
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iodiversity conservation and rural
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overriding challenge facing authori
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As such, this study has revealed th
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The development of tourism in the O
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9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
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the Botswana government committed i
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Thirdly, almost the only interest e
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The following recommendations are p
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Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
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the entire Okavango River Basin, by
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9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
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Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
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Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
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Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
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Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
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State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
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APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
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10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
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16. Do you think that the developme
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